1.
Saxe-Weimar
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Saxe-Weimar was one of the Saxon duchies held by the Ernestine branch of the Wettin dynasty in present-day Thuringia. The chief town and capital was Weimar, the Weimar branch was the most genealogically senior extant branch of the House of Wettin. In the late 15th century much of what is now Thuringia, nevertheless, according to the 1552 Peace of Passau he was pardoned and allowed to retain his lands in Thuringia. Upon his death in 1554, his son John Frederick II succeeded him as Duke of Saxony, residing at Gotha. John Frederick II was succeeded by his younger brother John William at Weimar, in 1572 Maximilian II enforced the Division of Erfurt, whereby the Ernestine lands were divided among Duke John William and the two surviving sons of imprisoned John Frederick II. John William retained the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, while his minor nephews received the southern and western territories around Coburg, as a result, the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar shrank and grew more than once. The Thuringian states throughout this period consisted of several non-contiguous parcels of territory of various sizes. Facing their lack of power, the rulers of these petty states built up splendid monarchical households at their residences. Duke John William, chafing under the loss, died in 1573, upon his death in 1602 Saxe-Weimar was again divided among his younger brother John II and Frederick Williams minor son John Philipp, who received the territory of Saxe-Altenburg. Johns son Duke Johann Ernst I of Saxe-Weimar on occasion of the burial of his mother Dorothea Maria of Anhalt in 1617 established the literary Fruitbearing Society. Stripped of his title by Emperor Ferdinand II, he remained an opponent of the Catholic Habsburg dynasty. His younger brother Wilhelm, regent since 1620, assumed the dignities upon his death, nevertheless, like many German estates, the Weimar lands were devastated by combat actions as well as by plague epidemics. When in 1638 the Ernestine Saxe-Eisenach and Saxe-Coburg branch became extinct upon the death of Duke John Ernest, upon the death of John Georges descendant Wilhelm Heinrich in 1741, Duke Ernest Augustus I of Saxe-Weimar also inherited the Duchy of Saxe-Eisenach. He then ruled both duchies in personal union and decisively forwarded the development of his estates by the implementation of the primogeniture principle. The regency of energetic Anna Amalia and the reign of Charles Augustus, in 1804 Duke Charles Augustus entered into European politics by marrying his son and heir Charles Frederick to Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, sister of Emperor Alexander I of Russia. In 1809 Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach, which had been united only in the person of the duke, were merged into the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Saxe-Weimar, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press, accessed December 22,2005 German genealogies Genealogy of Dukes of Saxe-Weimar
2.
Saxe-Eisenach
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Saxe-Eisenach was an Ernestine duchy ruled by the Saxon House of Wettin. The State intermittently existed at three different times in the Thuringian region of the Holy Roman Empire, the chief town and capital of all three duchies was Eisenach. In the 15th century, much of what is now the German state of Thuringia, including the area around Eisenach, was in the hands of the Wettin dynasty, since 1423 Prince-electors of Saxony. In 1485, the Wettin lands were divided according to the Treaty of Leipzig, with most of the Thuringian lands going to Elector Ernest of Saxony, the Ernestine Wettins also retained the title of Elector. According to the Capitulation of Wittenberg he was allowed to retain the lands in Thuringia. All descendants of John Frederick the Magnanimous in the male line bore the title Duke of Saxony, brothers sometimes ruled jointly, but usually there was a division of territory if there was more than one son to inherit. As a result, the Duchy of Saxe-Eisenach was separated from, the actual territories included in the duchy changed with each creation, but always with the town of Eisenach as the core. The first Duchy of Saxe-Eisenach was created in 1596, after the banned Duke John Frederick II had died in captivity and their Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach was split, whereby the younger John Ernest became Duke at Eisenach, while the elder John Casimir took his residence at Coburg. When in 1633 Duke John Casimir died without issue, the Wettin line in Saxe-Coburg died out, nevertheless, he himself also died heirless in 1638, and his territories were split between Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Altenburg, which had itself been separated from Saxe-Weimar in 1603. However, Duke Albert died without heirs in 1644, and Saxe-Eisenach was then divided between Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Weimar, ruled by his brothers, for nearly 20 years the residence of Eisenach was part of Saxe-Weimar. However, when Duke Wilhelm of Saxe-Weimar died in 1662, he left four children, John Ernest, Adolf William, John George, the second eldest, Adolf William, received Eisenach. Adolf William had five sons, but the first four died soon after birth. In 1668 he died, just before of the birth of his son, Willam Augustus. A sickly boy, he died in 1671 at only two old, and John George became Duke of Saxe-Eisenach. Saxe-Eisenach assumed its final shape in 1672, following the death of Frederick William III of Saxe-Altenburg, the line of Johann Georg I ruled Saxe-Eisenach for 69 years, until Duke Wilhelm Heinrich died heirless in 1741
3.
Weimar
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Weimar is a city in the federal state of Thuringia, Germany. It is located between Erfurt in the west and Jena in the east, approximately 80 kilometres southwest of Leipzig,170 kilometres north of Nuremberg and 170 kilometres west of Dresden. Together with the neighbour-cities Erfurt and Jena it forms the metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants. Weimar is well known because of its cultural heritage and its importance in German history. The city was a point of the German Enlightenment and home of the leading characters of the literary genre of Weimar Classicism. Until 1948, Weimar was the capital of Thuringia, today, many places in the city centre have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites and tourism is one of the leading economic sectors of Weimar. Relevant institutions in Weimar are the Bauhaus University, the Liszt School of Music, in 1999, Weimar was the European Capital of Culture. Archaeological finds dating back to the Thuringii epoch show that the Weimar part of the Ilm valley was settled early, the oldest records regarding Weimar date to 899. Its name changed over the centuries from Wimares through Wimari to Wimar and finally Weimar, it is derived from Old High German wīh-, another theory derives the first element from OHG win. The place was the seat of the County of Weimar, first mentioned in 949, in 1062 it was united with the County of Orlamünde to the new County of Weimar-Orlamünde, which existed until the Thuringian Counts War in 1346 and fell to the Wettins afterwards. The Weimar settlement emerged around the wooden castle and two small churches dedicated to St Peter, and to St James. In 1240, the count founded the monastery in Oberweimar. Soon after, the counts of Weimar founded the town, which was an independent parish since 1249, from 1262 the citizens used their own seal. Nevertheless, the influence of the Weimar counts was declining as the influence of the Wettins in Thuringia increased. Hence, the new town was relatively marginal in a regional context. The settlement around St James Church developed into a suburb during the 13th century, after becoming part of the Wettins territory in 1346, urban development improved. The Wettins fostered Weimar by abolishing socage and granting privileges to the citizens, now Weimar became equal to other Wettinian cities like Weißensee and grew during the 15th century, with the establishment of a town hall and the current main church. Weimar acquired woad trade privileges in 1438, the castle and the walls were finished in the 16th century, making Weimar into a full city
4.
