1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
3.
States of Germany
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Germany is a federal republic consisting of sixteen federal states. Since todays Germany was formed from a collection of several states, it has a federal constitution. The remaining 13 states are called Flächenländer, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 was through the unification of the western states created in the aftermath of World War II. West Berlin, while not part of the Federal Republic, was largely integrated and considered as a de facto state. In 1952, following a referendum, Baden, Württemberg-Baden, in 1957, the Saar Protectorate rejoined the Federal Republic as the Saarland. Federalism is one of the constitutional principles of Germany. After 1945, new states were constituted in all four zones of occupation, in 1949, the states in the three western zones formed the Federal Republic of Germany. This is in contrast to the development in Austria, where the Bund was constituted first. The use of the term Länder dates back to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, before this time, the constituent states of the German Empire were called Staaten. Today, it is common to use the term Bundesland. However, this term is not used officially, neither by the constitution of 1919 nor by the Basic Law of 1949, three Länder call themselves Freistaaten, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia. He summarizes the arguments for boundary reform in Germany. The German system of dual federalism requires strong Länder that have the administrative and fiscal capacity to implement legislation, too many Länder also make coordination among them and with the federation more complicated. But several proposals have failed so far, territorial reform remains a topic in German politics. Federalism has a tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states numbering more than 300 around 1796, the number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars. After the Congress of Vienna,39 states formed the German Confederation, the new German Empire included 25 states and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The empire was dominated by Prussia, which controlled 65% of the territory, after the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles, the remaining states continued as republics of a new German federation
4.
Lower Saxony
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Lower Saxony is a German state situated in northwestern Germany and is second in area, with 47,624 square kilometres, and fourth in population among the sixteen Länder of Germany. In rural areas Northern Low Saxon, a dialect of Low German, and Saterland Frisian, a variety of Frisian, are still spoken, but the number of speakers is declining. Lower Saxony borders on the North Sea, the states of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia, and the Netherlands. Furthermore, the state of Bremen forms two enclaves within Lower Saxony, one being the city of Bremen, the other, its city of Bremerhaven. In fact, Lower Saxony borders more neighbours than any other single Bundesland, the states principal cities include the state capital Hanover, Braunschweig, Lüneburg, Osnabrück, Oldenburg, Hildesheim, Wolfenbüttel, Wolfsburg and Göttingen. The northwestern area of Lower Saxony, which lies on the coast of the North Sea, is called East Frisia, in the extreme west of Lower Saxony is the Emsland, a traditionally poor and sparsely populated area, once dominated by inaccessible swamps. The northern half of Lower Saxony, also known as the North German Plains, is almost invariably flat except for the hills around the Bremen geestland. Towards the south and southwest lie the northern parts of the German Central Uplands, the Weser Uplands, between these two lie the Lower Saxon Hills, a range of low ridges. Thus, Lower Saxony is the only Bundesland that encompasses both maritime and mountainous areas, Lower Saxonys major cities and economic centres are mainly situated in its central and southern parts, namely Hanover, Braunschweig, Osnabrück, Wolfsburg, Salzgitter, Hildesheim and Göttingen. Oldenburg, near the coastline, is another economic centre. To the north, the Elbe river separates Lower Saxony from Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, the banks just south of the Elbe are known as Altes Land. Due to its local climate and fertile soil, it is the states largest area of fruit farming. Most of the territory was part of the historic Kingdom of Hanover. It was created by the merger of the State of Hanover with several states in 1946. Lower Saxony has a boundary in the north in the North Sea. The state and city of Bremen is an enclave surrounded by Lower Saxony. The Bremen/Oldenburg Metropolitan Region is a body for the enclave area. To the southeast the state border runs through the Harz, low mountains that are part of the German Central Uplands, in northeast Lower Saxony is Lüneburg Heath
5.
