1.
Meinhardt Schomberg, 3rd Duke of Schomberg
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Meinhardt Schomberg, 3rd Duke of Schomberg, 1st Duke of Leinster, KG, was a general in the service of Willem, Prince of Orange and Stadtholder of Holland, later King William III of England. He then settled in La Rochelle with his father and became a French subject and he attained the rank of brigadier and, afterwards, maréchal de camp, during the Franco-Dutch War in 1678. He travelled to England in Spring 1689 and was colonel of Lord Cavendishs Regiment of Horse on 10 April 1690. Frederick Schomberg was second in command of Williams army at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 during the Williamite War in Ireland, Schomberg then engaged in a pursuit of the retreating troops towards Duleek, there were no casualties amongst his regiments soldiers. Schombergs father died during the stages of the Battle which resulted in a decisive Williamite victory. From May 1691 he was also made Commander-in-Chief of the Forces during the Kings travels in Flanders, in 1698 he moved into Schomberg House, a new mansion specially commissioned for him on the south side of Pall Mall, London. In 1703, he was created Knight of the Garter and Queen Anne appointed him Commander-in-Chief of the British forces sent to Portugal for the War of the Spanish Succession, once in Portugal Schomberg was ineffective, simply allowing the Spanish General Tserclaes de Tilly to pass by unchallenged. Meinhardt Schomberg had an interest in matters and registered a patent concerning inspecting the fishing for wrecks. He commissioned the construction of Hillingdon House in 1717 as his hunting lodge and he had no male issue so all of his titles except Count of Mértola died with him. The town of Schomberg, Ontario was renamed to commemorate the 3rd Duke of Schomberg in 1862, on 3 August 1667, Schomberg married Piedmontese Barbara Luisa Rizzi, the couple did not have any children. On 4 January 1682 Schomberg married Raugräfin Karoline Elisabeth and together they had four children, Charles Louis Schomberg, Marquess of Harwich, Lady Caroline Schomberg Lady Frederica Schomberg Lady Mary Schomberg Cruickshank, Eveline. The House of Commons, 1690-1715, Volume 1, a biographical history of England, from the Revolution to the end of George Is reign. Index of persons and Places, S, Calendar of Treasury Books, Volume 14, 1698-1699
2.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
3.
Peerage of Ireland
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The creation of such titles came to an end in the 19th century. The ranks of the Irish peerage are Duke, Marquess, Earl, Viscount, as of 2016, there were 135 titles in the Peerage of Ireland extant, two dukedoms, ten marquessates,43 earldoms,28 viscountcies, and 52 baronies. A handful of titles in the peerage of Ireland date from the Middle Ages, as a consequence, many Irish peers had little or no connection to Ireland, and indeed the names of some Irish peerages refer to places in Great Britain. Irish peerages were created in the nineteenth century at least as often as the Act permitted. Accordingly, the Duke of Abercorn ranks between the Duke of Sutherland and the Duke of Westminster, the existing representative peers kept their seats in the House of Lords, but they have not been replaced. Since the death of Francis Needham, 4th Earl of Kilmorey in 1961, the right of the Irish Peerage to elect Representatives was abolished by statute in 1971. In the following table of the Peerage of Ireland as it currently stands, Irish peers possessed of titles in any of the other peerages had automatic seats in the House of Lords until 1999. In Ireland, barony may also refer to a political subdivision of a county. There is no connection between such a barony and the title of baron. List of Irish representative peers Irish nobility, which three groups of Irish nobility, the other two being, Gaelic nobility of Ireland Hiberno-Normans Courthope, William. Debretts Complete Peerage of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 22nd edition, the Peerage of Ireland, Volume I. The Peerage of Ireland, Volume II, the Peerage of Ireland, Volume II
4.
James FitzGerald, 1st Duke of Leinster
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Lieutenant-General James FitzGerald, 1st Duke of Leinster, etc. PC, styled Lord Offaly until 1744 and known as The Earl of Kildare between 1744 and 1761 and as The Marquess of Kildare between 1761 and 1766, was an Irish nobleman, soldier and politician. Leinster was the son of Robert FitzGerald, 19th Earl of Kildare, Leinster was a member of the Irish House of Commons for Athy from 1741 before succeeding his father as 20th Earl of Kildare in 1744. He was promoted to Major-General in 1761 and to Lieutenant-General in 1770, Leinster married the 15-year-old Lady Emily Lennox, daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond and one of the famous Lennox Sisters, in London on 7 February 1747. She descended from King Charles II and was therefore a distant fifth cousin of King George III, the couple had nineteen children, George FitzGerald, Earl of Offaly William FitzGerald, 2nd Duke of Leinster. Lady Emily Mary FitzGerald, married Charles Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont, the couple had five children, one son who died young and four daughters. Emily died in Penzance, Cornwall in 1818 after a lingering illness, Lady Charlotte Mary Gertrude FitzGerald, married Joseph Strutt and was made first Baroness Rayleigh. Lord Henry FitzGerald, general, married Charlotte Boyle and had issue, Lord Robert Stephen FitzGerald, a diplomat, married Sophia Charlotte Fielding and had issue. Drowned, went down with the ship in which he was serving, Lady Lucy Anne FitzGerald, who took part in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. She was married to Admiral Sir Thomas Foley, who served with distinction under Lord Nelson, recognized as son of Lord Kildare, but was in fact the biological son of his brothers tutor, William Ogilvie. Leinster died at Leinster House, Dublin, in November 1773, aged 51 and he was succeeded by his second son, William, Marquess of Kildare. The Duchess of Leinster caused a sensation by marrying her lover William Ogilvie in 1774. She had a further three children by him and she died in London in March 1814, aged 82. Leinster appears in the 1999 BBC television series Aristocrats played by Ben Daniels, ducal House of Leinster Pedigree of the 1st Duke of Leinster
5.
Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Duke of Leinster
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Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Duke of Leinster, styled Earl of Offaly before 1976 and Marquess of Kildare between 1976 and 2004, is an Irish nobleman and landscape designer. The Duke is the member of the peerage of Ireland. Upon his fathers death in 2004 he succeeded to the dukedom as the 9th Duke, Maurice FitzGerald, then styled Earl of Offaly, married Fiona Mary Francesca Hollick on 19 February 1972. The Duke and Duchess have three children, Thomas FitzGerald, Earl of Offaly, killed in an automobile accident, Lord and Lady John FitzGerald had two children, Hermione FitzGerald Edward FitzGerald, Edward FitzGerald is the current heir presumptive to the dukedom and other family titles. A controversial claim by the descendants of the 5th Duke was made in 2006 and rejected in 2007 by the Lord Chancellor. In 2010, however, DNA evidence was presented that indicates that Paul FitzGerald is related to the wife of the 5th Duke, the former Lady Hermione Duncombe. The results of the found that it was 41 times more probable that Ms Crawford. A Californian claimant, an escape from the trenches and the fight for a dukedom, ducal House of Leinster Leinster Leader, Moving Maynooth visit by FitzGerald Hermione FitzGerald professional golf Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Duke of Leinster
6.
Maynooth Castle
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Maynooth Castle is a ruined 12th century castle in Maynooth, County Kildare, Ireland which stands at the entrance to the South Campus of Maynooth University. The area covered by modern Kildare was granted by Strongbow to Maurice Fitzgerald in 1176. The castle was built at the junction of two streams in the late 12th century and became the home of the Fitzgerald family from then on and was expanded by Sir John Fitzgerald in the 15th century, the Fitzgeralds became the Earls of Kildare and Lords Deputy of Ireland. The Fitzgerald occupation of the castle ended with the 1534 rebellion of Silken Thomas, an English force led by William Skeffington bombarded the massive castle in March 1535, the heavy modern siege guns of the English army making a ruin of much of the Medieval structure. The castle fell after a siege and the garrison summarily executed before the castle gate. Silken Thomas was captured shortly afterwards and committed to the Tower of London with his five uncles and they were executed for treason at Tyburn on 3 February 1537. Only the gatehouse and the Solar Tower survive, the Fitzgeralds left Maynooth for good and made first Kilkea Castle and then Carton House their family seat. Restoration work on the castle was restarted by the Office of Public Works in February 2000 to develop it into a Heritage Site and it is now open to the public from June to October,10.00 a. m. -5.45 p. m. Today the partly ruined building remains as a tourist attraction, with limited access possible, Maynooth. org Archiseek - Maynooth Castle entry 360° Panorama of the castle grounds
7.