Ernest Augustus II, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
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Ernst August II Konstantin, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, was a duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Ernst August II Konstantins father, a ruler with a passion for hunting, had moved his court to Eisenach. The duke neglected his son and heir, so that Ernst August II Konstantin spent his years under the supervision of the Hofmarschall of Schloss Belvedere in Weimar. Ernst August I died in 1748, when Ernst August II Konstantin was eleven years old, since he was still a minor, the dukes Frederick III of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg and Franz Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld assumed the regency of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach on Ernst August II Konstantins behalf. The young duke came to live with Duke Frederick in Gotha, in 1755 Ernst August II Konstantin assumed the reins of government. He appointed his tutor, the Imperial Count Heinrich von Bünau. Because the young duke had been a child, he was encouraged to marry quickly in order to ensure an heir for the duchy. In Brunswick on 16 March 1756, Ernst August II Konstantin married Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and they had two sons, Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Grand Duke from 21 April 1815. Frederick Ferdinand Constantine who died unmarried, when Ernst August II Konstantin died, the hereditary prince Karl August was still an infant. Ernst August Konstantins widow, the duchess Anna Amalia, presided as regent over an excellent tutelary government which propelled Weimar into the classical period
5.
Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
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He is noted for the intellectual brilliance of his court. Born in Weimar, he was the eldest son of Ernst August II, Duke of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach and his father died when he was only nine months old, and the boy was brought up under the regency and supervision of his mother. His governor was the Count Johann Eustach von Görtz and in 1771, at Frankfurt, Knebel introduced Karl August to the young Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. In Karlsruhe on 3 October 1775, after he returned to Weimar and assumed the government of his duchy, Karl August married Luise Auguste, daughter of Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. One of the first acts of the duke was to summon Goethe to Weimar. “People of discernment, ” the duke said, “congratulate me on possessing this man and his intellect, his genius is known. ”The Weimaraner, a breed of gun dog is said to have been developed by August and his court for hunting. Karl August was also interested in literature, in art, in science, funding Goethe, critics praised his judgment in painting, biologists found in him an expert in anatomy. To this end Herder was summoned to Weimar to reform the educational system, Weimar became the intellectual centre of Germany. Meanwhile, in the affairs of Germany and of Europe the character of Karl August gave him an out of all proportion to his position as a sovereign prince. He had early faced the problem presented by the decay of the Holy Roman Empire, in 1788 Karl August took service in the Prussian army as major-general in active command of a regiment. As such he was present, with Goethe, at the Battle of Valmy in 1792, and in 1794 at the Siege of Mainz and the Battle of Pirmasenz and Kaiserslautern. After this, dissatisfied with the attitude of the powers, he resigned, the disastrous campaign of Jena followed. On 14 October, the day after the battle, Weimar was sacked, from this time till after the Moscow campaign of 1812 his contingent fought on the French side in all Napoleons wars. In 1813, however, he joined the Sixth Coalition, the grand duke was compelled to yield to the remonstrances of Prussia, Austria and Russia. Karl August died at Graditz, near Torgau, in 1828 and he was inspired by the noblest good-will, the purest humanity, and with his whole soul desired only what was best. There was in him something of the divine and he would gladly have wrought the happiness of all mankind. And finally, he was greater than his surroundings, everywhere he himself saw and judged, and in all circumstances his surest foundation was in himself. ”Karl Augusts correspondence with Goethe was published in 2 vols. at Weimar in 1863. Bernhards son, William Augustus Edward, known as Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar, entered the British army, Karl August and Luise Auguste had seven children, Luise Auguste Amalie
6.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
7.
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
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Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach was created as a duchy in 1809 by the merger of the Ernestine duchies of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach. It was raised to a Grand duchy in 1815 by resolution of the Vienna Congress, in 1903, it officially changed its name to the Grand Duchy of Saxony, but this name was rarely used. The Grand Duchy came to an end in the German Revolution of 1918–19 with the monarchies of the German Empire. It was succeeded by the Free State of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, which was merged into the new state of Thuringia two years later. The full grand ducal style was Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Landgrave in Thuringia, Margrave of Meissen, Princely Count of Henneberg, Lord of Blankenhayn, Neustadt, the Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach branch is the most genealogically senior extant branch of the House of Wettin. The Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach consisted of three areas, each of which formed a Kreis administratively, plus several exclaves. Neighboring countries were Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse-Kassel, the northern part of the Weimar district was flat and part of the Thuringian Basin, the southern and eastern parts were situated on the Ilm-Saale Plateau and in the Saale valley. The district Neustadt was located in hills with altitudes between 200 and 400 meters, acting Prime Minister Goethe once described Weimar as Athens on the Ilm. The highest elevation in the duchy were the Kickelhahn near Ilmenau, the Ellenbogen in the Rhön. In 1895, the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach was administratively divided into three districts Kreise, Furthermore, the districts of Weimar and Eisenach were each subdivided into two Bezirke. In the case of Weimar, these were, Weimar and Apolda, in all, there were 31 cities and 594 municipalities in the Grand Duchy. The Grand Dukes of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach granted city status to three localities in the state, namely Berka/Werra, Ruhla and Münchenbernsdorf, in 1840, there were 13 cities with over 2,000 inhabitants. In the 70 years to 1910, the Grand Duchy industrialized heavily, the population of Stadtlengsfeld shrank dramatically after the Jewish emancipation, when most of the citys Jewish citizens migrated to larger cities. In 1910, several towns had grown past the 2,000 inhabitants mark, Ruhla, Blankenhain, Bad Sulza, Auma, Triptis, Tiefenort, Bad Berka, Oberweimar, Oldisleben. The first Duke of the union was Ernest Augustus I. His son Ernest Augustus II reigned for three years, and died at the age of 20 years. At the age of 18, he married the Brunswick Princess Anna Amalia, one year his junior, a year later she gave birth to her son, Charles Augustus and after another year, when she was already a widow, to her son Constantine. As Dowager Duchess Anna Amalia actively took up the regency, with the approval of the Empress Maria Theresa, as educator for her sons, she employed the poet Christoph Martin Wieland, who was a professor at the university of Erfurt
8.
Princess Philippine Charlotte of Prussia
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Princess Philippine Charlotte of Prussia was a Duchess consort of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel by marriage to Charles I of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and a known intellectual in contemporary Germany. Philippine Charlotte was the child and third daughter of Frederick William I of Prussia. On 2 July 1733 in Berlin, Princess Philippine Charlotte married Duke Charles of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, eldest son of Ferdinand Albert II, Charles inherited the dukedom on his fathers death in 1735, making her Duchess consort. The family ties of the two dynasties resulted the alliance of Brunswick and Prussia in the Seven Years War, and the career of Philippines sons in the Prussian service, Philippine Charlotte was described as subtle, highly educated and a child of the enlightenment. She worked independently of an extract of the writings of Christian von Wolff in French. The Duchess pursued, partly because of the influence of the ducal adviser Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Jerusalem and she appreciated the poet Salomon Gessner and maintained a personal relationship Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. The dramatist Lessing were also among her circle, in 1773, Charles I was obliged to make his son regent, and in 1780, he died, and was succeeded by her son. The Swedish Princess Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte described her, as well as her family, at the time of a visit in August,1799, Our cousin, after he left us, I visited the Dowager Duchess, the aunt of my consort. She is an agreeable, highly educated and well respected lady, Philippine Charlotte left to the Wolfenbüttel Library her own collection of 4,000 volumes. Media related to Princess Philippine Charlotte of Prussia at Wikimedia Commons
9.