Districts of Germany
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A German district is an administrative subdivision known as Landkreis, except in the states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein where it is known simply as Kreis. Most major cities in Germany are not part of a rural district, in this context, those cities are referred to as Kreisfreie Stadt or Stadtkreis. Rural districts are at a level of administration between the German states and the municipal governments. They correspond to level 3 administrative units of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, previously, the similar title Reichskreis was given to groups of states in the Holy Roman Empire. The related term Landeskommissariat was used for administrative divisions in some German territories until the 19th century. The majority of German districts are rural districts of which there are 295, cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants do not usually belong to a district, but take over district responsibilities themselves, similar to the concept of independent cities. These are known as urban districts —cities which constitute a district in their own there are currently 107 of them. As of 2011, approximately 25 million people live in these 107 urban districts, in North Rhine-Westphalia, there are some cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants which are not urban districts, for example Recklinghausen, Siegen, Paderborn, Bergisch Gladbach, Neuss and Moers. Nevertheless, these cities take over many district responsibilities themselves, although they are part of a larger rural district. Midsize towns can perform particular administrative functions of the district as well, the classification as midsize town is usually based on a towns registered population, but varies from state to state. Aachen, Hanover and Göttingen retain certain rights of an urban district, urban districts have these responsibilities and also those of the municipalities. The district council is the highest institution of a district and is responsible for all fundamental guidelines of regional self-administration. This council is elected every five years, except in Bavaria where it is elected every six years. Usually the administrative seat of a district is located in one of its largest towns. However, district council and administrative seat of rural districts are not situated within the district proper. Most of those districts are named after this central city as well. Moers is the biggest city in Germany that is neither an urban district, in parts of northern Germany, Landrat is also the name of the entire district administration, which in southern Germany is known as Kreisverwaltung or Landratsamt. In urban districts similar administrative functions are performed by a mayor, rural districts in some German states have an additional administrative commission called Kreisausschuss
6.
Burgomaster
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The name in English was derived from the Dutch burgemeester. In some cases, Burgomaster was the title of the head of state and head of government of a sovereign city-state, contemporary titles are commonly translated into English as mayor. Bürgermeister, in German, in Germany, Austria, and formerly in Switzerland, in Switzerland, the title was abolished mid-19th century, various current titles for roughly equivalent offices include Gemeindepräsident, Stadtpräsident, Gemeindeamtmann, and Stadtamtmann. Oberbürgermeister is the most common version for a mayor in a big city in Germany, the Ober- prefix is used in many ranking systems for the next level up including military designations. The mayors of cities, which comprise one of Germanys 112 urban districts usually bear this title. Urban districts are comparable to independent cities in the English-speaking world, however, also the mayors of some cities, which do not comprise an urban district, but often used to comprise one until the territorial reforms in the 1970s, bear the title Oberbürgermeister. In the Netherlands nominated by the council but appointed by the crown. In theory above the parties, in practice a high-profile party-political post, bourgmestre in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Democratic Republic of the Congo Bürgermeister Burmistras, derived from German. Burmistrz, a title, derived from German. The German form Oberbürgermeister is often translated as Nadburmistrz, the German-derived terminology reflects the involvement of German settlers in the early history of many Polish towns. Borgmästare, kommunalborgmästare, the title is not used in Sweden in present times, boargemaster Pormestari In history in many free imperial cities the function of burgomaster was usually held simultaneously by three persons, serving as an executive college. One of the three being burgomaster in chief for a year, the second being the prior burgomaster in chief, präsidierender Bürgermeister is now an obsolete formulation sometimes found in historic texts
7.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
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The Christian Democratic Union of Germany is a Christian democratic and liberal-conservative political party in Germany. It is the major party of the centre-right in German politics. The CDU forms the CDU/CSU grouping, also known as the Union, the leader of the CDU, Angela Merkel, is the current Chancellor of Germany. The CDU is a member of the Centrist Democrat International, International Democrat Union, immediately following the collapse of the Nazi dictatorship at the end of World War II, the need for a new political order in Germany was paramount. Simultaneous yet unrelated meetings began occurring throughout Germany, each with the intention of planning a Christian-democratic party, the Christlich-Demokratische Union was established in Berlin on 26 June 1945, and in Rheinland and Westfalen in September of the same year. The founding members of the CDU consisted primarily of members of the Centre Party, German Democratic Party, German National Peoples Party. In the Cold War years, after World War II up to the 1960s, a prominent anti-Nazi member was theologian Eugen Gerstenmaier who became Acting Chairman of the Foreign Board. One of the lessons learned from the failure of the Weimar Republic was that disunity among the parties ultimately allowed for the rise of the Nazi Party. It was therefore crucial to create a party of Christian Democrats – a Christian Democratic Union. The result of meetings was the establishment of an inter-confessional party influenced heavily by the political tradition of liberal conservatism. The latter was more nationalist and sought German reunification, even at the expense of concessions to the Soviet Union, the Western powers appreciated the CDUs moderation, its economic flexibility and its value as an oppositional force to the Communists, which appealed to European voters at the time. Also, Adenauer was trusted by the British, the party was split over issues of rearmament within the Western alliance and German unification as a neutral state. Adenauer staunchly defended his position and outmanoeuvred some of his opponents. He also refused to consider the SPD as a party of the coalition until he felt sure that they shared his anti-Communist position, the CDU was the dominant party for the first two decades following the establishment of West Germany in 1949. Konrad Adenauer remained the leader until 1963, at which point the former minister of economics Ludwig Erhard replaced him. As the Free Democratic Party withdrew from the coalition in 1966 due to disagreements over fiscal and economic policy. Consequently, a coalition with the SPD took over government under CDU Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger. The CDU continued its role as opposition until 1982, when the FDP’s withdrawal from the coalition with the SPD allowed the CDU to regain power, CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl became the new Chancellor of West Germany and his CDU-FDP coalition was confirmed in the 1983 federal election
8.