Kilkea Castle
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Kilkea Castle is located 5 km northwest of Castledermot, County Kildare, Ireland near the village of Kilkea on the R418 regional road from Athy to Tullow. It was a stronghold of the Fitzgeralds, earls of Kildare. Sir Walter de Riddlesford built a motte and bailey castle there in 1180. A grand daughter of his married Maurice Fitzgerald, 3rd baron of Offaly, sir Thomas de Rokeby, the Justiciar of Ireland, used the castle as his military base, and died here in 1356. The Earl died in 1585 and is supposed to return to the castle every seventh year mounted on a white charger. In 1634 the castle was leased to the Jesuit Order by the widow of the 14th Earl of Kildare and that year the order entertained the Archbishop Rinuccini, Papal Nuncio to the Confederation of Kilkenny at Kilkea. In the early eighteenth century the 19th Earl of Kildare decided to make Carton House the family seat and his role as informer did not prevent the castle which had been recently done up in fine style being sacked by military during the rebellion. After a fire in 1849 the 3rd Duke of Leinster, Lord Walter was a member of the Kildare Archaeological Society in 1891. He was editor of the Journals of the Association of the Preservation of the Memorial of Dead in Ireland from 1904 until his death in 1923, after Carton was sold in 1949 Kilkea Castle became the seat of the 8th Duke of Leinster. The castle and estate was sold by the Fitzgerald family in the early 1960s, Kilkea Castle was then run as a hotel for decades, but entered Examinership in 2009, as a result of the Irish financial crisis. It was closed and put up for sale but has since sold, the polar explorer Ernest Shackleton was born near Kilkea to a Quaker family that had been millers in the south Kildare area for over a century
8.
Leinster House
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Leinster House is the seat of the Oireachtas, the parliament of Ireland. Leinster House was originally the palace of the Dukes of Leinster. Since 1922, it is a complex of buildings, of which the ducal palace is the core. The most recognisable part of the complex, and the face of Leinster House. The societys famous Dublin Spring Show and Dublin Horse Show were held on its Leinster Lawn, facing Merrion Square. The building is the place of Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann. Irelands parliament over the centuries had met in a number of locations, most notably in the Irish Houses of Parliament at College Green, next to Trinity College and its medieval parliament consisted of two Houses, a House of Commons and a House of Lords. Irelands senior peer, the Earl of Kildare, had a seat in the Lords, like all the aristocrats of the period, for the duration of the Social Season and parliamentary sessions, he and his family resided in state in a Dublin residence. From the late eighteenth century Leinster House was the Earls official Dublin residence, the building itself was designed by acclaimed architect Richard Cassels. In the history of aristocratic residences in Dublin, no other mansion matched Kildare House for its size or status. When the Earl was made the first Duke of Leinster in 1766, one famous member of the family who occasionally resided in Leinster House was Lord Edward FitzGerald, who became involved with Irish nationalism during the 1798 Rebellion, which cost him his life. With the passage of the Act of Union in 1800, Ireland ceased to have its own parliament, the 3rd Duke of Leinster sold Leinster House in 1815 to the Royal Dublin Society. In 1853 the Great Industrial Exhibition was hosted in its grounds, at the end of the nineteenth century, two new wings were added, to house the National Library of Ireland and the National Museum of Ireland. The Natural History Museum was built on the site, part of this scheme intended to re-clad the house in more attractive Portland stone and extend the portico outwards. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 provided for the creation of a self-governing Irish dominion, plans were made to turn Royal Hospital Kilmainham, an eighteenth-century former soldiers home in extensive parklands, into a full-time Parliament House. The building was bought outright from the RDS in 1924, a new Senate or Seanad chamber was created in the Dukes old ballroom, while wings from the neighbouring Royal College of Science were taken over as used as Government Buildings. The entire Royal College of Science, which by then had been merged with University College Dublin, was taken over in 1990. Both the National Library and National Museum wings next to Leinster House remain used by as a library, while plans were often made to provide a brand-new parliament house, the Oireachtas has remained permanently located in Leinster House
9.
Carton House
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Carton House was an estate and great house that was the ancestral seat of the Earls of Kildare and Dukes of Leinster. Located 23km west of Dublin, in Maynooth, County Kildare, for two hundred years Carton House estate was the finest example in Ireland of a Georgian-created parkland landscape. In the 2000s much of the estate was redeveloped into two courses and the house into a hotel complex. During a history spanning more than eight centuries, Carton Demesne has seen many changes and his son became Baron Offaly in 1205 and his descendant John FitzGerald, became Earl of Kildare in 1315. Under the eighth earl, the FitzGerald family reached pre-eminence as the rulers of Ireland between 1477 and 1513. However, the eighth earls grandson, the eloquently titled Silken Thomas was executed in 1537, with his five uncles, for leading an uprising against the English. The first record of a house at Carton was in the 17th century when William Talbot, the house and lands were forfeited to the crown in 1691 and in 1703 sold to Major General Richard Ingoldsby, Master General of the Ordnance. In 1739, the lease was sold back to the 19th Earl of Kildare and this was the same year the FitzGerald family bought Frescati House. Castle was also responsible for other grand Irish houses, including Summerhill House, Westport House, Powerscourt House and in 1745, Leinster House. In 1747, James FitzGerald, 20th Earl of Kildare, married Lady Emily Lennox, daughter of the Duke of Richmond, Lady Emily played an important role in the development of the house and estate as it is today. She created the Chinese room and decorated the famous Shell Cottage on the estate with shells from around the world, One of Emilys 23 children was the famous Irish Patriot Lord Edward FitzGerald, leader of the 1798 rebellion. Carton remained unaltered until 1815, when the 3rd Duke decided to sell Leinster House to the Royal Dublin Society and he employed Richard Morrison to enlarge and re-model the house. Morrison replaced the curved colonnades with straight connecting links to obtain additional rooms, at this time, the entrance to the house was moved to the north side. Carton remained in the control of the FitzGeralds until the early 1920s when the 7th Duke sold his birthright to a moneylender, Sir Harry Mallaby-Deeley, to pay off gambling debts of £67,500. He was third in line to succeed and so did not think he would ever inherit and it is alleged that, In 1923, a local unit of the IRA went to Carton with the intention of burning it down. During The Emergency, Carton House was occupied by the Irish Army who used the building as the headquarters of the 2nd Infantry Division, the house was used as a film location by many film-makers and broadcasters. Two of the films made there were Stanley Kubricks Barry Lyndon in 1975 and they starred Ryan ONeal and Lee Marvin respectively. The film Leap Year, starring Amy Adams, Matthew Goode, director Blake Edwards and wife actress, Julie Andrews, lived in the Carton House over the summer and fall of 1969 while filming the movie Darling Lili
10.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
11.
Abingdon-on-Thames
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Abingdon /ˈæbɪŋdən/, also known as Abingdon on Thames or Abingdon-on-Thames, is a market town and civil parish in England. Historically the county town of Berkshire, since 1974 it has been the seat of the Vale of White Horse district in the county of Oxfordshire. The 2011 Census recorded the population as 33,130. This is 2,504 more than in the 2001 Census total of 30,626 and it is on the A415 between Witney and Dorchester, adjacent to the A34 trunk road, linking it with the M4 and M40 motorways. The B4017 and A4183 also link the town, both being part of the old A34 and often heavily congested, Local bus services to Oxford and the surrounding areas are run by Stagecoach Oxfordshire, Thames Travel, the Oxford Bus Company and smaller independent companies. The small, primarily stopping-service, railway stations at Culham and Radley are both just over 2 miles away, Abingdons eastern ring-road and newest suburbs are under a mile which is connected by footpath and cycleway from Radley railway station. The Radley to Abingdon railway station branch line closed to passengers in 1963, the nearest major stations with taxi ranks are Oxford and Didcot Parkway. All are managed by First Great Western, frequent express buses operate between Oxford station and Abingdon. A Neolithic stone hand axe was found at Abingdon, petrological analysis in 1940 identified the stone as epidotised tuff from Stake Pass in the Lake District,250 miles to the north. Stone axes from the same source have been found at Sutton Courtenay, Alvescot, Kencot, Abingdon has been occupied from the early to middle Iron Age and the remains of a late Iron Age defensive enclosure lies below the town centre. The oppidum was in use throughout the Roman occupation, Abingdon Abbey was founded in Saxon times, possibly around AD676, but its early history is confused by numerous legends, invented to raise its status and explain the place name. The name seems to mean Hill of a man named Æbba, or a woman named Æbbe, however Abingdon stands in a valley and not on a hill. It is thought that the name was first given to a place on Boars Hill above Chilswell, in 1084, William the Conqueror celebrated Easter at the Abbey and then left his son, the future Henry I, to be educated there. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Abingdon was an agricultural centre with an extensive trade in wool. The abbot seems to have held a market very early times and charters for the holding of markets and fairs were granted by various sovereigns. In 1337 there was a riot in protest at the Abbots control of this market in which several of the monks were killed. P. The present Christs Hospital originally belonged to the Guild of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI founded the almshouses instead, the council was empowered to elect one burgess to parliament and this right continued until the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were appointed and the boundaries described in great detail
12.