Frederick William I of Prussia
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Frederick William I, known as the Soldier King, was the King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg from 1713 until his death, as well as the father of Frederick the Great. He was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel and he was born in Berlin to Frederick I of Prussia and Sophia Charlotte of Hanover. During his first years, he was raised by the Huguenot governess Marthe de Roucoulle and his father had successfully acquired the title King for the margraves of Brandenburg. During his own reign, Frederick William I did much to centralize and he replaced mandatory military service among the middle class with an annual tax, established schools and hospitals, and resettled East Prussia. The king encouraged farming, reclaimed marshes, stored grain in good times, in short, Frederick William I concerned himself with every aspect of his relatively small country, planning to satisfy all that was needed for Prussia to defend itself. His rule was absolutist and he was a firm autocrat and he practiced rigid, frugal economy, never started a war, and led a simple and austere lifestyle, in contrast to the lavish court his father had presided over. At his death, there was a surplus in the royal treasury. He intervened briefly in the Great Northern War in order to gain a portion of Swedish Pomerania, Frederick Williams reforms left his son Frederick with the most formidable army in Europe, which Frederick used to increase Prussias power. The observation that the pen is mightier than the sword has sometimes been attributed to him, although a highly effective ruler, Frederick William had a perpetually short temper which sometimes drove him to physically attack servants at the slightest provocation. His violent nature was further exacerbated by his inherited porphyritic illness, Frederick William died in 1740 at age 51 and was interred at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. The coffins were discovered by occupying American Forces, who re-interred the bodies in St. Elisabeths Church in Marburg in 1946. The original black marble sarcophagus collapsed at Burg Hohenzollern—the current one is a copper copy and his eldest surviving son was Frederick II, born in 1712. Frederick William wanted him to become a fine soldier, as a small child, Fritz was awakened each morning by the firing of a cannon. At the age of 6, he was given his own regiment of children to drill as cadets, the love and affection Frederick William had for his heir initially was soon destroyed due to their increasingly different personalities. Frederick William ordered Fritz to undergo an education, live a simple Protestant lifestyle. However, the intellectual Fritz was more interested in music, books and French culture, as Fritzs defiance for his fathers rules increased, Frederick William would frequently beat or humiliate Fritz. Fritz was beaten for being thrown off a horse and wearing gloves in cold weather. After the prince attempted to flee to England with his tutor, Hans Hermann von Katte, the enraged King had Katte beheaded before the eyes of the prince, the court declared itself not competent in this case
10.
Sophia Dorothea of Hanover
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Sophia Dorothea of Hanover was a Queen consort in Prussia as wife of Frederick William I. She was the sister of George II of Great Britain and the mother of Frederick II of Prussia, Sophia Dorothea was born on 16 March 1687, in Hanover. She was the daughter of George Louis of Hanover, later King George I of Great Britain. She was detested by her brother, King George II of Great Britain. Sophia Dorothea married her cousin, Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia, heir apparent to the Prussian throne and they had met as children under the care of their grandmother, Sophia of Hanover, and had disliked each other ever since. Sophia Dorothea differed from her husband in every aspect and the marriage suffered as a result, one of the most important differences between them was that Sophia Dorothea, unlike her husband, loved entertainment. Frederick William contemplated to divorce her the year they married. Her husband ascended the throne in 1713 and Sophia Dorothea became queen and she was nicknamed Olympia for her regal bearing. Her children were terrorized and frequently beaten by Frederick William, who may have suffered from porphyria, Sophia Dorothea was interested in art, science, literature and fashion. She was not described as a beauty, and she was scarred from smallpox and it was the opinion of her daughter Wilhelmine that her father treated her mother unjustly. His manner toward her was described as rough, and he is noted to have used uncivil language toward her and his usual bad manners toward her were so noted that the opposite was seen as a surprise. In 1726 Sophia Dorothea inherited a sum of three million from her mother, and Frederick William was noted to suddenly treat her very well and this was regarded to be very unusual, and the Imperial ambassador reported that his changed behavior was merely because he wanted her money. When she never received it, because her brother refused to release the sum, Frederick William disliked Sophia Dorotheas early ambition to have Frederick marry Princess Amelia of Great Britain and Wilhelmine marry Frederick, Prince of Wales. He also accused her of having damaged his relationship to their children and she had a good relationship with her son, Frederick, later known as Frederick the Great, who was very attached to her and deeply mourned her death. She spent many days talking to him in the library and was informed of his plans to escape from his fathers custody in 1728, after he withdrew from the Prussian court, she corresponded with him from the fortress of Küstrin. In 1740, her spouse died, and was succeeded by their son, when she died eighteen years after her sons accession, her death was described as a great blow to Frederick. Thea Leitner, Skandal bei Hof, Ueberreuter,1993, ISBN 3-8000-3492-1 Media related to Sophia Dorothea of Hanover at Wikimedia Commons
11.
Braunschweig
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Braunschweig, also called Brunswick in English, is a city of 252,768 people, in the state of Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located north of the Harz mountains at the furthest navigable point of the Oker river, today, Braunschweig is the second largest city in Lower Saxony and a major centre of scientific research and development. The date and circumstances of the foundation are unknown. The towns original name of Brunswik is a combination of the name Bruno and Low German wik, the towns name therefore indicates an ideal resting-place, as it lay by a ford across the Oker River. Another explanation of the name is that it comes from Brand. The city was first mentioned in documents from the St. Magni Church from 1031, up to the 12th century, Braunschweig was ruled by the Saxon noble family of the Brunonids, then, through marriage, it fell to the House of Welf. In 1142 Henry the Lion of the House of Welf became duke of Saxony and he turned Dankwarderode Castle, the residence of the counts of Brunswick, into his own Pfalz and developed the city further to represent his authority. Under Henrys rule the Cathedral of St. Blasius was built and he also had the statue of a lion, his heraldic animal, the lion subsequently became the citys landmark. Henry the Lion became so powerful that he dared to refuse military aid to the emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, Henry went into exile in England. He had previously established ties to the English crown in 1168, through his marriage to King Henry II of Englands daughter Matilda, however, his son Otto, who could regain influence and was eventually crowned Holy Roman Emperor, continued to foster the citys development. By the year 1600, Braunschweig was the seventh largest city in Germany, the Princes of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel didnt regain control over the city until the late 17th century, when Rudolph Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, took the city by siege. In the 18th century Braunschweig was not only a political, influenced by the philosophy of the Enlightenment, dukes like Anthony Ulrich and Charles I became patrons of the arts and sciences. In 1745 Charles I founded the Collegium Carolinum, predecessor of the Braunschweig University of Technology, with this he attracted poets and thinkers such as Lessing, Leisewitz, and Jakob Mauvillon to his court and the city. Emilia Galotti by Lessing and Goethes Faust were performed for the first time in Braunschweig, in 1806, the city was captured by the French during the Napoleonic Wars and became part of the short-lived Napoleonic Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807. The exiled duke Frederick William raised a corps, the Black Brunswickers. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Braunschweig was made capital of the reestablished independent Duchy of Brunswick, in the aftermath of the July Revolution in 1830, in Brunswick duke Charles II was forced to abdicate. His absolutist governing style had alienated the nobility and bourgeoisie. During the night of 7–8 September 1830, the palace in Braunschweig was stormed by an angry mob, set on fire
12.
Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
13.
