1.
Air Force Global Strike Command
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Air Force Global Strike Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. AFGSC provides combat-ready forces to conduct strategic nuclear deterrence and global operations in support of combatant commanders. Air Force Global Strike Command is the direct descendant unit of the Cold War-era Strategic Air Command and it holds the lineage, history and honors of SAC. It assumed responsibility for the assets of Air Force Space Command on 1 December 2009. Its creation was outlined in the recommendations of the following the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident. The command was activated 7 August 2009, at Barksdale Air Force Base, AFGSC consists of over 31,000 personnel assigned to nine wings, two geographically-separated squadrons and one detachment in the continental United States and deployed to locations around the globe. Changes to the AFGSC units began with the announcement of the 377th Air Base Wings realignment in December 2014 and this means that two bomb wings formerly under Air Combat Command will shift into AFGSC. The units came under the command on 1 October 2015, on October 6,2016, the 595th Command and Control Group was activated at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska to assume the responsibility for the Boeing E-4 NAOC mission. The command has an area of responsibility as a subordinate component command of United States Strategic Command. AFGSC is one of two USAF component commands in USSTRATCOM, the other being Air Force Space Command, the mission of The Mighty Eighth is to safeguard Americas interests through strategic deterrence and global combat power. Eighth Air Force controls long-range nuclear-capable bomber assets throughout the United States and its flexible, conventional and nuclear deterrence mission provides the capability to deploy forces and engage enemy threats from home station or forward positioned, anywhere, any time. The 8th Air Force motto is Deterrence through strength, global strike on demand, the Missouri Air National Guards 131st Bomb Wing is an associate unit of the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman, flying the B-2A Spirit. If federalized, it is gained by Eighth Air Force, the Air Force Reserve Commands 307th Bomb Wing is an associate unit of the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale AFB, flying the B-52H Stratofortress. If activated, it is gained by Eighth Air Force Offensive aircraft assets include the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit, Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, and Boeing B-1B Lancer. Headquarters, Twentieth Air Force – Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, designated as USSTRATCOMs Task Force 214, 20th Air Force provides on-alert, combat-ready ICBMs to the President of the United States. The ICBMs are on 24-hour/365-day alert and are ready to launch on any given day, aFGSCs Twentieth Air Force is the Air Forces lead command for and largest operator of UH-1N Huey helicopters. The UH-1N supports ICBM operations in missile fields controlled by F. E. Warren, Malmstrom, in 2015, the 582d Helicopter Group was activated to supervise the three UH-1 squadrons. Schlesinger led an investigation into the status of U. S. Air Force nuclear surety, Secretary Schlesingers recommendation was the creation of a single major command under which all Air Force nuclear assets should be placed for better accountability
2.
Abilene, Texas
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Abilene is a city in Taylor and Jones counties in West Texas, United States. The population was 117,063 according to the 2010 census and it is the principal city of the Abilene Metropolitan Statistical Area, which had a 2011 estimated population of 166,416. It is the county seat of Taylor County, Dyess Air Force Base is located on the west side of the city. Abilene is located off Interstate 20, between exits 279 on its edge and 292 on the east. Abilene is 150 miles west of Fort Worth, Texas, the city is looped by I-20 to the north, US 83/84 on the west, and Loop 322 to the east. A railroad divides the city down the center north and south. The historic downtown area is on the side of the railroad. Many developments have begun in these three areas within the last few years, established by cattlemen as a stock shipping point on the Texas and Pacific Railway in 1881, the city was named after Abilene, Kansas, the original endpoint for the Chisholm Trail. The T&P had bypassed the town of Buffalo Gap, the county seat at the time, eventually, a landowner north of Buffalo Gap, Clabe Merchant, known as the father of Abilene, chose the name for the new town. According to a Dallas newspaper, about 800 people had begun camping at the townsite. The town was out by Colonel J. Stoddard Johnson. By the end of the first day,139 lots were sold for a total of $23,810, and another 178 lots were sold the next day for $27,550. Abilene was incorporated soon after being founded in 1881, and Abilenians began to set their sights on bringing the county seat to Abilene, in 1888, the Progressive Committee was formed to attract businesses to the area, which later became the Board of Trade in 1890. By 1900,3,411 people lived in Abilene, and in that decade, however, this committee failed when the population only hit 9,204 in 1910. Replacing it was the Young Mens Booster Club, which became the Abilene Chamber of Commerce in 1914, the cornerstone was laid for the first of three future universities in Abilene, called Simmons College, in 1891, which later became Hardin-Simmons University. Childers Classical Institute followed in 1906, currently Abilene Christian University, in 1923, McMurry College was founded and later became McMurry University. Much more recently, Abilene succeeded in bringing Cisco Junior College and Texas State Technical College branches to Abilene, with the Cisco Junior College headquarters being located in Abilene. In 1940, Abilene raised the money to land for a U. S. Army base, southwest of town, named Camp Barkeley
3.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
4.