Central European Summer Time
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It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
9.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
10.
Eichsfeld
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The Eichsfeld is a historical region in the southeast of Lower Saxony and northwest of Thuringia in the south of the Harz mountains. Until 1803 the Eichsfeld was for part of the Archbishopric of Mainz. Following German partition in 1945, the West German portion became Landkreis Duderstadt, a few small transfers of territory between the American and Soviet zones of occupation took place in accordance with the Wanfried Agreement. Today the greatest part of the Obereichsfeld makes up the Landkreis Eichsfeld, other parts belong to the district Unstrut-Hainich. The Untereichsfeld, later Landkreis Duderstadt, was merged mostly with the Landkreis of Göttingen, cities in the Eichsfeld are Duderstadt, Heiligenstadt, Leinefelde-Worbis and Dingelstädt. The Eichsfeld was first mentioned in 897, and in 1022 the Archbishopric of Mainz listed its possessions in the region, the Ottonian Untereichsfeld became part of Eichsfeld after being part of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Grubenhagen between 1342 and 1434. During the German Peasants War within the Reichsstadt of Mühlhausen most of the monasteries, churches and castles were plundered, in 1575 the Society of Jesus successfully established the Counter-Reformation in Eichsfeld. The Thirty Years War reached Eichsfeld in 1622 and during the following several armies plundered the region. According to the Peace of Westphalia the Archbishopric of Mainz reestablished Catholicism in the area which was two thirds devastated and had lost 75% of its population. During the Napoleonic time Eichsfeld was part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, from 1949 to 1990 the Obereichsfeld belonged to the GDR. In this atheistic state the people preserved their Catholic roots, in consequence of the traditionalism in Eichsfeld, the percentage of voters for the CDU is significantly higher than in the surrounding area. The Eichsfeld tourism organization History and map of the Eichsfeld 1789 Eichsfeld Wiki - Regiowiki for Eichsfeld
11.
Archbishop
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In Christianity, an archbishop is a bishop of higher rank or office. In some cases, like the Lutheran Church of Sweden, it is the denomination leader title, an archbishop may be granted the title, or ordained as chief pastor of a metropolitan see or another episcopal see to which the title of archbishop is attached. Episcopal sees are generally arranged in groups in which the bishop who is the ordinary of one of them has certain powers and he is known as the metropolitan archbishop of that see. As well as the more numerous metropolitan sees, there are 77 Roman Catholic sees that have archiepiscopal rank. In some cases, such a see is the one in a country, such as Luxembourg or Monaco. In others, the title of archdiocese is for reasons attributed to a see that was once of greater importance. Some of these archdioceses are suffragans of a metropolitan archdiocese, an example is the Archdiocese of Avignon, which is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Marseille, Another such example is the Archdiocese of Trnava, Slovakia. Others are immediately subject to the Holy See and not to any metropolitan archdiocese and these are usually aggregated to an ecclesiastical province. An example is the Archdiocese of Hobart in Australia, associated with the Metropolitan ecclesiastical province of Melbourne, the ordinary of such an archdiocese is an archbishop, however, especially in the Anglican Communion, not all archbishops dioceses are called archdioceses. Since then, the title of Coadjutor Archbishop of the see is considered sufficient, the rank of archbishop is conferred on some bishops who are not ordinaries of an archdiocese. They hold the rank not because of the see that they head, the bishop transferred is then known as the Archbishop-Bishop of his new see. An example is Gianfranco Gardin, appointed Archbishop-Bishop of Treviso on 21 December 2009, the title borne by the successor of such an archbishop-bishop is merely that of Bishop of the see, unless he also is granted the personal title of Archbishop. The distinction between metropolitan sees and non-metropolitan archiepiscopal sees exists for titular sees as well as for residential ones, the Annuario Pontificio marks titular sees of the former class with the abbreviation Metr. and the others with Arciv. Many of the sees to which nuncios and heads of departments of the Roman Curia who are not cardinals are assigned are not of archiepiscopal rank. In that case the person who is appointed to such a position is given the title of archbishop. They are usually referred to as Archbishop of the see, not as its Archbishop-Bishop, until 1970, such archbishops were transferred to a titular see. There can be several Archbishops Emeriti of the see, the 2008 Annuario Pontificio listed three living Archbishops Emeriti of Taipei. There is no Archbishop Emeritus of a see, an archbishop who holds a titular see keeps it until death or until transferred to another see
12.