Age of majority
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The age of majority is the threshold of adulthood as recognized or declared in law. Most countries set the age of majority at 18, the word majority here refers to having greater years and being of full age as opposed to minority, the state of being a minor. The law in a jurisdiction may not actually use the term age of majority. The term typically refers to a collection of laws bestowing the status of adulthood, the age of majority does not necessarily correspond to the mental or physical maturity of an individual. Age of majority can be confused with the concept of the age of license. As a legal term of art, license means permission, thus, an age of license is an age at which one has legal permission from government to do something. The age of majority, on the hand, is legal recognition that one has grown into an adult. Many ages of license are correlated to the age of majority, one need not have attained the age of majority to have permission to exercise certain rights and responsibilities. Some ages of license are actually higher than the age of majority, for example, the age of license to purchase alcoholic beverages is 21 in all U. S. states. Another example is the age, which prior to the 1970s was 21. In the Republic of Ireland the age of majority is 18, also, in Portugal the age of majority is 18, but one must be at least 25 years of age to run for public office. A child who is legally emancipated by a court of competent jurisdiction automatically attains to their maturity upon the signing of the court order, only emancipation confers the status of maturity before a person has actually reached the age of majority. In almost all places, minors who are married are automatically emancipated, some places also do the same for minors who are in the armed forces or who have a certain degree or diploma. In the United States, all states have some form of emancipation of minors, judaism,13 years of age for males and 12 years of age for females, such persons are considered adults Roman Catholic Church,18 years of age
14.
Johann Gottfried Herder
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Johann Gottfried Herder was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic. He is associated with the periods of Enlightenment, Sturm und Drang, born in Mohrungen in the Kingdom of Prussia, Herder grew up in a poor household, educating himself from his fathers Bible and songbook. In 1762, a youth of seventeen, he enrolled at the local University of Königsberg. At the same time, Herder became an intellectual protégé of Johann Georg Hamann, although himself an unsociable person, Herder influenced his contemporaries greatly. One friend wrote to him in 1785, hailing his works as inspired by God, a varied field of theorists were later to find inspiration in Herders tantalisingly incomplete ideas. In 1764, now a clergyman, Herder went to Riga to teach and it was during this period that he produced his first major works, which were literary criticism. In 1769 Herder traveled by ship to the French port of Nantes and this resulted in both an account of his travels as well as a shift of his own self-conception as an author. By 1770 Herder went to Strasbourg, where he met the young Goethe and this event proved to be a key juncture in the history of German literature, as Goethe was inspired by Herders literary criticism to develop his own style. This can be seen as the beginning of the Sturm und Drang movement, in 1771 Herder took a position as head pastor and court preacher at Bückeburg under Count Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe. By the mid-1770s, Goethe was an author, and used his influence at the court of Weimar to secure Herder a position as General Superintendent. Herder moved there in 1776, where his outlook shifted again towards classicism, towards the end of his career, Herder endorsed the French Revolution, which earned him the enmity of many of his colleagues. At the same time, he and Goethe experienced a personal split, another reason for his isolation in later years was due to his unpopular attacks on Kantian philosophy. In 1802 Herder was ennobled by the Elector-Prince of Bavaria, which added the von to his last name. He died in Weimar in 1803 at age 59, in 1772 Herder published Treatise on the Origin of Language and went further in this promotion of language than his earlier injunction to spew out the ugly slime of the Seine. Herder now had established the foundations of comparative philology within the new currents of political outlook, Herder wrote that A poet is the creator of the nation around him, he gives them a world to see and has their souls in his hand to lead them to that world. After becoming General Superintendent in 1776, Herders philosophy shifted again towards classicism, Herder was at his best during this period, and produced works such as his unfinished Outline of a Philosophical History of Humanity which largely originated the school of historical thought. The historian should be the contemporary of the past. Herder gave Germans new pride in their origins, modifying that dominance of regard allotted to Greek art extolled among others by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Herder equated the German with the Gothic and favoured Dürer and everything Gothic
15.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
16.
Friedrich Schiller
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Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian, and playwright. During the last seventeen years of his life, Schiller struck up a productive, if complicated, friendship with the already famous and they frequently discussed issues concerning aesthetics, and Schiller encouraged Goethe to finish works he left as sketches. This relationship and these led to a period now referred to as Weimar Classicism. They also worked together on Xenien, a collection of satirical poems in which both Schiller and Goethe challenge opponents to their philosophical vision. Friedrich Schiller was born on 10 November 1759, in Marbach, Württemberg as the son of military doctor Johann Kaspar Schiller. Schiller grew up in a religious family and spent much of his youth studying the Bible. His father was away in the Seven Years War when Friedrich was born and he was named after king Frederick the Great, but he was called Fritz by nearly everyone. Kaspar Schiller was rarely home during the war, but he did manage to visit the family once in a while and his wife and children also visited him occasionally wherever he happened to be stationed. When the war ended in 1763, Schillers father became an officer and was stationed in Schwäbisch Gmünd. Due to the high cost of living—especially the rent—the family moved to nearby Lorch, although the family was happy in Lorch, Schillers father found his work unsatisfying. He sometimes took his son with him, in Lorch, Schiller received his primary education. The quality of the lessons was fairly bad, and Friedrich regularly cut class with his older sister, because his parents wanted Schiller to become a pastor, they had the pastor of the village instruct the boy in Latin and Greek. Pastor Moser was a teacher, and later Schiller named the cleric in his first play Die Räuber after him. As a boy, Schiller was excited by the idea of becoming a cleric and often put on black robes, in 1766, the family left Lorch for the Duke of Württembergs principal residence, Ludwigsburg. Schillers father had not been paid for three years, and the family had been living on their savings but could no longer afford to do so, so Kaspar Schiller took an assignment to the garrison in Ludwigsburg. There the Schiller boy came to the attention of Karl Eugen and he entered the Karlsschule Stuttgart, in 1773, where he eventually studied medicine. During most of his life, he suffered from illnesses that he tried to cure himself. While at the Karlsschule, Schiller read Rousseau and Goethe and discussed Classical ideals with his classmates, the plays critique of social corruption and its affirmation of proto-revolutionary republican ideals astounded its original audience
17.
Abel Seyler
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Abel Seyler was a Swiss-born banker, who later became one of the great theatre principals of 18th century Europe. Already in his lifetime, he was described as one of German arts most meritorious men and he commissioned works such as Sturm und Drang by Klinger, Ariadne auf Naxos by Benda and Alceste by Schweitzer, considered the first serious German opera. Seyler became a freemason in London in 1753 and was a figure in German freemasonry until his death. In his first marriage to Sophie Elisabeth Andreae, Seyler had three children, the pharmacist and scholar Abel Seyler the Younger, who was a member of the Illuminati and his children were raised by his brother in law, the noted natural scientist J. G. R. The principal founder of biochemistry and molecular biology Felix Hoppe-Seyler was a son of his grandson. Abel Seyler was named for his great-grandfather, the Basel politician Abel Socin and he lived out his days on the Rellingen estate of his long-time friend and fellow prominent freemason, the renowned actor Friedrich Ludwig Schröder, where he is interred. Abel Seyler grew up in Liestal outside Basel in Switzerland and he was the son of the Calvinist clergyman, Dr. theol. Abel Seyler, who was parish priest of Frenkendorf-Munzach in Liestal from 1714 to 1763, and Anna Katharina Burckhardt and he was descended on both his parents sides from some of the most prominent families of the Basel Daig, the city-states de facto aristocracy. He was a grandson of the noted theologian Friedrich Seyler and Elisabeth Socin. He was named for his great-grandfather, the Basel judge and envoy to the French court Abel Socin, on his mothers side he was also descended from the Merian and Faesch families. He was also a descendant of Justina Froben, daughter of the humanist Johann Froben. He had a sister, Elisabeth Seiler, married to parish priest Daniel Merian, as a young man, Seyler established himself as a businessman in Hamburg. Notably, the companies speculated heavily on currency debasement during the Seven Years War, Müller & Seyler and Seyler & Tillemann went bankrupt in 1763 in what was considered a malicious bankruptcy with 3 million Mark Banco in debts. Litigation relating to the bankruptcy was initiated in 1763, and the case, now famous in the history of capitalism itself, mary Lindemann argues, important case against several business partners reached the Imperial Cameral Tribunal in 1765. It offers an excellent perspective on deceitful schemes and especially on the bill-jobbing of two companies, Müller & Seyler and Seyler & Tillemann, the creditors’ lawyers laid out the background to the case in considerable detail. Müller and Seyler were new men, Edwin Müller had come from Hanover several years before, both had, however, learned their business and married in Hamburg. If one could trust their books, their actual starting capital amounted to no more than thirty-eight thousand Mk and their business was undercapitalized from the beginning. In the 1750s, this seemed a minor problem because credit was easy to obtain, when the cash flow failed, they tried to acquire money quickly through bill-jobbing
18.