7th Bomb Wing
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The 7th Bomb Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Global Strike Command Eighth Air Force. It is stationed at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, where it is also the host unit. The 7 BW is one of only two B-1B Lancer strategic bombardment wings in the United States Air Force, the other being the 28th Bomb Wing at Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota. Its origins date to the 1918 establishment of the 1st Army Observation Group, the 7th Operations Group carries the lineage and history of its highly decorated World War II predecessor unit. Active for over 60 years, the 7 BW was a component wing of Strategic Air Commands heavy bomber deterrent force throughout the Cold War, the 7th Bomb Wing is commanded by Colonel David Benson. Its Vice Commander is Colonel Michael Miller and its Command Chief is Chief Master Sergeant Aaron Bennett. The wing mission was to organize and train a force capable of immediate and sustained long range offensive warfare, the 7th Bombardment Group, flying Boeing B-29 Superfortresses became its operational component. The wings mission was to prepare for global strategic bombardment in the event of hostilities, under various designations, the 7th Bomb Wing flew a wide variety of aircraft at the base until it moved in 1993. Starting in June 1948 the wing received the first five Convair B-36A Peacemakers, the B-36As were delivered unarmed and were used for training and crew conversion. The first B-36 was designated the City of Fort Worth, and was assigned to the 492d Bombardment Squadron, when the wing base organization was made permanent in 1948, the wing was redesignated as the 7th Bombardment Wing, Heavy on 1 August. In November 1948, B-36B aircraft began to join the B-36As, on 7 December one of the new B-36Bs flew a nonstop simulated bombing mission to Hawaii, dropping a 10,000 lb simulated bombload in the ocean. The flight took over 35 and a half hours and covered more than 8,000 miles, the wings last B-29 was transferred on 6 December to the 97th Bombardment Group at Biggs Air Force Base. For 10 years, the Peacemaker served as our nations major deterrent weapons system, the 11th Bombardment Group was activated on 1 December 1948 with the 26th, 42d, and 98th Bombardment Squadrons, Heavy assigned. The 11th Bomb Group was assigned to Eighth Air Force, a five ship B-36 formation was flown on 15 January 1949, in an air review over Washington, D. C. commemorating the inauguration of the President of the United States, Harry S. Truman. In January 1951, the 7th took part in a training mission to the United Kingdom. This was the first flight of B-36s outside the continental United States since the mission to Hawaii. The purpose of the mission was to evaluate the B-36D under simulated war plan conditions, also, further evaluate the equivalent airspeed and compression tactics for heavy bombardment aircraft. The aircraft, staging through Limestone AFB, Maine, would land at RAF Lakenheath, United Kingdom, following a night bombing attack on Helgoland
5.
ICAO airport code
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The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-character alphanumeric code designating aerodromes around the world. ICAO codes are used to identify other aviation facilities such as weather stations, International Flight Service Stations or Area Control Centers. Flight information regions are identified by a unique ICAO-code. Code selections in North America were based on existing radio station identifiers, for example, radio stations in Canada were already starting with C, so it seemed logical to begin Canadian airport identifiers with Cxxx. The United States had many pre-existing airports with established mnemonic codes and their ICAO codes were formed simply by prepending a K to the existing codes, as half the radio station identifiers in the US began with K. Most ICAO codes outside the US and Canada have a geographical structure. Most of the rest of the world was classified in a more planned top-down manner, thus Uxxx referred to the Soviet Union with the second letter denoting the specific region within it, and so forth. Europe had too many locations for one starting letter, so it was split into Exxx for northern Europe. The second letter was more specific, EGxx was the United Kingdom, EDxx was West Germany, ETxx was East Germany, LExx was Spain, LAxx was Albania, France was designated LFxx, as the counterpart EFxx was the unambiguously northern Finland. ICAO codes are separate and different from IATA codes, which are used for airline timetables, reservations. For example, the IATA code for Londons Heathrow Airport is LHR, in general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes have ICAO codes than IATA codes, and to add to the confusion IATA codes are assigned to railway stations. Unlike the IATA codes, the ICAO codes generally have a structure and are comprehensive. In general, the first letter is allocated by continent and represents a country or group of countries within that continent, the second letter generally represents a country within that region, and the remaining two are used to identify each airport. The exception to rule is larger countries that have single-letter country codes. In either case, ICAO codes generally provide geographical context unlike IATA codes, for example, if one knows that the ICAO code for Heathrow is EGLL, then one can deduce that the airport EGGP is somewhere in the UK. On the other hand, knowing that the IATA code for Heathrow is LHR does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty, there are a few exceptions to the regional structure of the ICAO code made for political or administrative reasons. Similarly Saint Pierre and Miquelon is controlled by France, and airports there are assigned LFxx as though they were in Europe, further, in region L, all available 2-letter prefixes have been exhausted and thus no additional countries can be added
6.