Mainz
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Mainz is the capital and largest city of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. It was the capital of the Electorate of Mainz at the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city is famous as the home of the invention of the printing press. Until the twentieth century, Mainz was usually referred to in English by its French name, Mainz is located on the 50th latitude, on the west bank of the river Rhine, opposite the confluence of the Main with the Rhine. The population in the early 2012 was 200,957, an additional 18,619 people maintain a primary residence elsewhere but have a home in Mainz. The city is part of the Rhein Metro area comprising 5.8 million people, Mainz can easily be reached from Frankfurt International Airport in 25 minutes by commuter railway. Mainzs history and economy are closely tied to its proximity to the Rhine river historically handling much of the regions waterborne cargo, todays huge container port hub allowing trimodal transport is located on the North Side of the town. The river also provides another positive effect, moderating Mainzs climate, after the last ice age, sand dunes were deposited in the Rhine valley at what was to become the western edge of the city. The Mainz Sand Dunes area is now a reserve with a unique landscape. When the Mainz legion camp was founded in 13/12 BC, the buildings near the Rhine River, historical sources and archaeological findings both prove the importance of the military and civilian Mogontiacum as a port city on the Rhine. The Roman stronghold or castrum Mogontiacum, the precursor to Mainz, was founded by the Roman general Drusus perhaps as early as 13/12 BC. As related by Suetonius the existence of Mogontiacum is well established by four years later, although the city is situated opposite the mouth of the Main river, the name of Mainz is not from Main, the similarity being perhaps due to diachronic analogy. Main is from Latin Menus, the name the Romans used for the river, linguistic analysis of the many forms that the name Mainz has taken on make it clear that it is a simplification of Mogontiacum. The name appears to be Celtic and ultimately it is, however, it had also become Roman and was selected by them with a special significance. Mogontiacum was an important military town throughout Roman times, probably due to its position at the confluence of the Main. The town of Mogontiacum grew up between the fort and the river, the castrum was the base of Legio XIIII Gemina and XVI Gallica, XXII Primigenia, IIII Macedonica, I Adiutrix, XXI Rapax, and XIIII Gemina, among others. Mainz was also a base of a Roman river fleet, the Classis Germanica, remains of Roman troop ships and a patrol boat from the late 4th century were discovered in 1982/86 and may now be viewed in the Museum für Antike Schifffahrt. A temple dedicated to Isis Panthea and Magna Mater was discovered in 2000 and is open to the public
13.
German Timber-Frame Road
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The German Timber-Frame Road is a German tourist route leading from the river Elbe in the north to Lake Constance in the south. Along this road are numerous cities and towns each with examples of the vernacular timber-framed houses traditional to the German states, the route is divided into seven sections, each of which follow the traditional areas of, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Hesse, Thuringia, Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg. The total length is nearly 3,000 km, in 1975 the ARGE Historische Fachwerkstädte e. V. was founded. Its aim is to preserve the heritage of a huge variety of different styles of half-timbering in Germany. To share this knowledge with other interested people the German Timber-Frame Road was founded in 1990, in the meantime 98 timber-framed towns have joined up under the slogan Timber-framed houses unite. The German Timber-Frame Road runs to almost the length of Germany and therefore links many varied landscapes, historic cities and carefully restored sites. Numerous events, festivals and markets throughout the year are publicised as part of the routes attractions
14.
Half-timber
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Timber framing and post-and-beam construction are methods of building with heavy timbers rather than dimensional lumber such as 2x4s. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating structures using heavy squared-off and it is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. The method comes from making out of logs and tree trunks without modern high tech saws to cut lumber from the starting material stock. Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in parts of the world. These styles are categorized by the type of foundation, walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers. Three basic types of frames in English-speaking countries are the box frame, cruck frame. The distinction presented here is the load is carried by the exterior walls. Purlins are also in a timber frame. A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers which form a bent or crossframe, more than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in the UK. Several types of frames are used, more information follows in English style below. True cruck or full cruck, blades, straight or curved, base cruck, tops of the blades are truncated by the first transverse member such as by a tie beam. Raised cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and extend to the ridge, middle cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and are truncated by a collar. Upper cruck, blades land on a tie beam, very similar to knee rafters, jointed cruck, blades are made from pieces joined near eaves in a number of ways. See also, hammerbeam roof End cruck is not a style, aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry more load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the concept of the aisle in church buildings, sometimes called a hall church. However, a nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisled barns are common in the U. S. the Netherlands, aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a Ständerhaus, the frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building
15.