Seyler Theatre Company
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It was largely a continuation of the Hamburgische Entreprise, whose dramaturge was Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and whose main owner was Seyler. The Seyler theatrical company became one of the most famous companies of Europe in the 18th century, attracting some of Germanys leading actors, playwrights. It originally comprised around 60 members, including an orchestra, a ballet, house dramatists, between 1777 and 1778 Seyler employed some 230 actors, singers and musicians. The company was contracted by the Hanoverian court with performing at Hanover and other cities of the kingdom. The company would perform all across Germany, and performed for three years at the Weimar Schlosstheater, invited by Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. When Anna Amalia succeeded in engaging the Seyler Company, this was an extremely fortunate coup, the Seyler Company was the best theatre company in Germany at that time. The company had an important role in the development of German opera in the late 18th century, a number of plays were written for the Seyler theatrical company. For example, the play Sturm und Drang was written originally for the company by Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, then employed as its playwright, threatened by bankruptcy in 1770, the company was saved by Seylers brother-in-law, Johann Gerhard Reinhard Andreae
19.
Amalia von Helvig
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Anna Amalia von Helvig was a German and Swedish artist, writer, translator, socialite, Salonist and culture personality. She is known as an inspiration for many artists and she was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts. She was born to Baron Carl Christoph von Imhoff and Luise Schardt, in 1791, she was introduced to the court of Charles Augustus, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in Weimar, where she belonged to the court of Charles mother Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. She was given an artistic education and was encouraged by Goethe. Married in 1803 to General Karl Gottfried von Helvig, she moved to Stockholm in 1804 where she established a salon and she was elected to the Academy of arts in 1804 and took part in several of its exhibitions between 1804 and 1810. She returned to Germany in 1810, but spent the years from 1814–1816 in Sweden, in Berlin, she established one of the most important literary salons of the early 19th century. Carina Burman portraits the relationship between Amalia von Helvig and Gustaf Geijer in the novel Islandet, christina Charlotta Cederström List of German women artists Österberg, Carin et al. Svenska kvinnor, föregångare, nyskapare Lund, Signum 1990
20.
Christoph Martin Wieland
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Christoph Martin Wieland was a German poet and writer. He is best-remembered for having written the first Bildungsroman, as well as the epic Oberon and he was born in Oberholzheim, which then belonged to the Free Imperial City of Biberach an der Riss in the south-east of the modern-day state of Baden-Württemberg. His father, who was pastor in Oberholzheim and subsequently in Biberach, from the town school of Biberach he passed on at the age of twelve to the Kloster Berge gymnasium, near Magdeburg. During the summer of 1750, he fell in love with a cousin, Sophie Gutermann, and this affair inspired him to plan his first ambitious work, Die Natur der Dinge. In 1750 he went to the University of Tübingen as a student of law, the poems he wrote at the university — Hermann, an epic, Zwölf moralische Briefe in Versen, Anti-Ovid — are pietistic in tone and dominated by the influence of Klopstock. They attracted the attention of the Swiss literary reformer, J. J. Bodmer, here he became intimate with Jean-Jacques Rousseaus friend Julie de Bondeli. In Cyrus, he had been inspired by the deeds of Frederick the Great to write a poem exhibiting the ideal of a hero, araspes und Panthea is based on an episode from the Cyropaedia of Xenophon. Wielands conversion was completed at Biberach, having returned in 1760 as director of the chancery. The monotony of his life here was relieved by the friendship of a Count Stadion, whose library in the castle of Warthausen, not far from Biberach, was stocked with French. Wieland met again his early love Sophie Gutermann, who had become the wife of Hofrat La Roche, then manager of Count Stadions estates. In Don Sylvia von Rosalva, a romance in imitation of Don Quixote, he held up to ridicule his earlier faith, more important is the novel Geschichte des Agathon, in which, under the guise of a Greek fiction, Wieland described his own spiritual and intellectual growth. This work, which Lessing recommended as a novel of classic taste, musarion advocates a rational unity of the sensual and spiritual, Amadis celebrates the triumph of intellectual over physical beauty. Wieland married Anna Dorothea von Hillenbrand on October 21,1765, Wielands daughter Sophia Catharina Susanna Wieland married philosopher Karl Leonhard Reinhold on May 18,1785. Between 1769 and 1772, Wieland was a professor of philosophy at the University of Erfurt, in his Verklagter Amor he defended amatory poetry, and in the Dialogen des Diogenes von Sinope he gave a general vindication of his philosophical views. With the exception of years spent at Ossmannstedt, where in later life he bought an estate. Turning his attention to poetry, he wrote the Wahl des Hercules. In 1773, he founded Der teutsche Merkur, which under his editorship became the most influential literary review in Germany. His views, as exhibited therein, however, showed so much of the narrow conventional spirit of French criticism and this Wieland answered with great good nature, recommending it to all who were fond of wit and sarcasm
21.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
22.
Duchess Anna Amalia Library
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The Duchess Anna Amalia Library in Weimar, Thuringia, Germany, houses a major collection of German literature and historical documents. Among its special collections is an important Shakespeare collection of approximately 10,000 volumes, the Duchess Anna Amalia Library is named for Anna Amalia, Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, who arranged in 1766 for the courtly book collection to be moved into the library. The main building is the Green Castle, Annas residence, which had built between 1562 and 1565. The dowager Duchess had the building converted into a library in 1761, the Duchess, seeking a tutor for her son Duke Carl August, hired Christoph Martin Wieland, an important poet and noted translator of William Shakespeare. Wielands Shakespeare volumes formed the core of the collection, from an architectural standpoint, the library is world-famous for its oval Rococo hall featuring a portrait of Grand Duke Carl August. One of the librarys most famous patrons was Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the library also includes the worlds largest Faust collection. The Duchesss significant 13, 000-volume music collection is available in the library. In World War II, most of the collection was housed elsewhere to preserve it from Allied bombing, today, the library is a public research library for literature and art history. The main focus is German literature from the Classical and the late Romantic eras, in 2001, construction began on a new multiple-floor facility to house some 1,000,000 books under the Plaza of Democracy between the Music University and the Red and Yellow Castle. In its pre-renovation state, the building had structural flaws which endangered many valuable books, the new development is estimated to have cost €24 million and has an area of 6,300 m². The area is divided into upper and lower floors, the new building would connect the historical library building with the user areas of the reconstructed Red and Yellow Castle. The grand opening of the new complex is slated for February 2005, part of the collection was burned in a fire on 2 September 2004, which destroyed 50,000 volumes of which 12,500 are considered irreplaceable. Another 62,000 volumes were severely damaged, however, some 6,000 historical works were saved, including the 1534 Luther Bible and a collection of Alexander von Humboldts papers, by being passed from hand to hand out of the building. Some 28,000 books in the building were rescued and so not affected by the fire, other items, like Friedrich Schillers death mask suffered damage, too, and 35 historic oil paintings were destroyed. The fire came as a tragedy, in part because the collection was scheduled to move to another site in late October. Some of the books are being freeze-dried in Leipzig to save them from rotting as a result of water damage. Book restoration is scheduled to last at least until 2015, the library building was restored for $18.2 million and reopened at the end of October 2007 with some 60,000 volumes. This includes the books, the first restored books and the replacement volumes obtained on the international antique book market, from other libraries
23.