Federal Aviation Administration
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The Federal Aviation Administration of the United States is a national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. The FAAs roles include, Regulating U. S, each LOB has a specific role within the FAA. Airports — plans and develops projects involving airports, overseeing their construction, Air Traffic Organization — primary duty is to safely and efficiently move air traffic within the National Airspace System. ATO employees manage air traffic facilities including Airport Traffic Control Towers, Aviation Safety — Responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics. Commercial Space Transportation — ensures protection of U. S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles, the FAA is headquartered in Washington, D. C. as well as the William J. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight, in fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the system of lighted airways. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control along the airways, in 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency. The legislation also expanded the role by giving them the authority. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the Civil Aeronautics Board, CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines, the CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency, on the eve of Americas entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war, the application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions and this legislation gave the CAAs functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, the FAAs first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
9.
Asphalt concrete
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Asphalt concrete is a composite material commonly used to surface roads, parking lots, airports, as well as the core of embankment dams. It consists of mineral aggregate bound together with asphalt, laid in layers, the process was refined and enhanced by Belgian inventor and U. S. immigrant Edward de Smedt. The abbreviation AC is sometimes used for asphalt concrete but can also denote asphalt content or asphalt cement, mixing is generally performed with the aggregate at about 300 °F for virgin asphalt and 330 °F for polymer modified asphalt, and the asphalt cement at 200 °F. Paving and compaction must be performed while the asphalt is sufficiently hot, in many countries paving is restricted to summer months because in winter the compacted base will cool the asphalt too much before it is able to be packed to the required density. HMAC is the form of asphalt concrete most commonly used on high traffic pavements such as those on major highways, racetracks and it is also used as an environmental liner for landfills, reservoirs, and fish hatchery ponds. Superpave, short for superior performing asphalt pavement, is a pavement system designed to provide longer lasting roadways, key components of the system are careful selection of binders and aggregates, volumetric proportioning of ingredients, and evaluation of the finished product. Warm mix asphalt concrete is produced by adding either zeolites, waxes, asphalt emulsions and this allows significantly lower mixing and laying temperatures and results in lower consumption of fossil fuels, thus releasing less carbon dioxide, aerosols and vapors. The usage of additives in hot mixed asphalt may afford easier compaction. Use of warm mix is rapidly expanding, a survey of US asphalt producers found that nearly 25% of asphalt produced in 2012 was warm mix, a 416% increase since 2009. Cold mix asphalt concrete is produced by emulsifying the asphalt in water with soap prior to mixing with the aggregate, while in its emulsified state the asphalt is less viscous and the mixture is easy to work and compact. The emulsion will break after enough water evaporates and the mix will, ideally. Cold mix is used as a patching material and on lesser trafficked service roads. Cut-back asphalt concrete is a form of cold mix asphalt produced by dissolving the binder in kerosene or another lighter fraction of petroleum prior to mixing with the aggregate, while in its dissolved state the asphalt is less viscous and the mix is easy to work and compact. After the mix is laid down the lighter fraction evaporates, because of concerns with pollution from the volatile organic compounds in the lighter fraction, cut-back asphalt has been largely replaced by asphalt emulsion. Mastic asphalt concrete or sheet asphalt is produced by heating hard grade blown bitumen in a green cooker until it has become a liquid after which the aggregate mix is then added. Mastic asphalt concrete is laid to a thickness of around 3⁄4–1 3⁄16 inches for footpath and road applications. HMAC layers are used both in reinforcement operations and in the construction of new reinforcements for medium and heavy traffic, in base layers, they tend to exhibit a greater capacity of absorbing tensions and, in general, better fatigue resistance. In addition to the asphalt and aggregate, additives, such as polymers, Asphalt concrete pavements—especially those at airfields—are sometimes called tarmac for historical reasons, although they do not contain tar and are not constructed using the macadam process
10.