Seat of local government
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In local government, a city hall, town hall, civic centre, a guildhall, a Rathaus, or a municipal building, is the chief administrative building of a city, town, or other municipality. It usually houses the city or town council, its associated departments and it also usually functions as the base of the mayor of a city, town, borough, or county / shire. By convention, until the mid 19th-century, a large open chamber formed an integral part of the building housing the council. The hall may be used for meetings and other significant events. This large chamber, the hall, has become synonymous with the whole building. The terms council chambers, municipal building or variants may be used locally in preference to town hall if no such large hall is present within the building, the local government may endeavor to use the town hall building to promote and enhance the quality of life of the community. In many cases, town halls serve not only as buildings for government functions and these may include art shows, stage performances, exhibits and festivals. Modern town halls or civic centres are designed with a great variety and flexibility of purpose in mind. As symbols of government, city and town halls have distinctive architecture. City hall buildings may also serve as icons that symbolize their cities. The term town hall may be a one, often applied without regard to whether the building serves or served a town or a city. This is generally the case in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, english-speakers in some regions use the term city hall to designate the council offices of a municipality of city status. This is the case in North America, where a distinction is made between city halls and town halls, and is also the case with Brisbane City Hall in Australia. The great hall of the town-house or municipal building, now commonly applied to the whole building city hall. Conversely, cities that have subdivisions with their own councils may have borough halls, in Scotland, local government in larger cities operates from the City Chambers, otherwise the Town House. Elsewhere in English-speaking countries, other names are occasionally used, in London, the official headquarters of administration of the City of London retains its Anglo-Saxon name, the Guildhall, signifying a place where taxes were paid. In a small number of English cities the preferred term is Council House, this was also the case in Bristol until 2012, when the building was renamed City Hall. In Birmingham, there is a distinction between the Council House, the seat of government, and the Town Hall, a concert
16.
Ottobock
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Otto Bock is a German prosthetics company situated in Duderstadt. Otto Bock has been a partner to the Paralympic Games since 1988, in 2016, the partnership was extended until the end of 2020. Otto Bock was founded in Berlin as Orthopädische Industrie GmbH in 1919 by its namesake prosthetist and it was created in response to the large number of injured veterans from World War I. Prostheses handmade by craftsmen could not keep up with demand, bocks idea was to create components through industrial processes that could be supplied to prosthetists. This marked the beginning of a new industry, the political situation in post-war Berlin was unstable, and soon after the company was founded, it moved to Königsee in Thuringia. Over the following two decades, the company expanded to employ over 600 people, after World War II, Königsee lay within the Russian-occupied East Germany. The company property and assets there were expropriated in 1948, in 1947, Max Näder became the managing director of the newly formed Otto Bock Orthopädische Industrie KG. The company has been responsible for several innovations in prosthetics, as wood was in short supply in the early post-war years, it pioneered the use of polyurethane to manufacture prosthetics. Otto Bock Kunststoff was founded in 1953 to produce plastic prosthetics, by 2016, it employed 423 people and anticipated revenues of €127 million. Otto Bock developed the pyramid adapter, an adjustable linkage for prosthetic parts. It 1997, it introduced the C-Leg, a knee that adaptively varies its passive resistance to suit the patients different walking gaits. It was the worlds first fully microprocessor-controlled leg prosthesis system, the C-Leg was followed by the Michelangelo Hand, a fully articulated robotic hand prosthesis, and the mechatronic C-Brace orthotronic mobility system. Otto Bock developed the waterproof Genium X3 knee in cooperation with the United States Department of Defense to allow soldiers to return to duty. In 1958, a US-based corporate headquarters was established in Minneapolis, in March 2014, the company announced it would relocate its North American headquarters to Austin, Texas. The logistics facility relocated to Louisville, Kentucky, and manufacturing moved to Salt Lake City, the US company was its first foreign branch. By 2016, it had branches in 45 different countries, sycor was established as a wholly owned subsidiary in 1998. By 2015, it had 520 employees, and annual revenues of €66.7 million, professor Hans Georg Näder became head of the company in 1990. A medical science centre was built by the company in Berlin in 2009 to celebrate 90 years since its foundation, Max Näder died that year at the age of 94
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Georg von Kopp
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Georg von Kopp was a German Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Bishop of Fulda and Prince-Bishop of Breslau. He was known for his views and pursued Germanization of his Polish parishioners. Kopp was born in Duderstadt in the Kingdom of Hanover and he was the son of a weaver and attended the gymnasium at Hildesheim. In 1856 he became an operator in the employ of the Hanoverian government. From 1858 to 1861, he studied theology and in 1862 entered the priesthood and he rose rapidly in his profession and in 1872 was made vicar-general at Hildesheim and three years later bishop of Fulda. He worked to bring about an understanding between the German government and the papal curia. After his election to the House of Lords he obtained a mitigation of the provisions which characterized the May laws. In 1887, with the approval of the Prussian government, the Pope appointed him prince-bishop of Breslau and he took part in the 1903 conclave which elected Pope Pius X. Kopp died in Opava in Austrian Silesia. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Rines, George Edwin, ed. Kopp. Salvador Miranda, The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church
18.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
19.