Opera
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Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below
24.
Erwin und Elmire
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Goethe moved to Weimar, in circumstances decisive for his future career, in November 1775. There he was introduced to Anna Amalia, the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, the ballad of Angelica and Edwin was first published privately in 1764, and two years later was incorporated into Chapter 8 of The Vicar of Wakefield. Its success was immediate and widespread, goethe was not the only literary figure who was to adapt the tale, it appears, for instance, in de Labordes Lettres sur la Suisse. Victor Pelissiers opera Edwin and Angelina, or The Banditti which premiered in New York in 1796, was based upon an adaptation by Elihu Hubbard Smith and it was published in 1775 as a Schauspiel mit Gesang, the first time this designation appeared in Germany. The great success of Goethes reworking of this sentimental tale no doubt derives in large measure from the fact that it touched upon many social and cultural preoccupations of the day. Its theme of reconciliation, achieved in rustic surroundings, was a critique on the social pretensions of emerging middle-class society. The score is testament to the level of musical attainment of the composer. The predominantly buffa style, for instance, is ideal for a character like Bernardo who shares its potent mix of humour, on the other hand the lovers passion is aptly reflected in the application of the concerted style common to opera seria. Elmires remorse gives rise to a song that, through its unassuming lyricism. The dramatic effectiveness of these stylistic adaptations marks Anna Amalias Erwin und Elmire as a major achievement in the development of German opera. Anna Amalias setting had no modern revival until a performance by students of the University of Cambridge, UK. A further performance was given 29 February 2008 in Central Hall, Melbourne and this was the first performance based on the fully restored score by Furore Verlag. It received its first fully complete realisation at the Ekhof Festival in Gotha in the summer of 2009, Olympia, mother of Elmire, laments the restrictive social graces of the young and reminisces on the carefree days of her own youth. Elmire, her daughter, appears and seems inconsolable, she tries in vain to cheer her up, after Olympia departs, we discover that Elmira is distressed because she believes her cold behaviour towards Erwin, her lowly born suitor, has caused him to disappear. Bernardo, Elmires French instructor and mentor, overhears her self-reproaches and is able to persuade her to meet an old hermit in a secluded valley, there, he promises, she will find joy in her heart once more. The Second Act opens with Erwin in his hut in the country. Bernardo arrives and announces that Elmire will shortly visit him unaware of his true identity and he disguises Erwin as a hermit. When Elmire arrives, she proceeds to make confession, admitting to having driven her lover to despair by feigning indifference in deference to social propriety, Erwin, convinced at last that Elmire really loves him, reveals his true identity to the delight of all concerned
25.
Duchess Elisabeth Sophie of Mecklenburg
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Elisabeth Sophie of Mecklenburg, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg was a German poet and composer. She began studying music at the court of her father, Duke John Albert II of Mecklenburg-Güstrow and she moved to the court of Kassel, which also had a strong musical tradition, when the Thirty Years War threatened her court in 1628. In 1635 she married the learned Augustus the Younger, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and they had two children, Ferdinand Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg Marie Elisabeth of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Elisabeth Sophie was charged with organizing the orchestra, and at times worked closely with Heinrich Schütz. She may have collaborated with him on arias in his Theatralische neue Vorstellung von der Maria Magdalena, most of Elisabeth Sophie s compositions are hymns or devotional arias. Some of these were published in 1651 and 1667, the one printed in 1651, Vinetum evangelicum, Evangelischer Weinberg, is believed to have been the first music published by a woman in Germany. She also played a role in establishing large court entertainments, including masquerades, plays. Her additional involvement in these entertainments is unclear, two of her dramatic works survive, Friedens Sieg and Glückwünschende Freudensdarstellung. Sibylle Ursula von Braunschweig-Lüneburg was her stepdaughter, women in music, §II, Western classical traditions in Europe & the USA3
26.
Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse-Eschwege
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Landgrave Frederick of Hesse-Eschwege was from 1632 until his death Landgrave of the apanage of Hesse-Eschwege, which stood under the suzerainty of Hesse-Kassel. At the instigation of his wife, Juliane of Nassau-Dillenburg, Maurice set aside a quarter of his country. Of those, Herman IV received the Rothenburg area, Frederick received Eschwege and Ernest received the former Lower County of Katzenelnbogen, Maurice himself lived with his second family in Eschwege until his death in 1632. His widow then moved to Rotenburg Castle with her children, the castle and town of Eschwege were pillaged and looted during the Thirty Years War at Easter 1637. Frederick had a military career in the Swedish army, where he made it to the Major General. It is unknown whether he was active during the Thirty Years War, during the Second Northern War, he commanded a Swedish battle group. Due to his career, he spent much time at the Swedish court. His three brothers ruled his share of the Rotenburg Quarter on his behalf, even so, he cared about his subject and contributed significantly to the reconstruction after the end of the Thirty Years War. His wife mostly stayed in Eschwege and his children were born there, Frederick died on 24 September 1655 in Poland, in the army of his brother-in-law Charles X Gustav of Sweden. He was buried in the Market Church in Eschwege, it took two years before his coffin arrived there, Hesse-Eschwege fell to his brother Ernest of Hesse-Rheinfels. The castle in Eschwege was assigned to his widow as dower and she died in 1692 and was buried in the royal crypt in the Market Church in Eschwege. The castle in Eschwege was mortgaged to Brunswick-Bevern in 1667, to raise a dowry for his daughter Christina. His full title, as immortalized on his coffin, was, Frederick, Frederick married on 8 September 1646 in Stockholm with Eleonora Catherine, daughter of the Count Palatine John Casimir of Kleeburg and sister of the Swedish king Charles X Gustav. They had the children, Margarete. Christine, married in 1667 to Ferdinand Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Bevern,7,1955, p. 43-44 Kurt Holzapfel, Landgraf Friedrichs Ende. Gefallen 1655, beigesetzt in Eschwege 1657, in, Das Werraland, vol
27.
Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg
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Frederick William was Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia – and thus ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia – from 1640 until his death. A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is known as the Great Elector because of his military. Frederick William was a pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously, Elector Frederick William was born in Berlin to George William, Elector of Brandenburg, and Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. His inheritance consisted of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Duchy of Cleves, the County of Mark, and the Duchy of Prussia. During the Thirty Years War, George William strove to maintain, with a minimal army, out of these unpromising beginnings Frederick William managed to rebuild his war-ravaged territories. In contrast to the disputes that disrupted the internal affairs of other European states. With the help of French subsidies, he built up an army to defend the country, in the conflict for Pomerania inheritance, Frederick William had to accept two setbacks, one in the Northern War and one in the Scanian War. Though militarily successful in Swedish Pomerania, he had to bow to Frances demands, Frederick William was a military commander of wide renown, and his standing army would later become the model for the Prussian Army. He later destroyed another Swedish army that invaded the Duchy of Prussia during the Great Sleigh Drive in 1678, Frederick William is notable for raising an army of 40,000 soldiers by 1678, through the General War Commissariat presided over by Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal. He was an advocate of mercantilism, monopolies, subsidies, tariffs, on Blumenthals advice he agreed to exempt the nobility from taxes and in return they agreed to dissolve the Estates-General. Dorothea, Christian Ludwig, recipient of Bachs Brandenburg Concertos, media related to Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg at Wikimedia Commons
28.