Asphalt
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Asphalt, also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in deposits or may be a refined product. Until the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used, the word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt is the carefully refined residue from the process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen, geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to forms of asphalt/bitumen as tar. Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C is sometimes referred to as refined bitumen. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the reserves of natural bitumen, covering 142,000 square kilometres. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in a sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum, the substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase, and it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large. Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a visually similar black. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct, the addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen
11.
Eighth Air Force
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The Eighth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command. It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, the command serves as Air Forces Strategic – Global Strike, one of the air components of United States Strategic Command. The Eighth Air Force includes the heart of Americas heavy bomber force, the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber, the B-1 Lancer supersonic bomber, and it was the largest of the deployed combat Army Air Forces in numbers of personnel, aircraft, and equipment. Elements of 8 AF engaged in operations during the Korean War, Vietnam War. Eighth Air Force is one of two active duty numbered air forces in Air Force Global Strike Command, Eighth Air Force, with headquarters at Barksdale AFB, in the Bossier City – Shreveport, Louisiana, metro area, supports U. S. Joint Forces Command, and is designated as U. S. Strategic Commands Task Force 204, providing on-alert, the mission of The Mighty Eighth is to safeguard Americas interests through strategic deterrence and global combat power. Eighth Air Force controls long-range nuclear-capable bomber assets throughout the United States and its flexible, conventional and nuclear deterrence mission provides the capability to deploy forces and engage enemy threats from home station or forward positioned, anywhere, any time. The 8th Air Force motto is Peace Through Strength and this air power includes the heart of Americas heavy bomber force, the B-2 Spirit and the B-52 Stratofortress. The B-2 force consists of 20 bombers assigned to the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman AFB, for additional history and lineage, see United States Air Forces in Europe The history of Eighth Air Force begins on 2 January 1942 with its activation at Savannah Air Base, Georgia. In quick order, on 5 January, Major General Carl Spaatz assumed command of HQ Eighth Air Force at Bolling Field, Washington, on 8 January the order activating the U. S. Air Forces in the British Isles was announced. On 12 May, the first contingent of USAAF personnel arrived in England to join the Eighth Air Force, on 15 June, Spaatz arrived in England to establish the Headquarters of Eighth Air Force at Bushy Park,15 miles WSW of London. Eighth Air Force was the command and control organization over its operational components, VIII Bomber Command Strategic bombardment using heavy, VIII Fighter Command Provide fighter escort of heavy bombers VIII Air Support Command Provide reconnaissance, troop transport, and tactical bombardment using twin-engine medium bombers. VIII Air Service Command Service and logistical support, VIII Bomber Command was activated at Langley Field, Virginia, It was reassigned to Savannah Air Base, Georgia on 10 February 1942. The first combat group of VIII Bomber Command to arrive in the United Kingdom was the ground echelon of the 97th Bombardment Group, during World War II, the offensive air forces of the United States Army Air Forces came to be classified as strategic or tactical. In Europe, Eighth Air Force was the first USAAF strategic air force, Eighth Air Force carried out strategic daytime strategic bombing operations in Western Europe from airfields in eastern England. On 4 January 1944, the B-24s and B-17s based in England flew their last mission as a part of VIII Bomber Command. On 22 February 1944, a reorganization of American airpower took place in Europe. VIII Bomber Command was redesignated as Eighth Air Force, with VIII Fighter and this is from where the present-day Eighth Air Forces history, lineage and honors derive
12.