FitzGerald dynasty
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The FitzGerald dynasty is an Irish Hiberno-Norman or Cambro-Norman dynasty. The dynasty has also referred to as the Geraldines. They were established by the conquest of large swathes of Irish territory by the sons and grandsons of Gerald FitzWalter of Windsor, Gerald was a Norman castellan in Wales, and is the male progenitor of the Fitzgerald dynasty. Geralds Welsh wife Nest ferch Rhys is the progenitor of the Fitzgeralds. She was the daughter of Rhys ap Tewdwr, last King of Deheubarth, through her the Fitzgeralds are descended from the Welsh rulers of Deheubarth as well as related to the Tudors who are descended from the same Welsh royal line. Consequently, the Fitzgeralds are cousins to the Tudors through Nest, in his poetry, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, referred to Elizabeth FitzGerald as Fair Geraldine. The main branches of the family are, the FitzGeralds of Kildare and its current head is Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Duke of Leinster. The Lord of Lanstephan was a participant in the 1169 Norman invasion of Ireland. The FitzGerald dynasty has played a role in Irish history. Gearóid Mór, 8th Earl of Kildare and his son Gearóid Óg, 9th Earl of Kildare, were Lord Deputy of Ireland in the late Fifteenth and early Sixteenth centuries respectively. The FitzGerald dynasty became so intermingled with the native Gaelic Irish that they were often described as more Irish than the Irish themselves. The best example of this is Gerald FitzGerald, 3rd Earl of Desmond, although made Lord Chief Justice of Ireland in 1367, Gerald wrote poetry in the Irish language, most famously the poem Mairg adeir olc ris na mnáibh. Indeed, although an accomplished poet in Norman French, Gerald was instrumental in the move by the FitzGeralds of Desmond toward greater use of the Irish language, the surname FitzGerald comes from the Norman tradition of adding Fitz, meaning son of before the fathers name. So, Fitz Gerald means in Old Norman and in Old French son of Gerald, Gerald itself is a Germanic compound of ger, spear, and waltan, rule. Variant spellings include Fitz-Gerald and the modern Fitzgerald, the name can also be used as two separate words Fitz Gerald. For more on the Kildare Geraldines, see Duke of Leinster, lady Edward FitzGerald, known as Pamela, wife of Lord Edward FitzGerald. The line of the Earls of Desmond has been extinct since the 17th century and their branch of the dynasty continues only in their distant collateral kinsmen, Irelands hereditary knights. Thus in fact represent a sister branch to the FitzGeralds of Desmond
13.
Norman invasion of Ireland
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The Norman invasion of Ireland took place in stages during the late 12th century, at a time when Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King claiming lordship over all. In May 1169, Cambro-Norman mercenaries landed in Ireland at the request of Diarmait Mac Murchada, the ousted King of Leinster, Diarmait and the Normans seized Leinster within weeks and launched raids into neighbouring kingdoms. This military intervention had the backing of King Henry II of England and was authorized by Pope Adrian IV, and there and then the high king stood strong and lay down too led by Richard Strongbow de Clare. By May 1171, Strongbow had assumed control of Leinster and seized the Norse-Irish city kingdoms of Dublin, Waterford and that summer, High King Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair led an Irish counteroffensive against the Normans, but they managed to hold most of their conquered territory. In October 1171, King Henry landed a large Anglo-Norman army in Ireland to establish control over both the Cambro-Normans and the Irish, the Norman lords handed their conquered territory to Henry. He let Strongbow hold Leinster in fief and declared the cities to be crown land, many Irish kings also submitted to him, likely in the hope that he would curb Norman expansion. Henry, however, granted the kingdom of Meath to Hugh de Lacy. After Henrys departure in 1172, Norman expansion and Irish counteroffensives continued, the 1175 Treaty of Windsor acknowledged Henry as overlord of the conquered territory and Ruaidrí as overlord of the rest of Ireland, with Ruaidrí also swearing fealty to Henry. However, the Treaty soon fell apart, the Anglo-Norman lords continued to invade Irish kingdoms, in 1177, Henry adopted a new policy. He declared his son John to be Lord of Ireland and authorized the Norman lords to conquer more land, the territory they held became the Lordship of Ireland and formed part of the Angevin Empire. The largely successful nature of the invasion has been attributed to a number of factors and these include the Normans military superiority and programme of castle-building, the lack of a unified opposition from the Irish, and the Churchs support for Henrys intervention. The Norman invasion was a watershed in the history of Ireland, marking the beginning of more than 700 years of direct English and, later, in the 12th century, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several over-kingdoms, which each comprised several lesser kingdoms. At the top was the High King, who received tribute from the other kings, the five port towns of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick were inhabited by the Norse-Irish and had their own rulers. The Normans had conquered England beginning in 1066, over the following decades, Norman lords conquered much of south Wales and established their own semi-independent lordships there. According to historian John Gillingham, after the Norman conquest, a new imperialist attitude emerged among Englands elite, in September 1155, King Henry II of England held a council at Winchester. According to Robert of Torigni, Henry discussed plans to invade Ireland, however, the plans were put on hold, allegedly due to opposition from his mother, the Empress Matilda. Some of the initiative for invasion may have come from Anglo-Norman church leaders – especially Theobald and that same year, Pope Adrian IV issued the papal bull Laudabiliter, which authorized Henry to conquer Ireland as a means of promoting the Gregorian Reforms in the Irish church. Irish church leaders had legislated for reform, notably at the synods of Cashel, Ráth Breasail, however, implementing the reforms was slow and difficult
14.
Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare
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Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare KG, known variously as Garret the Great or The Great Earl, was Irelands premier peer. He served as Lord Deputy of Ireland from 1477 to 1494 and his power was so great that he was called the uncrowned King of Ireland. Gerald FitzGerald, was the son of Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Kildare and Jane FitzGerald, the Gaelicized Cambro-Norman FitzGerald dynasty had risen to become the premier Irish Gall or Old English peers in Ireland. They were descended from Gerald de Windsor and the Welsh Princess Nest ferch Rhys, the familys deep Gaelic roots have been down-played in recent days for contemporary political reasons. In fact, Lord Gearóid or Gerald was especially exemplifying of Irelands political and cultural autonomy as summarized in the phrase More Irish than the Irish themselves, the Lords of the Pale set up a breakaway Parliament in protest, and Edward IV was forced to re-install FitzGerald. He inherited the title of Earl of Kildare in 1478, however, Henry needed Fitzgerald to rule in Ireland, and at the same time could not control him. Simnels attempt to seize the throne ended in disaster at the Battle of Stoke and many of his supporters, Henry, now secure on his throne, could afford to be merciful and pardoned both Simnel and Kildare. He presided over a period of independence from English rule between 1477 and 1494. This independence ended when his enemies in Ireland seized power and had him sent to London as a traitor and he suffered a double blow, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London, and his wife Alison died soon after. He was tried in 1496, and used the trial to convince Henry VII that the factions in Ireland were false knaves. Gearóid returned to Ireland in triumph and he ruled Ireland with an iron fist. He suppressed a rebellion in the city of Cork in 1500 by hanging the citys mayor and he raised up an army against rebels in Connacht in 1504, defeating them at the Battle of Knockdoe. A year later, on an expedition against the OCarrolls, he was wounded while watering his horse in Kilkea. He was conveyed back to Kildare, where he died on or around 3 September 1513, Gerald has been described as a man whose exceptional charisma impressed all his contemporaries, Irish and English alike. Unlike his eldest son, who favoured diplomacy, he was described as being open and plain in his dealings, he was hot-tempered and unpredictable when young, in the 1972 BBC miniseries The Shadow of the Tower, FitzGerald is played by Gawn Grainger. A legend, retold by Nuala OFaoláin, says that Fitzgerald was skilled in the black arts, however, he would never let his wife see him take on other forms, much to her chagrin. After much pleading, he yielded to her, and turned himself into a goldfinch before her very eyes, a sparrowhawk flew into the room, seized the goldfinch, and he was never seen again. According to legend, the Great Earl and his soldiers now slumber in a cavern beneath the Curragh of Kildare, the Earl rises once every seven years on May Day, and rides around the Curragh on his steed
15.
Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare
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Gerard FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare, also known in Irish as Gearóid Óg, was a leading figure in 16th-century Irish History. In 1513 he inherited the title of Earl of Kildare and position of Lord Deputy of Ireland from his father and he was the son of Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare and his first wife Alison FitzEustace, daughter of Rowland FitzEustace, 1st Baron Portlester. Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare was born in 1487 in Maynooth and he is referred to in the Irish annals as Gearóit Óge and as Garrett McAlison, after his mother, Alison FitzEustace, daughter of Rowland FitzEustace, 1st Baron Portlester. In 1496, Gerald was detained by Henry VII at his court as a hostage for his fathers fidelity. In April 1502, at the age of 15, he played the role in the funeral ceremony for Henry VIIs eldest son Arthur. In 1503, he was soon permitted to return with his father to Ireland. The next year he was appointed Lord Treasurer, in August 1504 he commanded the reserve at the Battle of Knockdoe, where his rashness and impetuosity were the cause of some loss. On the death of his father in 1513 he succeeded to the title, Henry VIII soon afterwards appointed him Lord-Deputy. His brother-in-law, Lord Slane succeeded him as Lord Treasurer and this energetic action was so highly approved by the King that he granted the Earl the customs of the ports in the County of Down – rights repurchased by the Crown from the 17th Earl in 1662. In 1516 the Earl invaded Imayle in the Wicklow Mountains, and he then marched into Ely OCarroll, in conjunction with his brother-in-law the Earl of Ormond, and James, son of the Earl of Desmond. They captured and razed the Castle of Lemyvannan, took Clonmel, and in December he returned to Dublin laden with booty, hostages, on the 6 October of the same year his Countess died at Lucan, County Dublin, and was buried at Kilcullen. Next year,1518, his enemies having accused him of maladministration, he appointed a deputy and he was removed from the government, and the Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk appointed in his stead. He appears to have accompanied the King to France in June 1520, and was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, where he was distinguished by his bearing and retinue. On this occasion he met the Kings first cousin, Lady Elizabeth Grey, whom he married a few months afterwards, reports now came from Ireland that he was secretly striving to stir up the chieftains against the new Deputy. He was permitted to return in January 1523, at about this date he founded the College of Maynooth, which flourished until suppressed in 1538. He signaled his return to Ireland by an expedition into Leix in company with the Lord Mayor of Dublin, having burnt several villages, they were caught in an ambuscade, and after considerable loss retreated with some difficulty to Dublin. In consequence of disputes and misunderstandings between the Earl of Kildare and Ormond, now Lord-Deputy, they appealed to the King, accusing each other of malpractices and treasons. Before long, however, their mutual hatred blazed forth again in consequence of the murder of James Talbot, one of Ormonds followers, by the retainers of Kildare
16.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
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Lord Lieutenant was the title of the chief governor of Ireland from the Williamite Wars of 1690 till the Partition of Ireland in 1922. This spanned the Kingdom of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the office, under its various names, was often more generally known as the viceroy, from the French vice roi or deputy king, and his wife was known as the vicereine. The government of Ireland in practice was usually in the hands of the Lord Deputy up to the 17th century, although in the Middle Ages some Lords Deputy were Irish noblemen, only men from Great Britain, usually peers, were appointed to the office of Lord Lieutenant. The Kings representative possessed a number of overlapping roles and he was the representative of the King, the head of the executive in Ireland, a member of the English or British Cabinet, the font of mercy, justice and patronage, commander-in-chief in Ireland. His Government exercised effective control of parliament through the exercise of the powers of patronage, namely the awarding of peerages, baronetcies. Critics accused successive viceroys of using their power as a corrupt means of controlling parliament. On one day in July 1777, Lord Buckinghamshire as Lord Lieutenant promoted 5 viscounts to earls,7 barons to viscounts, under-Secretary for Ireland, The head of the civil service in Ireland. Lord Justices, Three office-holders who acted in the Lord Lieutenants stead during his absence, the Lord Justices were before 1800 the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, the Speaker of the Irish House of Commons, and the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh as Primate of All Ireland. Lords Lieutenant were appointed for no set term but served for His/Her Majestys pleasure, in reality that meant for as long as wished by the British Government. Where a ministry fell, the Lord Lieutenant was usually replaced by a supporter of the new ministry, until the 16th century, Irish or Anglo-Irish noblemen such as the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare traditionally held the post of Justiciar or Lord Deputy. Following the plantations, however, noblemen from Great Britain were given the post, the last Irish Catholic to hold the position was Lord Tyrconnell from 1685–91, during the brief Catholic Ascendancy in the reign of James II that was ended by the Williamite war in Ireland. Until 1767 none of the latter lived full-time in Ireland, instead they resided in Ireland during meetings of the Irish Parliament. However the British cabinet decided in 1765 that full-time residency should be required to enable the Lord Lieutenant to keep a eye on public affairs in Ireland. The office was restricted to members of the Anglican faith, the first Catholic appointed to the post since the reign of the Catholic King James II was in fact the last viceroy, Lord FitzAlan of Derwent, in April 1921. His appointment was possible because the Government of Ireland Act 1920 ended the prohibition on Catholics being appointed to the position, FitzAlan was also the only Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ever to hold office when the former Ireland was partitioned into Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland. The post ebbed and flowed in importance, being used on occasion as a form of exile for prominent British politicians who had fallen foul of the Court of St. Jamess or Westminster, on other occasions it was a stepping stone to a future career. Two Lords Lieutenant, Lord Hartington and the Duke of Portland, instead it was the Chief Secretary for Ireland who became central, with he, not the Lord Lieutenant, sitting on occasion in the British cabinet. The official residence of the Lord Lieutenant was the Viceregal Apartments in Dublin Castle, the Geraldine Lords Deputy, the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare, being native Irish, both lived in, among other locations, their castle in Maynooth, County Kildare
17.
Lordship of Ireland
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The Lordship of Ireland, sometimes referred to retroactively as Norman Ireland, was a period of feudal rule in Ireland between 1177 and 1542 under the King of England, styled as Lord of Ireland. The lordship was created as a Papal possession following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169–71, as the lord of Ireland was also the king of England, he was represented locally by a governor, styled between 1660–1922 as the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Ostensibly, the lordship extended throughout all of Ireland, however, in reality, the kings rule only ever extended to parts of the island. Areas under English rule expanded and retreated over time, many areas remained separate and outside English rule until the 16th century. The period was brought to a close by the creation of the Kingdom of Ireland in 1542, further, the former Irish church had never sent its dues to Rome. Henrys primary motivation for invading Ireland 1171 was to control Strongbow, in 1175 the Treaty of Windsor was agreed by Henry and Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland. The popes asserted the right to grant sovereignty over islands to different monarchs on the basis of the Donation of Constantine, doubts were cast by eminent scholars on Laudabiliter itself in the 19th century, but it was confirmed by the letters of Pope Alexander III. The Papal power to grant also fell within the remit of Dictatus papae, while Laudabiliter had referred to the kingdom of Ireland, the Papacy was ambiguous about continuing to describe it as a kingdom as early as 1185. Having captured a part of Ireland on the east coast. For he had divided his territories between his sons, with the youngest being nicknamed Johan sanz Terre as he was left without lands to rule, Henry had wanted John to be crowned King of Ireland on his first visit in 1185, but Pope Lucius III specifically refused permission. Dominus was the title of a king who had not yet been crowned. Lucius then died while John was in Ireland, and Henry obtained consent from Pope Urban III and ordered a crown of gold, in late 1185 the crown was ready, but Johns visit had by then proved a complete failure, so Henry cancelled the coronation. The Lordship thrived in the 13th century during the Medieval Warm Period, the feudal system was introduced, and the Parliament of Ireland first sat in 1297. Some counties were created by shiring, while walled towns and castles became a feature of the landscape, but little of this engagement with mainstream European life was of benefit to those the Normans called the mere Irish. Mere derived from the Latin merus, meaning pure, environmental decay and deforestation continued unabated throughout this period, being greatly exacerbated by the English newcomers and an increase in population. The Norman élite and churchmen spoke Norman French and Latin, many poorer settlers spoke English, Welsh and Flemish. The Gaelic areas spoke Irish dialects, the Yola language of County Wexford was a survivor of the early English dialects. The Lordship suffered invasion from Scotland by Edward Bruce in 1315–18, the earldom of Ulster ended in 1333, and the Black Death of 1348–50 impacted more on the town-dwelling Normans than on the remaining Gaelic clans
18.