Adelebsen
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Adelebsen is a municipality in the district of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It consists of the localities Adelebsen, Barterode, Eberhausen, Erbsen, Güntersen, Lödingsen, the Burg Adelebsen is located on a high point in Adelebsen proper. Ernst Gräfenberg, a doctor, who first described the g-spot was born here. The locality is first documented in 990 under the name Ethelleveshusen, the noble family von Wichbike moved their seat to Adelebsen in 1234, and built a castle upon the sandstone promontory there. The castle – Burg Adelebsen – is first documented in 1295, from the 14th century until the mid 19th century the noble lords von Adelebsen maintained a patrimonial court at Adelebsen. They drew their income primarily from taxation, fines, and licensing fees with respect to such as brewing, the running of inns or taverns. In 1859, under the administration of the Kingdom of Hanover, in 1866 Hanover became part of the Kingdom of Prussia, under which it was known as the Province of Hanover. Adelebsen and the castle were burned down in 1466 by Ernst I of Schauenburg, Bishop of Hildesheim. Originally erected as a fortress, the castle was rebuilt in 1596 with an impressive façade and numerous rooms with windows. The town and castle were again destroyed during the Thirty Years War. The castle was rebuilt by 1650, and in 1740 it was renovated and expanded in the style of a Baroque palace, the Jewish community of Adelebsen had its beginnings in the late 17th century, with the first documented Jewish family appearing in a tax list of 1675. In 1796 there were 20 Jewish families in the town, by the 19th century, the Jewish community had grown to be one of the largest in the region. In 1848,149 Jewish residents comprised 13% of the total population. But the size of the community declined steadily in the late 19th to early 20th century, so that by 1925 there were only 46 Jews living in Adelebsen, during the Nazi regime, the community was destroyed by deportation, immigration and killings. The local synagogue was destroyed during Kristallnacht, the night of 9–10 November 1938, by SS members from Göttingen, Adelebsen is twinned with, Wieluń, Poland Guide to the Records of the Adelebsen Jewish Community. Archival collection at the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York, NY
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Bad Grund
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Bad Grund is a town in the district of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated in the western Harz, approx,7 km west of Clausthal-Zellerfeld, and 10 km north of Osterode am Harz. Bad Grund is also the name of the former Samtgemeinde Bad Grund and it was disbanded in March 2013 and replaced by the Einheitsgemeinde Bad Grund. Historic Market Place St. Antonys Church was built in 1540, the church is surrounded by half-timbered houses dating from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries Arboretum Bad Grund Hübichenstein Hilfe Gottes Mine Iberger Tropfsteinhöhle
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Bad Lauterberg
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Bad Lauterberg is a town in the district of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated in the southern Harz, approx,15 km southwest of Braunlage, and 20 km southeast of Osterode am Harz. Bad Lauterberg is known inter alia for the liqueurs, Schierker Feuerstein and Harzer Grubenlicht, bad Lauterberg was the birthplace of the Polar explorer Alfred Ritscher
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Bad Sachsa
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Bad Sachsa is a town in the district of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, Germany. The town was one of the few municipalities in West Germany that imported electric power from former East Germany and this was done via Neuhof Substation. Bad Sachsa is situated in the southern Harz, approximately 15 km south of Braunlage, the oldest existing document in which Sachsa is mentioned was written in 1229. The settlement officially gained town status in 1525, after the town had been recognized as a health resort by the government in 1905 the name was changed to Bad Sachsa with Bad meaning spa. Bad Sachsa is known for being the town where Berthold Maria Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg and his four siblings were sent by the Nazis in 1944 and their father was executed and their pregnant mother was interned in a concentration camp with two elders. The Stauffenberg children lived in Bad Sachsa during 1944-45, other families of the executed officers were imprisoned here. All were left there without their parents and with changed names, ravensberg Mountain offering a scenic view of the whole Harz is used for various winter sports. The Town Hall was built in a Jugendstil style which was popular in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. It has several oriels, a veranda and a pavilion, the conference hall represents the Jugendstil style in a very typical way. The Town Hall which is surrounded by half-timbered mansions is in a small park, st. Nikolai Church