Rockwell B-1 Lancer
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The Rockwell B-1 Lancer is a four-engine supersonic variable-sweep wing, jet-powered heavy strategic bomber used by the United States Air Force. It was first envisioned in the 1960s as a bomber with Mach 2 speed. It was developed into the B-1B, primarily a low-level penetrator with long range and it is commonly called the Bone. Designed by Rockwell International, development was delayed multiple times over its history due to changes in the perceived need for manned bombers, the initial B-1A version was developed in the early 1970s, but its production was canceled, and only four prototypes were built. The need for a new once again surfaced in the early 1980s. However, by point, development of stealth technology was promising an aircraft of dramatically improved capability. Production went ahead as the B version would be operational before the Advanced Technology Bomber, the B-1B entered service in 1986 with the USAF Strategic Air Command as a nuclear bomber. It first served in combat during Operation Desert Fox in 1998, the B-1B has supported U. S. and NATO military forces in Afghanistan and Iraq. The USAF had 66 B-1Bs in service in September 2012, the B-1B is expected to continue to serve into the 2030s, with the Long Range Strike Bomber to start supplementing the B-1B in 2030. In 1955 the U. S. Air Force issued requirements for a new bomber combining the payload, in December 1957, the U. S. Air Force selected North American Aviations B-70 Valkyrie for this role. The Valkyrie was a bomber that could cruise at Mach 3 at high altitude. By the late 1950s, however, anti-aircraft surface-to-air missiles could threaten high-altitude aircraft, the USAF Strategic Air Command were aware of these developments and had begun moving its bombers to low-level penetration even before the U-2 downing. Even at somewhat higher altitudes, radar systems of the era were subject to clutter from stray returns from the ground and other objects, bombers flying at low altitudes could remain under these angles simply by keeping their distance from the radar sites. This combination of effects made SAMs of the era ineffective against low-flying aircraft, the switch from high-altitude to low-altitude flight profiles severely affected the B-70, whose design was highly tuned to provide the desired high-altitude performance. Planners outlined a series of low-level profiles for the B-70, the result would be an aircraft with somewhat higher subsonic speed, but less range than the B-52 it was meant to replace. Although never intended for the role, the B-52s flexibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the nature of the air war environment changed. The B-52s huge fuel load allowed it to operate at altitudes for longer times. The much smaller bomb bay of the B-70 would have made it less useful in this role
13.
28th Bomb Wing
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The 28th Bomb Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Eighth Air Force of the Global Strike Command and is stationed at Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota. The wing is also the host unit at Ellsworth AFB, the wing is one of only two B-1B Lancer strategic bomber wings in the United States Air Force, the other being the 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas. Active for over 60 years, the 28 BW was a component wing of Strategic Air Commands deterrent force throughout the Cold War, the 28th Bomb Wing is commanded by Colonel Gentry Boswell since 2015, its Command Chief Master Sergeant is CMSgt Adam Vizi. The 28th Bomb Wing carries on the traditions of the 28th Operations Group, myth, The motto Guardian of the North is not related in any way to the wings Cold War service with B-52 Stratofortress bombers. Although this motto seems to dovetail nicely with the idea of guarding the north from the Soviets, this is definitely not the case. For additional history and lineage, see 28th Operations Group The 28th Bomb Wing, under various designations, has assigned to Ellsworth Air Force Base. It is the longest assigned active-duty unit at a base in the United States Air Force. Established as the 28th Bombardment Wing, Very Heavy on 28 July 1947, maintained proficiency in heavy bombardment, 1947–1948. Maintained proficiency in global bombardment, deploying tactical components or segments thereof as needed, in March 1953 an RB-36 and its entire crew of 23 crashed in Newfoundland while returning from a routine exercise in Europe. Headquarters Strategic Air Command reassigned the 28 BMW from 8th Air Force back to 15th Air Force in October 1955, deployed at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, April–July 1955. Approximately one year later, SAC set plans in motion to replace the 28ths B-36s with the new all-jet B-52 Stratofortress, the last B-36 left Ellsworth on 29 May 1957 and the first B-52 arrived sixteen days later. In 1958 all base units came under the command of the 821st Strategic Aerospace Division, on 26 September 1958, two 28th wing B-52Ds set world speed records. One flew a 5,000 km closed course at an speed of 597.695 mph. Controlled a non-equipped Titan missile squadron, December 1960 – December 1961, from this point, the Big Belly B-52D became the SAC workhorse in Southeast Asia. 9 March – c.21 September 1966, c.15 January – c.19 July 1968, converted from B-52G to B-52H models in 1977. Performed airborne launch control functions for USAF Minuteman missile wings with EC-135 aircraft, expanded B-52H mission in 1984 to include sea reconnaissance, surveillance, and conventional operations from forward bases overseas. Upgraded tanker force to KC-135R in 1985–1986, in 1986 the 28 BMW made extensive preparations to phase out the aging B-52 fleet and become the new home for the advanced B-1 Lancer. Contractors completed new unaccompanied enlisted dormitories in March, a new security police group headquarters in October, in addition, they completed new aircraft maintenance facilities for the complex new B-1B
14.