King of England
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This list of kings and queens of the Kingdom of England begins with Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, one of the petty kingdoms to rule a portion of modern England. While Alfred was not the first king to lay claim to all of the English, his rule represents the first unbroken line of Kings to rule the whole of England. The last monarch of a kingdom of England was Queen Anne. For monarchs after Queen Anne, see List of British monarchs, arguments are made for a few different kings deemed to control enough of the ancient kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxons to be deemed the first King of England. For example, Offa, king of Mercia, and Egbert, king of Wessex, are described as kings of England by popular writers. In the late eighth century Offa achieved a dominance over southern England that did not survive his death in 796, in 829 Egbert conquered Mercia, but he soon lost control of it. By the late ninth century Wessex was the dominant Anglo-Saxon kingdom and its king, Alfred the Great, was overlord of western Mercia and used the title King of the Angles and Saxons, but he never ruled eastern and northern England, which was then the Danelaw. Since that time, except for King Edward III, the eldest sons of all English monarchs have borne this title. After the death of Queen Elizabeth I without issue, in 1603, the crowns of England and Scotland were joined in personal union under King James VI of Scotland, however, this is not accepted by all historians. Also, it is unclear whether Ælfweard was declared king of the kingdom or of Wessex only, there is evidence that when Edward died, Ælfweard was declared king in Wessex. England came under the control of Sweyn Forkbeard, a Danish king, after an invasion in 1013, during which Æthelred abandoned the throne, following the death of Sweyn Forkbeard, Æthelred the Unready returned from exile and was again proclaimed king on 3 February 1014. His son succeeded him after being chosen king by the citizens of London, following the decisive Battle of Assandun on 18 October 1016, King Edmund signed a treaty with Cnut in which all of England except for Wessex would be controlled by Cnut. Upon Edmunds death on 30 November, Cnut ruled the kingdom as its sole king. After Harthacnut, there was a brief Saxon Restoration between 1042 and 1066, in 1066, several rival claimants to the English throne emerged. Harald and William both invaded separately in 1066, godwinson successfully repelled the invasion by Hardrada, but ultimately lost the throne of England in the Norman conquest of England. After the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror made permanent the recent removal of the capital from Winchester to London. William was crowned King William I of England on Christmas Day 1066, in Westminster Abbey, Henry I left no legitimate male heirs, his son William Adelin having died in the White Ship disaster. This ended the direct Norman line of kings in England, Henry named his eldest daughter, the dowager Empress Matilda as his heir
19.
Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare
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Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare, also known as Silken Thomas, was a leading figure in 16th century Irish history. Thomas Fitzgerald was born in London in 1513, the son of Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare and his first wife Elizabeth Zouche, in February 1534, his father was summoned to London and appointed the 21-year-old Thomas deputy governor of Ireland in his absence. In June 1534 Thomas heard rumours that his father had been executed in the Tower of London and he summoned the Council to St. Roused by this he threw down the sword of state and rushed from the hall, followed by his adherents. The council sent an order for his immediate arrest to the Lord Mayor of Dublin, the Earl of Desmond and many of his fathers oldest and best friends reasoned with him, but he was not to be turned from his purpose. As Vice-Deputy, Kildare had under his control most of the Pale fortresses, Dublin Castle alone held out for the King of England. Lord Offaly called the lords of the Pale to the siege of the Castle, goods and chattels belonging to the Kings subjects he declared forfeited, and he announced his intention of exiling or putting to death all born in England. He sent messengers to his cousin and friend Lord Butler, son of the Earl of Ormond, offering to divide the kingdom with him if he would join his cause, but Butler refused. Several children of the citizens of Dublin in different parts of the Pale were seized as hostages for the behavior of the city. In July, he attacked Dublin Castle, but his army was routed and he ordered the execution at Clontarf of John Alen, who had tried to mediate, this lost him support from the clergy. According to a tradition, the killers, John Teeling and Nicholas Wafer, misunderstood his order, given in Irish. By this time his father had taken ill and died in London, and he had succeeded as 10th earl. The surrendered garrison was put to death, which known as the Maynooth Pardon. Thomas had wrongly assumed that his cause would attract overwhelming support, but Henrys new policy also outlawed Lutheranism, and so Henry was not finally excommunicated until 1538. In July, Lord Leonard Grey arrived from England as Lord Deputy of Ireland, Fitzgerald, seeing his army melting away and his allies submitting one by one, asked pardon for his offences. He was still a formidable opponent, and Grey, wishing to avoid a conflict, guaranteed his personal safety. In October 1535 he was sent as a prisoner to the Tower, despite Greys guarantee, he was executed with his five uncles at Tyburn on 3 February 1537. Silken Thomass revolt caused Henry to pay attention to Irish matters. In particular the powers of the deputy were curbed, and policies such as surrender
20.
Bill of attainder
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A bill of attainder is an act of a legislature declaring a person or group of persons guilty of some crime and punishing them, often without a trial. Bills of attainder passed in Parliament by Henry Vlll on the 29 January 1542 resulted in the executions of a number of historical figures. For these reasons, bills of attainder are expressly banned by Article I, section 9, unlike the United States Constitution, there is no specific provision forbidding the Commonwealth Government from passing bills of attainder. One of the aspects of Judicial Power is the ability to make binding and authoritative decisions on questions of law. The wielding of Judicial Power by the Legislative or Executive Branch includes the direct wielding of power, the State Constitutions in Australia contain few limitations on government power. Bills of attainder are considered permissible because there is no entrenched separation of powers at the state level, the States cannot structure their legal systems to prevent them from being subject to the Australian Constitution. In the province of Quebec, the Michaud Affair is one case in which a provincial parliament expressed public disapproval of an individual. However, the motion passed on 13 December 2000 by the National Assembly was worded as an opinion of the Assembly rather than a bill of attainder per se, the word attainder, meaning taintedness, is part of English common law. His property could consequently revert to the Crown or to the mesne lord, any peerage titles would also revert to the Crown. Attainder functioned more or less as the revocation of the chain of privilege and all rights. Due to mandatory sentencing, the due process of the courts provided limited flexibility to deal with the circumstances of offenders. On the other hand, when a legal conviction did take place, in some cases the Crown would eventually re-grant the convicted peers lands and titles to his heir. It was also possible, as political fortunes turned, for a bill of attainder to be reversed and this sometimes occurred long after the convicted person was executed. Unlike the mandatory sentences of the courts, acts of Parliament provided considerable latitude in suiting the punishment to the conditions of the offenders family. Parliament could also impose non-capital punishments without involving courts, such bills are called bills of pains, the first use of attainder was in 1321 against both Hugh le Despenser, 1st Earl of Winchester and his son Hugh Despenser the Younger, Earl of Gloucester. They were both attainted for supporting King Edward II during his struggle with the queen and barons, in the case of Catherine Howard, in 1541 King Henry VIII was the first monarch to delegate Royal Assent, to avoid having to assent personally to the execution of his wife. After defeating Richard III and replacing him on the throne of England and it is noteworthy that this bill made no mention of the Princes in the Tower. After the committee stages, the Bill of Attainder passed both the Houses of Lords and Commons and was engrossed on 4 December 1660 and this aroused some protests in British public opinion at the time, including from people with no Jacobite sympathies
21.
Gerald FitzGerald, 11th Earl of Kildare
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Gerald FitzGerald, 11th Earl of Kildare, also known as the Wizard Earl, was an Irish peer. He was the son of Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare and Elizabeth Grey, Countess of Kildare. He spent the few years on the run in Ireland and spent some time in Donegal, under the guardianship of his aunt, Lady Eleanor McCarthy. The League came to nothing, however, after the members were badly defeated in Monaghan following a raid into The Pale in August 1539. FitzGerald escaped Ireland with a few servants and was protected from Henry VIII. He was educated at a monastery in Liège, and spent time with the Bishop of Verona, the Cardinal of Mantua, due to his time in the dukes court, FitzGerald was fluent in Italian and experienced the court culture of Renaissance Italy. From there, he moved on to Rome, and for three years studied under the guidance of his kinsman, Cardinal Reginald Pole. During his exile from Ireland, FitzGerald fought with the Knights of Rhodes against the Turks and travelled as far as Tripoli in Libya, following the death of Henry VIII in 1547, he travelled to England and was received at the court of Edward VI. The young king restored the Kildare lands to him at this time, during the reign of Mary I, FitzGerald assisted in suppressing the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyatt in 1554. He was then restored as Earl of Kildare and Baron of Offaly and he returned to Ireland soon after. FitzGerald had a keen interest in alchemy, which caused much speculation among those living around Kilkea Castle and he was rumoured to possess magic powers, and thus earned the nickname the Wizard Earl. He owed his survival to the regard of Elizabeth who twice dismissed the charges of treason against him. In his last years although technically free he was forbidden to leave London, FitzGerald died in London, still in a condition of semi-captivity, on 16 November 1585. According to legend, his ghost returns to Kilkea Castle every seventh year, Kildare and Mabel Browne married during the reign of Mary I on 28 May 1554, in the Chapel Royal. Amongst a certain branch of the FitzGeralds there was a belief/legend that the 11th earl of Kildare had been married to an Ellinor OKelly by Thomas Leverous in 1545 and this resulted in the birth of the progenitor of this branch of the FitzGeralds. However, the date purported for the marriage seems unlikely given the timescale, Lady Elizabeth FitzGerald, married Donnchadh MacConchobhair OBrien, the 4th Earl of Thomond, by whom she had issue. Lord Gerald FitzGerald, Lord Offaly, Lord Garratt, married in October 1578, Catherine Knollys and they had a daughter Lettice Digby, 1st Baroness Offaly who married Sir Robert Digby. These were the ancestors of the celebrated 19th-century adventuress Jane Digby
22.