The Protestant church was built on a small hill in the town center offering a scenic view of Marktstrasse, the High Street of Bad Sachsa and the colourful Market Place. The Romanesque clock tower of the church was built in the middle of the 12th century, the nave was added around 1300. The altar dating from 1595 was financed by Hansen Hartmann, the mayor of Bad Sachsa. In 1691 a half-timbered aisle was added to the church the pulpit of which dates from 1711, Römerstein Rocks Near the suburb of Steina in the southwest of Bad Sachsa the Römerstein Rocks are worth a visit. The coralline rocks were formed about 250 million years ago, relics of a settlement were found close by. They are estimated to be about 10,000 years old, Sachsenburg Ruins The ruins of Sachsenburg Castle can be visited in the southwest of the town. The castle was built in the 11th century and destroyed in 1074, the most impressive part is a tower with a diameter of more than ten metres. Excavations were carried out here in 1891-93, the castle can only be reached on a walking track starting from Blomberg street in the southeastern part of the town. It is in the forest near a track which must not be crossed by pedestrians
23.
Bovenden
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Bovenden is a municipality in the district of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, Germany. In 2010 the population in the eight villages belonging to the municipality was 13,350, Bovenden is situated on the river Leine, approx. 6 km north of Göttingen and on the western border of Göttingen Forest. The main village of the municipality, Bovenden, is between Ostererg and the Keuperrücken of the Lieth, a river which flows into the river Leine. On a hill east of the village Eddigehausen stand the remains of the Plesse Castle, in this first designation the toponym was Bobbenzunon. In the following years the village was referred to as Bobbantun, Bobentun. Since the 13th century the name Boventen was commonly used and since the end of the 16th century todays designation Bovenden was introduced, the origin of the town name is contended. One derivation is the combination of the personal name Bovo or Bobo with the suffix -tun, the suffix -tun is Low German and means fence, confinement, or fenced area. Consequently, the name refer to a settlement founded or governed by Bobo. Another interpretation is that the stem of the name is derived from bioðan, in the 12th century the aristocratic family of the Herren von Bovenden makes its first appearance. They are mentioned in a document in 1170 for the first time, in this documen, which contains information about bestowals in the area around Bovenden to the Abbey Helmershausen, Bobo of Bovenden is mentioned as one of the witnesses. Starting in 1211 the Herren von Bovenden appear as the patrons of the local chapel, in the following decades the family of Bovenden succeeded in enlarging their property. Bovenden remained nevertheless the main village, in which seven farms, eleven, the family of Bovenden appeared as Burgmanns at the Hardenberg, served as Mainzians, and were often witnesses at the Hardenbergers, a noble family of Lower Saxony. Despite the vicinity to the Electorate of Mainz the family of Bovenden also took feudal tenures from the House of Welf, and in case Duke Otto managed to free him of the alliance with the Electorate of Mainz Knight Günther would serve only Duke Otto. The influence of the family of Boventen on the history of the area has been significant for two centuries until the end of the 14th century, only the line of Lenglern continued to continue the name after 1500. The possessions of the Herren of Bovenden, which are referred to as nobiles and miles in documents, were transferred to the men of Plesse. Today, the key in Bovendens emblem indicates the relationship to the Electorate of Mainz as Burgmans at the Hardenberg, the Herren of Bovenden are the most significant landowners in Bovenden since the 14th century. They gave their estate to Landgrave Louis I of Hesse in 1447
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Friedland, Lower Saxony
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Friedland is a municipality in the district of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated on the river Leine, approx and its seat is in the village of Groß Schneen, one of five communities in the municipality. The others are Friedland proper, Klein Schneen, Lichtenhagen, in September 1945, the Control Commission for Germany - British Element built a camp in Friedland, near the American and Soviet occupation zones. The camp was designed as the first way station for refugees, evacuees, starting in 1947, the camp was administered by the federal state of Lower Saxony. During the period of expulsions from 1944 to 1945, the camp offered services to large waves of refugees. Thereafter, it functioned primarily as a way station for German emigrants from Eastern bloc countries, especially from Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union. Between 1950 and 1987, approximately 1.4 million people of German extraction came to the Federal Republic from the East, more than 60% of these emigrants came from Poland
25.