Ellsworth Air Force Base
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Ellsworth Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located approximately 10 miles northeast of Rapid City, South Dakota just north of Box Elder, South Dakota. The host unit at Ellsworth is the 28th Bomb Wing assigned to the Global Strike Commands Eighth Air Force. The 28 BW is one of only two B-1B Lancer strategic bomber wings in the United States Air Force, the other being the 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess AFB, Texas. Since 2015 the 28th Bomb Wing is commanded by Colonel Gentry Boswell, a controversial expansion of a bomber training area encompassing the Northern Plains known as the Powder River Training Complex began in 2008. Ellsworth AFB is 10 miles east of Rapid City, S. D, the mission of the 28th Bomb Wing is to deliver combat power for global military response. It is divided into the 28th Operations Group, the 28th Maintenance Group, the 28th Mission Support Group, Ellsworths population of approximately 8,000 includes military members, family members and civilian employees. The bases sister city, Rapid City, has a population of just more than 62,500, there are about 3,800 military retirees in Western South Dakota. 28th Operations Group Provides combat-ready B-1 aircraft and crews to support Joint Chiefs of Staff taskings, including conventional theater operations and power projection. The 28th Operations Group has three squadrons under its command to assist in accomplishing its mission—the 28th Operations Support Squadron, the 34th Bomb Squadron, additionally, the group directs the implementation of plans supporting pre-planned and contingency mobility taskings in support of national objectives. 28th Mission Support Group Provides mission essential “city” services at home, additionally, the group supports the base community through fire protection, disaster preparedness, family support. Recreational opportunities are provided in the form of clubs, fitness facilities. 28th Medical Group Tenant Units Air Force Financial Services Center Area Defense Counsel Detachment 226 AFOSI Detachment 8,372 TRS Ellsworth AFB was established in 1941 as Rapid City Army Air Base. It is named in honor of Brigadier General Richard E. Ellsworth, during World War II Ellsworth flew 400 missions in the China Burma India Theater. At the time of his death he commanded the 28th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing, on 2 January 1942, the U. S. War Department established Rapid City Army Air Base as a location for B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber units. The airfield had three runways, 7050x300, 7000x300, 7872x300. Rapid City AAF was assigned to the 17th Bombardment Training Wing, the 88th Bombardment Group was reassigned to the new base in October 1942 to be the bases Operational Training Unit. The fields instructors taught thousands of pilots, navigators, radio operators and gunners from nine heavy bombardment groups, all training focused on the Allied drive to overthrow the Axis powers in Europe
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South Dakota
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South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, South Dakota is the 17th most expansive, but the 5th least populous and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Once the southern portion of the Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2,1889, Pierre is the state capital and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 171,000, is South Dakotas largest city. South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Wyoming, the state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as East River and West River. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the states population, West of the Missouri, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are located in West River, the Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, are located in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is located there, South Dakota experiences a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The ecology of the state features species typical of a North American grassland biome, humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a rush in the Black Hills. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in areas to attract and retain residents. South Dakotas history and rural character still strongly influence the culture of the state, South Dakota is situated in the north-central United States, and is considered a part of the Midwest by the U. S. Census Bureau, it is also part of the Great Plains region. The culture, economy, and geography of western South Dakota have more in common with the West than the Midwest, South Dakota has a total area of 77,116 square miles, making the state the 17th largest in the Union. Black Elk Peak, formerly named Harney Peak, with an elevation of 7,242 ft, is the states highest point, while the shoreline of Big Stone Lake is the lowest, with an elevation of 966 ft. South Dakota is bordered to the north by North Dakota, to the south by Nebraska, to the east by Iowa and Minnesota, the geographical center of the U. S. is 17 miles west of Castle Rock in Butte County. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located between Allen and Kyle,1,024 mi from the nearest coastline, the Missouri River is the largest and longest river in the state. Other major South Dakota rivers include the Cheyenne, James, Big Sioux, Eastern South Dakota has many natural lakes, mostly created by periods of glaciation. Additionally, dams on the Missouri River create four large reservoirs, Lake Oahe, Lake Sharpe, Lake Francis Case, South Dakota can generally be divided into three regions, eastern South Dakota, western South Dakota, and the Black Hills. The Missouri River serves as a boundary in terms of geographic, social, at times the Black Hills are combined with the rest of western South Dakota, and people often refer to the resulting two regions divided by the Missouri River as West River and East River
16.