Letters patent
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Letters patent can be used for the creation of corporations or government offices, or for the granting of city status or a coat of arms. Letters patent are issued for the appointment of representatives of the Crown, such as governors and governors-general of Commonwealth realms, in the United Kingdom they are also issued for the creation of peers of the realm. A particular form of letters patent has evolved into the modern patent granting exclusive rights in an invention. e, the opposite of letters patent are letters close, which are personal in nature and sealed so that only the recipient can read their contents. Letters patent are thus comparable to other kinds of open letter in that their audience is wide, letters patent are so named from the Latin verb pateo, to lie open, exposed, accessible. The originators seal was attached pendent from the document, so that it did not have to be broken in order for the document to be read. Thus letters patent do not equate to a letter but rather to any form of document, deed, contract, letter, despatch, edict, decree. Letters patent are a form of open or public proclamation and an exercise of extra-parliamentary power by a monarch or president. Prior to the establishment of Parliament, the monarch ruled absolutely by the issuing of his written orders. They can thus be contrasted with the Act of Parliament, which is in effect an order by Parliament. No explicit government approval is contained within letters patent, only the seal or signature of the monarch, in their original form they were simply written instructions or orders from the sovereign, whose order was law, which were made public to reinforce their effect. According to the United Kingdom Ministry of Justice, there are 92 different types of letters patent. The Patent Rolls are made up of copies of English royal letters patent. In 1634, during the Thirty Years War, the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II became convinced that his general Albrecht von Wallenstein was plotting treason, on 24 January 1634 the Emperor signed a secret patent removing him from his command. Finally an open patent, charging Wallenstein with high treason, was signed on 18 February, in the patent, Ferdinand II ordered to have Wallenstein brought under arrest to Vienna, dead or alive. On the basis of patent, several of Wallensteins officers assassinated him and were rewarded by the Emperor. The form of patent for creating peerages has been fixed by the Crown Office Order 1992. Part III of the schedule lays down nine pro forma texts for creating various ranks of the peerage, lords of appeal in ordinary, gender-specific differences are highlighted in italics. In Commonwealth realms, letters patent are issued under the powers of the head of state
23.
William FitzGerald, 2nd Duke of Leinster
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William Robert FitzGerald, 2nd Duke of Leinster, etc. KP, PC was an Irish liberal politician and landowner, FitzGerald made his Grand Tour between 1768 and 1769. During the same time, he also was Member of Parliament for Kildare Borough, FitzGerald then sat in the Irish House of Commons for Dublin City until 1773, when he inherited his fathers title and estates. He was appointed High Sheriff of Kildare for 1772, politically he was a liberal supporter of Henry Grattans Irish Patriot Party and he co-founded the Irish Whig Club in 1789. He controlled about six Kildare members of the Irish House of Commons, in 1779 he was elected Colonel of the Dublin Regiment of the Irish Volunteers. In 1770 FitzGerald was chosen Grandmaster of the Grand Lodge of Ireland and he was re-elected for another year in 1777. In 1783 he was among the first knights in the newly created Order of St. Patrick, FitzGerald was a supporter of Catholic Emancipation and helped to found the Catholic seminary at Maynooth in 1795. Withdrawing from parliament with Grattan in 1797, he moved to England to be with his sick wife and he was the second, but eldest surviving, son of James FitzGerald, 1st Duke of Leinster and the well-connected Lady Emily Mary Lennox. On 4/7 November 1775 he married The Hon. Emilia Olivia Usher St George, daughter of St George Saint-George, 1st Baron St George and Elizabeth Dominick, who died in London on 23 June 1798. He was also the brother of the 1790s revolutionary Lord Edward FitzGerald. He was a member of the Order of St Patrick in 1783 and of the Royal Irish Academy. His familys estates of 60,000 acres in Kildare were in three parts, around Maynooth, Rathangan and Athy. He rebuilt the bridge in Athy over the River Barrow. Duke of Leinster Ducal House of Leinster Ducal House of Leinster Lundy, Darryl
24.
St George St George, 1st Baron Saint George
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St George St George, 1st Baron Saint George was an Irish politician. Born St George Ussher, he was the son of John Ussher by his wife Mary St George, daughter of George St George, 1st Baron Saint George. He succeeded his father as Member of Parliament for Carrick in the Irish House of Commons from 1741 until he was raised to the Irish House of Lords. He was created Baron Saint George of Hatley St George, in the Peerage of Ireland, on 19 April 1763 and he married Elizabeth Dominick, daughter of Sir Christopher Dominick, a wealthy Dublin doctor who began the laying out of Dominick Street in Dublin. He died without surviving issue, so his title became extinct. His daughter Emilia later married William FitzGerald, 2nd Duke of Leinster and his widow Lady St George died in 1813
25.
Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl of Harrington
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General Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl of Harrington GCH PC PC, styled Viscount Petersham until 1779, was a British soldier. Stanhope was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards in 1769, during the Saratoga campaign of the American Revolutionary War as Viscount Petersham, he commanded the 29th Regiment of Foots Grenadier company and was an aide-de-camp to General John Burgoyne. He was Colonel of the 85th Regiment of Foot, the 65th Regiment of Foot and he was finally Colonel of the 1st Life Guards from 1792 to his death. He was promoted general in 1803 and made GCH in 1821. Viscount Petersham can be seen in the famous painting The Burial of General Fraser at Saratoga standing above Simon Fraser and he was briefly elected to serve as Member of Parliament for Thetford in 1774 and then sat from 1776 to 1779 as one of the members for Westminster. She was a Lady of the Bedchamber to Queen Charlotte, lord and Lady Harrington had eleven children, Charles Stanhope, 4th Earl of Harrington. He was married to Maria Foote, daughter of Samuel Foote, anna Maria Stanhope, Duchess of Bedford. She was married to Francis Russell, 7th Duke of Bedford, leicester FitzGerald Charles Stanhope, 5th Earl of Harrington. He married Elizabeth Green, daughter of William Green and Ann Rose Hall, Hon. William Sefton George Stanhope Rev. Hon. FitzRoy Henry Richard Stanhope. Dean of St Buryan, Cornwall and rector of Catton and of Wressle in Yorkshire and he married Caroline Wyndham, illegitimate daughter of the Hon. Charles Wyndham. They were parents of Charles Wyndham Stanhope, 7th Earl of Harrington, his younger brother Percy Stanhope and he had three children by Hannah Wilson, daughter of James Wilson of Parsonstown Manor, County Meath. Lady Caroline Anne Stanhope, married Edward Ayshford Sanford on 21 June 1841, Lady Charlotte Augusta Stanhope, married Augustus Frederick FitzGerald, 3rd Duke of Leinster on 16 June 1818. They were parents to Charles William FitzGerald, 4th Duke of Leinster and another three children, on 8 May 1813, he married Jane Baldwin in the Parish Church of St John, Hampstead, under the name Edward Stanhope and disguised as a groom or labourer. The marriage was annulled in 1822 by reason of undue publication of banns, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Earl of Harrington Worcestershire Regiment website bio, with picture
26.
George Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland
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He is estimated to have been the wealthiest man of the 19th-century. He remains a figure for his role in the Highland Clearances. Sutherland was the eldest son of the Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, by his second wife Lady Louisa, daughter of Scroop Egerton, Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Granville, was his half-brother. He was educated at Westminster and at Christ Church, Oxford, Sutherland sat as Member of Parliament for Newcastle-under-Lyme from 1779 to 1784 and for Staffordshire from 1787 to 1799. The latter year he was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration in his fathers title of Baron Gower. Between 1790 and 1792 he was Ambassador to France, despite not having any previous diplomatic experience, the embassy was withdrawn in August 1792 after the imprisonment of the royal family during the French Revolution. After his return to Britain he declined the posts of Lord Steward of the Household, however, in 1799 he accepted the office of joint Postmaster General, which he retained until 1801. Sutherland played an important part in the downfall of Henry Addingtons administration in 1804, after 1807 he played little part in politics, although late in life he supported Catholic Emancipation and the 1832 Reform Act. From 1794 to 1801, Sutherland was Colonel of the Staffordshire Volunteer Cavalry, Sutherland also held the honorary posts of Lord Lieutenant of Staffordshire from 1799 to 1801 and Lord Lieutenant of Sutherland from 1794 to 1830. He was invested as a Privy Counsellor in 1790, a Knight of the Garter in 1806 and was created Duke of Sutherland on 28 January 1833, the Leveson-Gower family owned extensive lands in Staffordshire, Shropshire and Yorkshire. According to the will of the Duke of Bridgewater, these passed on the death of the first Duke of Sutherland to his third son Lord Francis Leveson-Gower. This inheritance and his marriage to Elizabeth Sutherland, 19th Countess of Sutherland, Sutherland is estimated to have been the wealthiest man of the 19th-century, surpassing even Nathan Rothschild. The precise value of his estate at death is unknown, as it was classed as upper value. He was described by Charles Greville as a leviathan of wealth, Sutherland and his wife remain controversial figures for their role in carrying out the Highland Clearances, where thousands of tenants were forced out of their homes. The clearances, described by commentators as a form of ethnic cleansing, were undertaken between 1811 and 1820. In 1811 parliament passed a bill granting half the expenses of building roads in northern Scotland, the following year Sutherland commenced building roads and bridges in the county, which up to that point had been virtually non-existent. At first the clearances involved relocations from Assynt to coastal villages on the assumption that farmers could take up fishing, however, when the consequences of these actions became clear, the evictions were met with opposition, which was ruthlessly repressed. Resentment mounted when one of Sutherlands factors, Patrick Sellar, was acquitted of murder, condemnation was widespread and the Highlanders grievances were heard in the British House of Commons
27.
Elizabeth Leveson-Gower, Duchess of Sutherland
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Elizabeth was born at Leven Lodge near Edinburgh, to William Gordon, 18th Earl of Sutherland and his wife Mary, daughter and coheir of William Maxwell. Her parents died of fever in Bath in 1766, a few weeks after her first birthday. As the younger and only surviving child, she succeeded to her fathers estates and titles and her title of Countess of Sutherland was contested by Sir Robert Gordon, Bart. A descendant of the 1st Earl of Gordon, but was confirmed by the House of Lords in 1771, Elizabeth Sutherland spent most of her childhood living in Edinburgh and London, where she was educated between 1779 and 1782. In 1832, just six months before he died, he was created Duke of Sutherland, under the terms of the marriage contract, control, but not ownership, of the Sutherland estates passed from Elizabeth to her husband for life. The couple also purchased land in Sutherland, so that by the 1820s they owned well over two-thirds of the county. She started gradually, but as the techniques proved to be beneficial for her family. She instigated the eviction of tenant farmers and crofters, who were moved to smaller, less-viable holdings on the coast, to make way for sheep farms. Lady Sutherland visited her estates regularly and was aware of what her policies meant for the tenants dispossessed of land on which their families had lived for generations. She and her supporters considered the necessary, inevitable. Endeavoured to counteract the adverse publicity surrounding the clearances, but with little success, Lady Sutherland, along with her factor Patrick Sellar and auditor James Loch, had a reputation for being especially cruel and insensitive. The clearances brought widespread condemnation, and the Highland Land League eventually achieved land reform in the enactment of Crofting Acts and these measures could not bring economic viability, however, and came too late at a time when the land was already suffering from depopulation. Lady Sutherland twice raised a regiment, the Sutherlandshire Fencibles, in 1779 and 1793. In 1790 her husband was appointed Ambassador to France and she accompanied him to Paris and she was able to witness the revolutionary events first-hand and wrote descriptions about the political turmoil in France at that time. Lady Sutherland and her husband had difficulty obtaining permission to leave Paris, during the 1790s, Lady Sutherland became a leading figure of the social season in London. Her dinner parties and balls were attended by royalty, nobility and leading politicians and she was also an accomplished oil painter. She drew and etched a series of views in the Orkney Islands and north-east coast of Scotland, Lady Sutherland spent a lot of time raising her four children. She placed an emphasis on maximising the wealth of her sons
28.
George Howard, 6th Earl of Carlisle
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George Howard, 6th Earl of Carlisle KG PC FRS, styled Viscount Morpeth until 1825, was a British statesman. He served as Lord Privy Seal between 1827 and 1828 and in 1834 and was a member of Lord Greys Whig government as Minister without Portfolio between 1830 and 1834 and he was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. Carlisle was returned to parliament for Morpeth in 1795, a seat he held until 1806, in 1806 he was sworn of the Privy Council. In 1825 he succeeded his father in the earldom and entered the House of Lords, apart from his political career Lord Carlisle was Lord Lieutenant of the East Riding of Yorkshire between 1824 and 1840. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1837, Lord Carlisle married Lady Georgiana Cavendish, daughter of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire and Lady Georgiana Spencer, in 1801. They were parents of children, George Howard, 7th Earl of Carlisle. She married George Agar-Ellis, 1st Baron Dover and she married George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 2nd Duke of Sutherland. William George Howard, 8th Earl of Carlisle, edward Granville George Howard, 1st Baron Lanerton. He married Diana Ponsonby, daughter of the Hon. George Ponsonby and she married William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire. He married Mary Parke, daughter of James Parke, Baron Wensleydale and they were parents of George Howard, 9th Earl of Carlisle. She married Reverend Francis Richard Grey, son of Charles Grey, on 29 May 1845, he married Mary Wellesley McTavish, daughter of John McTavish, British Consul at Baltimore, and his wife, Emily Caton. The couple wed from the house of her aunt, the Marchioness Wellesley and he served as Secretary of the British Embassy in Paris. His wife died in Paris 21 February 1850, in her 23rd year and she married Henry Labouchere, 1st Baron Taunton. Lord Carlisle died at Castle Howard, Yorkshire, in October 1848, aged 75, the Countess of Carlisle died at Castle Howard in August 1858, aged 75. Much of the modern British aristocracy can trace their roots to the sixth Earl of Carlisle, through his daughter Georgina, Duchess of Devonshire, Lord Carlisle is the ancestor of the present Duke of Devonshire, Marquess of Salisbury, Earl of Stockton. Through his daughter Lady Caroline Lascelles, he is the ancestor of the present Duke of Buccleuch & Queensberry, the present Duke of Northumberland, meanwhile, is descended from Lord Carlisle through several daughters. Other descendants include Archbishop of Canterbury William Temple, naturalist Gavin Maxwell, spymaster Eliza Manningham-Buller, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Earl of Carlisle Howard, George
29.
William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire
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William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, KG, was a British nobleman, aristocrat, and politician. He was invited to join the Cabinet on three occasions, but declined each offer and he was Lord High Treasurer of Ireland and Governor of Cork, and Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire. The 5th Duke is best known for his first wife Georgiana, at the age of about twenty, Devonshire toured Italy with William Fitzherbert which is where they commissioned the pair of portraits by Pompeo Batoni. By his first wife, he had one son, and two daughters, Lady Georgiana Little G Cavendish, later the Countess of Carlisle, and Lady Harriet Harryo Cavendish, later the Countess Granville. The title of Baron Clifford fell into abeyance between them, and the present Earl of Carlisle and the present Earl Granville have inherited their titles from Georgiana, Georgiana Cavendish became a socialite who gathered around her a large circle of literary and political friends. She was painted by Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds, the Gainsborough painting was disposed of by the 5th Duke and was recovered only much later, after many vicissitudes. By his second wife, Lady Elizabeth Foster, he had no legitimate issue, the Dukes daughter by Lady Elizabeth, Caroline, was given a different surname from her brother, St. Jules. Caroline St. Jules married the Hon. George Lamb, a brother of the 2nd Viscount Melbourne, Caroline and George Lamb had no issue. The 5th Duke also had a daughter—Charlotte, given the surname Williams—by his mistress, Charlotte Spencer and his first child was born shortly after his marriage to Lady Georgiana Spencer. Charlotte was later married off suitably, the fifth Duke was closely involved with the nearby spa town of Buxton. He used the profits from his mines to transform the town into a replica of Bath, including the Crescent Hotel and an octagonal set of stables. In the film The Duchess, about Georgiana, the fifth Duke is played by Ralph Fiennes, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Duke of Devonshire
30.