Gieboldehausen
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Gieboldehausen is a municipality in the district of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated on the river Rhume, approx,25 km northeast of Göttingen, and 15 km south of Osterode am Harz. It is part of the Eichsfeld, Gieboldehausen is also the seat of the Samtgemeinde Gieboldehausen
26.
Gleichen, Lower Saxony
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Gleichen is a municipality in the district of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, Germany. Named after the two castles, Neuen-Gleichen and Alten-Gleichen on the peaks in the Gemeinde, it is situated about 10 km southeast of Göttingen. The municipality of Gleichen is located southeast of Göttingen, west-southwest of Duderstadt, the River Garte flows through several of the villages in the municipality, as does the small Wendebach stream, which is impounded by the Wendebach Reservoir. Both streams are right, eastern tributaries of the Leine, in the center of the municipality are Die Gleichen, a pair of hills 430 m high, that rise between Appenrode, Bettenrode and Gelliehausen. Both hills were crowned by castles, whose ruins may still be seen. The villages in the municipality may be accessed on state roads branching eastwards off the B27 federal road, the Akademie Waldschloesschen lies on the L568 between Reinhausen and Bremke. In Bremke itself, there is the Waldbühne, a stage where, since 1949
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Hattorf am Harz
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Hattorf am Harz is a municipality in the district of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated in the southern Harz, approx,10 km south of Osterode am Harz. Hattorf is also the seat of the Samtgemeinde Hattorf am Harz, asten The coat of arms of Hattorf exists since 1952. The gear stands for the economic of the village, the ears of corn as symbols for the agriculture of Hattorf and the red kite for nature and environment
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Herzberg am Harz
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Herzberg am Harz is a town in the Göttingen district of Lower Saxony, Germany. Herzberg is situated on the rim of the Harz mountain range. Natural monuments in the area include the Unicorn Cave, the Karst Trail. The town centre is located on the Sieber river, about 32 km northeast of Göttingen and 90 km southeast of the state capital Hanover, the municipal area comprises the villages of Lonau, Pöhlde, Scharzfeld, and Sieber. Herzberg Castle in the Duchy of Saxony was first mentioned in a 1143 deed, a hunting lodge at the site was already erected from 1024 to 1029 by King Lothair II. It was seized by the Saxon Welf dynasty in 1144 and in 1158 became a property of Duke Henry the Lion with consent of the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick Barbarossa. The castle was part of the Grubenhagen estates of the Welf duke Henry I of Brunswick he received in 1291, a settlement below the castle was first documented in 1337. The Brunswick rulers of the Grubenhagen principality resided here from 1486 until the line became extinct in 1596, Herzberg first developed as a centre of cloth and linen manufacturing. In the 18th and 19th century important industries included brewing, the founding and turning of metal, agricultural machinery, Herzberg received town privileges in 1929, when it was part of the Prussian Province of Hanover. Herzberg is the location of a club that promotes the international auxiliary language Esperanto, in 2006, the city council decided to advertise Herzberg as Esperanto-Stadt
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Osterode am Harz
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For the town in East Prussia formerly called Osterode, see Ostróda. Osterode am Harz often simply called Osterode, is a town in south-eastern Niedersachsen on the edge of the Harz mountains. It is the seat of government of the district of Göttingen, Osterode is located on the German Timber-Frame Road. The Söse river flows through the town from the Sösetalsperre reservoir lake about 5 km upstream, the dam was built in 1931 and has a capacity of 25.5 million m³. The Harzwasserwerke water company pipes drinking water as far away as Bremen, klaus Becker has been Bürgermeister of Osterode since 1 June 2004. The Lichtenstein Cave is a site near Dorste, in the western part of the municipality. In the environs of Osterode there are castle ruins. The town granary built between 1719 and 1722 is one of the most imposing buildings, built to supply the mining villages in the Upper Harz with grain, today after a comprehensive renovation it has become the town hall. Osterode is the point of the 100 km long Harzer Hexenstieg. The B243 federal route, built as a highway, is the main western link between the northern and southern Harz area. B241 and B498 link Solling to the eastern Harz, Osterode lies on the Herzberg–Seesen railway, with services to Brunswick. In November 2004 the city gained two new stations at a cost of about 1 million Euro, replacing two previous halts and providing a central access to public transport
"Duderstadt". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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