Frederick I of Prussia
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Frederick I, of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia in personal union. The latter function he upgraded to royalty, becoming the first King in Prussia, from 1707 he was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. He was also the grandfather of Frederick the Great. His maternal cousin was King William III of England, upon the death of his father on 29 April 1688, Frederick became Elector Frederick III of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia. Right after ascending the throne Frederick founded a new city southerly adjacent to Dorotheenstadt and named it after himself, Frederick was noted for his opposition to France, in contrast to his father who had sought an alliance with Louis XIV. Frederick took Brandenburg into the League of Augsburg against France and in 1689 led military forces into the field as part of the allied coalition and that year an army under his command besieged and captured Bonn. Despite this opposition to France he was fond of French culture, the Hohenzollern state was then known as Brandenburg-Prussia. The familys main possessions were the Margraviate of Brandenburg within the Holy Roman Empire, although he was the Margrave and Prince-elector of Brandenburg and the Duke of Prussia, Frederick desired the more prestigious title of king. However, according to Germanic law at that time, no kingdoms could exist within the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick persuaded Leopold I, Archduke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor, to allow Prussia to be elevated to a kingdom. This agreement was given in exchange for an alliance against King Louis XIV in the War of the Spanish Succession. Frederick argued that Prussia had never been part of the Holy Roman Empire, therefore, he said, there was no legal or political barrier to letting him rule it as a kingdom. Frederick was aided in the negotiations by Charles Ancillon, Frederick crowned himself on 18 January 1701 in Königsberg. Therefore, out of deference to the historic ties to the Polish crown. His royalty was, in any case, limited to Prussia, in other words, while he was a king in Prussia, he was still only an elector under the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperor in Brandenburg. Legally, the Hohenzollern state was still a personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia and his grandson, Frederick the Great, was the first Prussian king to formally style himself King of Prussia. Frederick was a patron of the arts and learning, Frederick also appointed Jacob Paul von Gundling as Professor of History and Law at the Berlin Knights Academy in 1705, and as historian at the Higher Heralds Office in 1706. Frederick was married three times, first to Elizabeth Henrietta of Hesse-Kassel, with whom he had one child, Louise Dorothea, born 1680, then to Sophia Charlotte of Hanover, with whom he had Frederick August Frederick William I, born in 1688, who succeeded him. In 1708, he married Sophia Louise of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, who survived him but had no children by him, Frederick died in Berlin in 1713 and is entombed in the Berliner Dom
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Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau
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Louise Henrietta of Nassau was a Countess of Nassau, granddaughter of William I, Prince of Orange, William the Silent, and an Electress of Brandenburg. Louise Henriëtte was born in The Hague, the eldest daughter of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange and she grew up at the court of her father, the Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel. Louise Henriëtte had to abandon her love for Henri Charles de La Trémoille, Prince of Talmant, son of Henry de La Trémoille, however, attempts to conclude an engagement with King Charles II of England came to nothing. Finally she was forced to marry Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, the couple lived in Cleves for the first years of their marriage, but they moved to Brandenburg, Frederick Williams seat, in 1648. During her marriage, Luise Henriette followed her spouse and traveled between The Hague, Königsberg, Berlin and Cleves on campaigns, inspections, war and battle fields in Poland and she acted as her husbands political adviser and was described as a pragmatist. She managed, through correspondence with the Queen of Poland, Marie Louise Gonzaga and it was said of her, Few Electresses had been allowed so much influence. Luise Henriette had a new castle in Dutch style built in Bötzow in 1650-52 and called it Oranienburg and she was also involved in the design and development of the Lustgarten in Berlin. In 1663, she installed the first porcelain cabinet in Europe, in 1665, she founded an orphanage with places for 24 children. She was described as kind and gentle with a sharp intellect, her advice was vital for her spouse. During time of war, she made efforts to soften the damages upon society. A Protestant religious community known as the Luise-Henrietten-Stift in nearby Lehnin Abbey was named after her, with Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, she had six children
30.
Sophia Charlotte of Hanover
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Sophia Charlotte of Hanover was the first Queen consort in Prussia as wife of King Frederick I. She was the daughter of Elector Ernest Augustus of Brunswick-Lüneburg. During her childhood, Sophia Charlotte visited the Kingdom of France with her mother in hopes of marrying the Grand Dauphin Louis, heir to the French throne. He later married Duchess Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria instead, but Sophia Charlotte was also proposed as a bride for Louiss father, King Louis XIV. Nothing came of this plan either, a marriage to Frederick of Hohenzollern, son of the Great Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg and heir of both Electoral Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia, was therefore arranged. By marrying Frederick on 8 October 1684, she became Electress of Brandenburg in 1688 and her only child to reach maturity became King Frederick William I of Prussia. Initially, Sophia Charlotte interfered in political affairs, pushing the downfall of the Prussian prime minister Eberhard von Danckelman in 1697, in 1695, she had received the estates of Lietzow manor west of Berlin from the hands of her husband in exchange of further away Caputh. Here she had a Baroque summer residence erected by the architects Johann Arnold Nering and Martin Grünberg, Frederick was only allowed there by invitation, such as on 11 July 1699, when she hosted a birthday party for him. From 1700, she lived there in the summer months. Then called Lietzenburg, it was renamed Charlottenburg Palace after her death, Sophia Charlotte is mainly remembered for her friendship and correspondence with her mothers good friend and tutor Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, whose avowed disciple she became. In addition to German, she spoke French, Italian and English fluently and she was interested in music, sang and played the cembalo, had an Italian opera theater constructed, and employed the musicians Attilio Ariosti and Giovanni Bononcini. The composer Arcangelo Corelli did her the honor of dedicating to her his Op.5 sonatas for solo violin, the latter was one of the most significant and influential publications of compositions for violin in the history of Western music. Nonetheless, the nature of her relationship with Corelli remains obscure, both women put him at ease, and he reciprocated with his natural humour and trunks full of brocade and furs. While on a visit to her mother in Hanover, Sophia Charlotte died of pneumonia on 21 January 1705, Charlottenburg, today a district of Berlin, the Charlottensee lake in Bad Iburg, as well as the Sophie-Charlotte-Oberschule in Berlin are all named after her. Frederick August of Brandenburg died in infancy, Frederick William I of Prussia married Sophia Dorothea of Hanover and had issue. ”In Leibniz in Berlin, ed. H. Poser and A. Heinekamp, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner,1990, 61-69. MacDonald Ross, George,1999, Leibniz und Sophie-Charlotte in Herz, S. Vogtherr, kunst und Politik am Hof der ersten Königin in Preußen. Renate Feyl, Aussicht auf bleibende Helle, band 34, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1892, S. 676–684
31.