Charles Duncombe, 1st Baron Feversham
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Charles Duncombe, 1st Baron Feversham was a British Member of Parliament. He was born the eldest son of Charles Slingsby Duncombe of Duncombe Park, Feversham was appointed High Sheriff of Yorkshire in 1790. However, he never held ministerial office, in 1826 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Feversham, of Duncombe Park in the County of York. Lord Feversham married Lady Charlotte Legge, daughter of William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth and he died in July 1841, aged 76, and was succeeded in the barony by his son William. His younger sons Arthur and Octavius were both Conservative politicians who served in Parliament, DUNCOMBE, Charles, of Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorks. New York, St Martins Press,1990, Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs Lundy, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Lord Feversham
31.
William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth
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Dartmouth was the son of George Legge, Viscount Lewisham, son of William Legge, 1st Earl of Dartmouth. His mother was Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Arthur Kaye, 3rd Baronet, having entered Trinity College, Oxford, in 1748, he succeeded his grandfather in the earldom in 1750. Lord Dartmouth was Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1772 to 1775 and he sympathised with Johnsons arguments but stated the Colonies did not seem inclined to concur with any new regulations. Wheelock subsequently founded Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire, naming the school in Lord Dartmouths honor in hopes of getting his financial support, in London, Lord Dartmouth supported the new Foundling Hospital, a charitable institution for the care and maintenance of Londons abandoned children. He served as a president of the organization from 1755 until his death. The famous painter Sir Joshua Reynolds painted the Earls portrait and donated it to the hospital, the portrait is still in the Foundling Hospital Collection and can be seen at the Foundling Museum in London. He was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society on 7 November 1754, Lord Dartmouth married Frances Catherine, daughter of Sir Charles Gounter Nicoll, in 1755. Their younger sons Admiral the Hon, Sir Arthur Kaye Legge and the Right Reverend the Hon. Edward Legge, Bishop of Oxford, both gained distinction. Their daughter Charlotte married Charles Duncombe, 1st Baron Feversham and he died at Blackheath, Kent, on 15 July 1801, in the seventy-first year of his age, and was buried in Trinity Church in the Minories on 3 August 1801. He was succeeded by his eldest son, George, lady Dartmouth died in July 1805. The family lived at Sandwell Hall in the Sandwell Valley, R. H. Nichols and F A. Wray, The History of the Foundling Hospital. His role in Black Country Methodism is mentioned in David Hallams book Eliza Asbury, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Barker, George Fisher Russell
32.
William Duncombe, 1st Earl of Feversham
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William Ernest Duncombe, 1st Earl of Feversham, known as The Lord Feversham between 1867 and 1868, was a British Conservative politician. Duncombe was the son of William Duncombe, 2nd Baron Feversham and he was elected to the House of Commons for East Retford in 1852, a seat he held until 1857, and then represented the North Riding of Yorkshire between 1859 and 1867. The latter year he succeeded his father in the barony and entered the House of Lords. In 1868 he was created Viscount Helmsley, of Helmsley in the North Riding of the County of York, Lord Feversham married Mabel Violet, daughter of Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet, in 1851. They had seven children, including Hermione Wilhelmina Duncombe who became Duchess of Leinster and Helen Duncombe, who as the wife of Edgar Vincent, 1st Viscount DAbernon became Viscountess DAbernon. He died in January 1915, aged 85, and was succeeded in his titles by his grandson Charles, his son and heir apparent William Duncombe, Viscount Helmsley, Lady Feversham died only seven months after her husband. New York, St Martins Press,1990, Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages Lundy, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by William Duncombe
33.
George Stewart, 8th Earl of Galloway
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Admiral George Stewart, 8th Earl of Galloway KT, styled Lord Garlies between 1773 and 1806, was a British naval commander and politician. In 1789 he was promoted to lieutenant, serving in the frigate Aquilon in the Mediterranean and he returned to England in early 1790, when appointed commander of the fire ship Vulcan. In 1795 he took command of the frigate Lively, and took Sir John Jervis out from England to assume command in the Mediterranean. Commanding a division of four frigates and a sloop, he engaged the Spanish ship of line San Francisco de Asís in the Action of 25 January 1797 and he served in the area until the Battle of Cape St Vincent in February 1797. After the battle Lively carried Sir Robert Calder, with the account of the victory, and Lord Minto, Viceroy of Corsica, and his suite, on 2 March 1801 Hussar captured the French schooner Le General Bessieres. On 12 April 1801 Hussar recaptured the ship James of Liverpool, in early 1801 Garlies moved into the Bellerophon, to serve on the blockade of Brest, remaining there until the Treaty of Amiens in early 1802 brought a short-lived period of peace. Following the renewal of hostilities in May 1803 he commanded the ship Ajax, Galloway saw no further active service, but was promoted to Rear-Admiral on 31 July 1810, to Vice Admiral on 12 August 1819, and to Admiral on 22 July 1830. Apart from his military career Garlies also sat as a Member of Parliament and he was first elected in 1790 for the constituency of Saltash, and served until vacating his seat in favour of his brother William in February 1795. He served as Lord Lieutenant of Kirkcudbright from 26 December 1794 to 1807, and from 1820 to 1828, on 30 May 1814 he was invested as a member of the Order of the Thistle. He also served as Vice-President of the Board of Agriculture in 1815, in April 1797 he married Lady Jane Paget, the daughter of Henry Paget, 1st Earl of Uxbridge, and sister of Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey. They had eight children, Lady Jane Stewart, m. George Spencer-Churchill, Lady Caroline Stewart Hon Randolph Stewart, later 9th Earl of Galloway Lady Louisa Stewart, m. William Duncombe, 2nd Baron Feversham. Hon Arthur Stewart Hon Alan Stewart Lady Helen Stewart Vice Admiral Hon Keith Stewart CB Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Earl of Galloway
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Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet
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Sir James Robert George Graham, 2nd Baronet GCB PC was a British statesman. He was descended from a family famous in the history of the English border. He was the eldest son of Sir James Graham, 1st Baronet, by Lady Catherine, in 1819, he married Fanny Callander, youngest daughter of Sir James Campbell of Craigforth and Ardkinglas Castle. Sir James was created LL. D. at Cambridge in 1835, was Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow,1840 and he was First Lord of the Admiralty from 1830 to 1834 when he resigned on account of the government pressing for a reform of the Irish Church. He became Secretary of the Home Department from September 1841 to July 1846 and he was a member of the Council of the Duchy of Lancaster, and Deputy Lieutenant for county of Hertfordshire. Graham Land in Antarctica is named after him, Graham was born at Naworth, Cumberland, the son of Sir James Graham, 1st Baronet, by his wife Lady Catherine, daughter of John Stewart, 7th Earl of Galloway. He was taught at a school at Dalston in Cumberland, kept by the Rev. Walter Fletcher, before attending Westminster School and Christ Church. When Montgomerie became ill the responsibility for the fell on Graham. When Lord William Bentinck returned to the Embassy he agreed that Graham should retain the post, during this time he conducted the negotiations which led to the separation of Joachim Murat from Napoleon. When the war ended he returned to England, back in London he became friends with Wilfrid Lawson, who was to become a politician, a baronet, Grahams brother-in-law and father of another more famous radical. Back in London, Graham immersed himself in political affairs, although his father was a staunch Tory he made his headquarters in Brooks’s Club where he made many Whig contacts. On 10 June 1818 he announced that he would contest the mercantile borough of Hull, after three days of open voting and official scrutiny, Graham entered parliament as the junior member by a mere four votes. However, he had gained the seat at great personal expense, in January 1820, George IV succeeded thus forcing a dissolution of parliament. At Westminster, Graham maintained his campaign for economy, generally opposing the Government’s proposed increase in the Royal Family’s Civil List, however his parliamentary career, although undistinguished, now became brief, when charged with bribing the electorate, he resigned rather than contest an expensive suit. Graham returned to Cumberland and began a programme of improving the estate at Netherby. He began with a gesture, wiping out the arrears of his tenants debts. He argued that liberal economics rather than protection would best serve the interests of the landowners, high duties on foreign corn had failed to help British agriculture and should be cut to a level where they simply balanced the landowner’s taxes and rates. His general conclusions were in favour of trade and free banking
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