Bataan Death March
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The transfer began on April 9,1942, after the three-month Battle of Bataan in the Philippines during World War II. The total distance marched from Mariveles to San Fernando and from the Capas Train Station to Camp ODonnell is variously reported by differing sources as between 60 mi and 69.6 mi. Differing sources also report widely differing prisoner of war prior to reaching Camp ODonnell. The march was characterized by physical abuse and wanton killings. The plan was sound, however and its provisions for defense were applicable under any local situation. Under WPO-3, the mission of the Philippine garrison was to hold the entrance to Manila Bay and it was to be defended to the last extremity. General MacArthur assumed command of the Allied army in July 1941 and rejected WPO-3 as defeatist and he recommended—among other things—a coastal defense strategy that would include the entire archipelago. His recommendations were followed in the plan that was eventually approved, the main force of General Masaharu Hommas 14th Army came ashore at Lingayen Gulf on the morning of 22 December. The defenders failed to hold the beaches, by the end of the day, the Japanese had secured most of their objectives and were in position to emerge onto the central plain. Late on the afternoon of the 23rd, Wainwright telephoned General MacArthurs headquarters in Manila and he requested and was given permission to withdraw behind the Agno River. MacArthur decided to abandon his own plan for defense and revert to WPO-3, evacuating President Manuel L. Quezon, sayre, their families, and his own headquarters to Corregidor on the 24th. On December 26 Manila was officially declared a city and MacArthurs proclamation was published in the newspapers. The Battle of Bataan began January 7,1942 and continued until April 9, following the surrender of Bataan on April 9,1942 to the Japanese Imperial Army, prisoners were massed in Mariveles and Bagac town. As the defeated defenders were massed in preparation for the march, American Lieutenant Kermit Lay recounted how this was done, They pulled us off into a rice paddy and began shaking us down. There about a hundred of us so it took time to get to all of us, everyone had pulled their pockets wrong side out and laid all their things out in front. They were taking jewelry and doing a lot of slapping, I laid out my New Testament. … After the shakedown, the Japs took an officer and two enlisted men behind a rice shack and shot them, the men who had been next to them said they had Japanese souvenirs and money. Word quickly spread among the prisoners to conceal or destroy any Japanese money or mementos, prisoners started out from Mariveles on April 10, and Bagac on April 11, converging in Pilar, Bataan, and heading north to the San Fernando railhead
17.
William E. Dyess
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William Edwin Ed Dyess was an officer of the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. He was captured after the Allied loss at the Battle of Bataan, after a year in captivity, he escaped and spent three months on the run before being evacuated from the Philippines by a U. S. submarine. Once back in the U. S. he recounted the story of his capture and imprisonment and he returned to duty in the Army Air Forces but was killed in a training accident months later. Born and raised in Albany, Texas, son of Judge Richard T. Dyess attended Albany High School where he played football and ran track and field. He graduated from school in 1934 and from John Tarleton College in Stephenville, Texas. He was a distant cousin of fellow World War II veteran Aquilla J. Dyess, Dyess underwent flight training at Kelly and Randolph Fields in San Antonio, Texas, and was commissioned second lieutenant in the United States Army Air Corps in 1937. Promoted to first lieutenant and command of the 21st Pursuit Squadron at Hamilton Field, San Francisco, Dyess led the squadron to Nichols Field, Manila, Philippines, in November 1941. The 21st Pursuit Squadron was assigned to the 24th Pursuit Group which together with the 19th Bomb Group suffered heavy casualties during the opening of the war with Japan in 1941. Flying P-40 Warhawks against superior Japanese types, Dyess maintained his units morale in the face of staggering losses during the Battle of Bataan, when his squadron ran short of aircraft, Dyess transitioned to an infantry officer, serving in this capacity during the Battle of the Points. When the Bataan Peninsula fell to the Japanese, Dyess, as commanding officer and he gave his airplane to another fighter pilot, Lieutenant I. B. Jack Donaldson, for last bombing run on 9 April, after which Jack was ordered to fly it to Cebu, where he crash landed. Dyess was captured by the Japanese on April 9,1942, north of Mariveles, Bataan, and the morning, he. He was imprisoned at Camp ODonnell and then, from June to 26 October 1942, there, he and his men were routinely denied the rights of prisoners of war. Dyess and others were transported by ship, the Erie Maru, to the Davao Penal Colony on Mindanao and it would be the only large-scale escape of Allied POWs from the Japanese in the Pacific Theater during World War II. Dyess and his group spent several weeks evading pursuit, then joined a group of guerrillas for several months, the group decided to split up, with seven joining organized guerrilla forces in northern Mindanao. Dyess and two others were evacuated by the U. S. Navy submarine Trout to Australia in July 1943, upon reaching the United States in August, he was thoroughly debriefed on his experiences as a POW by high-ranking military brass. He was ordered to recuperate, in Sept.1943, at the Ashford General Hospital in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. The U. S. Government, however, refused to release Dyess story for publication on the grounds that it would infuriate the Japanese, the Tribune had to wait another four and a half months for the Secretary of War to grant release of the story
18.