Sophia of Hanover
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Sophia of the Palatinate was the Electress of Hanover from 1692 to 1698. As a granddaughter of James VI and I, she became heir presumptive to the crowns of the Kingdom of England, after the Act of Union,1707, she became heir presumptive to the unified throne of the Kingdom of Great Britain. She died less than two months before she would have become queen, and her claim to the throne passed on to her eldest son, George Louis, Elector of Hanover, Sophias brother Charles Louis was restored to the Palatinate as part of the Peace of Westphalia. Sophia married Ernest Augustus of Brunswick-Lüneburg in 1658, despite his jealous temper and frequent absences, Sophia loved him, and bore him seven children who survived to adulthood. Initially a landless cadet, Ernest Augustus succeeded in having the House of Hanover raised to electoral dignity in 1692, therefore, Sophia became Electress of Hanover, the title by which she is best remembered. A patron of the arts, Sophia commissioned the palace and gardens of Herrenhausen and sponsored philosophers, such as Gottfried Leibniz, through her mother, she was the granddaughter of James VI and I, king of Scotland and England. At birth, Sophia was granted an annuity of 40 thalers by the Estates of Friesland. Sophia was courted by her first cousin, Charles II of England, before her marriage, Sophia, as the daughter of Frederick V, Elector Palatine of the Rhine, was referred to as Sophie, Princess Palatine of the Rhine, or as Sophia of the Palatinate. The Electors of the Palatinate were the Calvinist senior branch of House of Wittelsbach, on 30 September 1658, she married Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg, at Heidelberg, who in 1692 became the first Elector of Hanover. Ernst August was a cousin of Sophias mother Elizabeth Stuart. Sophia became a friend and admirer of Gottfried Leibniz while he was librarian at the Court of Hanover and their friendship lasted from 1676 until her death in 1714. This friendship resulted in a correspondence, first published in the nineteenth century. She was well-read in the works of René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, together with Ernest Augustus, she greatly improved the Summer Palace of Herrenhausen and she was the guiding spirit in the creation of the gardens surrounding the palace, where she died. After Sophias tour, she bore Ernest Augustus another four sons, in her letters, Sophia describes her eldest son as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his younger brothers and sisters. In September 1700, Sophia met her cousin, King William III of England and II of Scotland and this happened just two months after the death of Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, nephew of King William III and son of the future Queen Anne. By this time, given the ailing William IIIs reluctance to remarry, the act restricts the British throne to the Protestant heirs of Sophia of Hanover who have never been Roman Catholic and who have never married a Roman Catholic. Some British politicians attempted several times to bring Sophia to England in order to enable her to assume the government immediately in the event of Annes death. It was also argued that such a course was necessary to ensure Sophias succession, the Electress was eager to move to London, but the proposal was denied, as such action would mortally offend Anne who was strongly opposed to a rival court in her kingdom
32.
George I of Great Britain
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George I was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 until his death, and ruler of the Duchy and Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire from 1698. George was born in Hanover and inherited the titles and lands of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg from his father, a succession of European wars expanded his German domains during his lifetime, and in 1708 he was ratified as prince-elector of Hanover. At the age of 54, after the death of his second cousin Queen Anne of Great Britain, in reaction, Jacobites attempted to depose George and replace him with Annes Catholic half-brother, James Francis Edward Stuart, but their attempts failed. During Georges reign, the powers of the monarchy diminished and Britain began a transition to the system of cabinet government led by a prime minister. Towards the end of his reign, actual power was held by Sir Robert Walpole. George died of a stroke on a trip to his native Hanover, George was born on 28 May 1660 in Hanover in the Holy Roman Empire. He was the eldest son of Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Sophia was the granddaughter of King James I of England through her mother, Elizabeth of Bohemia. For the first year of his life, George was the heir to the German territories of his father. In 1661 Georges brother, Frederick Augustus, was born and the two boys were brought up together, after Sophias tour she bore Ernest Augustus another four sons and a daughter. In her letters, Sophia describes George as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his brothers and sisters. In 1679 another uncle died unexpectedly without sons and Ernest Augustus became reigning Duke of Calenberg-Göttingen, Georges surviving uncle, George William of Celle, had married his mistress in order to legitimise his only daughter, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, but looked unlikely to have any further children. Under Salic law, where inheritance of territory was restricted to the male line, in 1682, the family agreed to adopt the principle of primogeniture, meaning George would inherit all the territory and not have to share it with his brothers. The same year, George married his first cousin, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, the marriage of state was arranged primarily as it ensured a healthy annual income and assisted the eventual unification of Hanover and Celle. His mother was at first against the marriage because she looked down on Sophia Dorotheas mother and she was eventually won over by the advantages inherent in the marriage. In 1683, George and his brother, Frederick Augustus, served in the Great Turkish War at the Battle of Vienna, and Sophia Dorothea bore George a son, George Augustus. The following year, Frederick Augustus was informed of the adoption of primogeniture and it led to a breach between father and son, and between the brothers, that lasted until Frederick Augustuss death in battle in 1690. With the imminent formation of a single Hanoverian state, and the Hanoverians continuing contributions to the Empires wars, Georges prospects were now better than ever as the sole heir to his fathers electorate and his uncles duchy. Sophia Dorothea had a child, a daughter named after her, in 1687
33.
Sophia Dorothea of Celle
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Sophia Dorothea of Celle was the repudiated wife of George I of Great Britain and mother of George II. The union with her first cousin was a marriage of state, instigated by the machinations of his mother. She is best remembered for her affair with Philip Christoph von Königsmarck that led to her being imprisoned in the Castle of Ahlden for the last thirty years of her life. George William eventually married his daughters mother officially in 1676, there was some talk of marriage between Sophia Dorothea and the future king of Denmark, but the reigning queen was talked out of it by Sophia of Hanover. Another engagement, to the duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, was broken off after Duchess Sophia convinced her brother-in-law of the advantage of having Sophia Dorothea marry her cousin and this occurred on the day the engagement between Sophia Dorothea and the duke was to be announced. Forced by her father, she fainted into her mothers arms on her first meeting with her future mother-in-law and she fainted again when presented to George Louis. On 22 November 1682, in Celle, Sophia Dorothea married her cousin, the marriage of George Louis and Sophia Dorothea was an unhappy one. His immediate family, especially his mother Duchess Sophia, hated and despised Sophia Dorothea and he does not care much for the match itself, but one hundred thousand thalers a year have tempted him as they would have tempted anybody else. These feelings of contempt were shared by George Louis himself, who was oddly formal to his wife, Sophia Dorothea was frequently scolded for her lack of etiquette, and the two had loud and bitter arguments. It was in circumstances that Sophia Dorothea renewed her acquaintance with Swedish count Philip Christoph von Königsmarck. The two had first met in Celle when he was sixteen and they flirted innocently, and traced their names on the palace windows with the words Forget me not. On 1 March 1688 he reminded her of their previous acquaintance, George Louis younger brothers loved the count and brought him to Sophia Dorotheas salon in the evening to cheer her up. For the two years he stayed in Hanover, there was no reason to believe their relationship was anything, in 1690, he left to join the German mercenaries serving in the Morean War. On his return, the relationship between him and Sophia Dorothea intensified and they began sending each other love letters which suggest that their relationship was consummated. In 1692, the letters were shown to the newly-appointed Elector Ernest Augustus. Since a scandal might have threatened his new status, the elector sent Königsmarck to fight with the Hanoverian army against France, other soldiers were given leave to visit Hanover, but he was not. Königsmarck deserted his post one night, and rode for six days to Hanover, the day after arriving, he called on Field Marshal Heinrich, confessed his breach of duty, and begged for leave to stay in Hanover. This was granted, though Heinrich suggested that the affair be ended or that Königsmarck leave the country, George Louis criticised his wife over her affair, and she criticised him for his
34.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Anna Amalia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 59. This cites F. Bornhak, Anna Amalia Herzogin von Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Berlin. 1892).
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