28th Bomb Squadron
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The 28th Bomb Squadron is a squadron of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to the 7th Operations Group, Global Strike Command, stationed at Dyess Air Force Base, the squadron is equipped with the Rockwell B-1B Lancer. The 28 BS is one of the oldest and most decorated units in the United States Air Force, being organized as the 28th Aero Squadron on 22 June 1917 at Kelly Field, Texas. The squadron deployed to France and fought on the Western Front during World War I as a pursuit squadron, the unit was demobilized after the war in 1919. Withdrawn to Australia, it fought in the Dutch East Indies campaign before returning to the United States and it returned to the Pacific Theater of Operations in early 1945 to carry out strategic bombing missions over the Japanese Home Islands. During the Cold War it carried out B-29 bombardment missions over North Korea during the Korean War, later being a B-47 Stratojet, the 28 BS flies the B-1B Lancer intercontinental strategic bomber. It is the largest bomb squadron in the Air Force, the squadrons mission is to provide all B-1 initial qualification, requalification, and instructor upgrade training for Global Strike Command. See, 28th Aero Squadron for a complete World War I history of the squadron Established in 1917 as the 28th Aero Squadron after the United States entry into World War I. Formed at Camp Kelly, Texas, then sent to Quebec for combat flying training units of the Royal Air Force. Deployed to the Western Front in France and served with British Second, the 28th also saw combat as pursuit unit with American First Army from,2 September 1918 –10 November 1918. Squadron returned from France in June 1919, demobilized and was inactivated, during World war I, it had two aces in its ranks, Martinus Stenseth and Thomas Cassady. After World War I, the 28th Squadron, was constituted as a new unit on 30 August 1921 and it was organized on 20 September at Mather Field, California and assigned to the IX Corps Area. The squadron was equipped with Dayton-Wright DH-4s and was used for aerial forest fire patrols along the side of the Sierra Mountains and Sacramento. On 19 January 1922, it was consolidated with its World War I predecessor unit. The unit was inactivated on 28 June 1922 with the closure of Mather Field, the squadron was re-activated on 1 September 1922 at Clark Field, Philippine Islands and assigned to the Philippine Department. It was moved to Kindley Field, on Corregidor Island and again equipped with DH-4s, assigned to the 1st Observation Group, the 28th was re-designated as a Bombardment Squadron on 25 January 1923. Along with the 2d Observation and 3d Pursuit Squadrons, the 28th provided the bombardment capability of the Air Service in the Philippines during the 1920s and 1930s and its mission was tactical training for coastal defense. Exercises and maneuvers with Army ground forces and Naval forces were a regular, the squadron was moved to the Manila area in 1922, operating from time to time from either Clark or Nichols fields
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9th Bomb Squadron
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The 9th Bomb Squadron is a squadron of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to the 7th Operations Group, Global Strike Command, stationed at Dyess Air Force Base, the squadron is equipped with the B-1B Lancer bomber. Formed in June 1917, the 9 BS is the oldest bomb squadron in the Air Force, during World War I, the squadron was the first American night reconnaissance squadron to be organized. Later, it served with the Army Air Service and Army Air Corps in the Inter-War period and then served in Australia, Egypt, a part of Strategic Air Command during the Cold War, today the squadron is engaged as part of the Global War on Terrorism. The 9th Bomb Squadron maintains combat readiness to deliver rapid, decisive airpower on a scale in support of conventional warfare taskings. Squadron experts provide warfighting commanders with the best in maintenance support, operational aircrews, the 9th Bomb Squadrons patch features 3 spotlights aiming skyward, to represent the 3 major campaigns the 9th participated in during WWI. One spotlight shines vertically, while the two cross each other. This forms an IX, which is the Roman Numeral for 9, the 9th Bombardment Squadron began as the 9th Aero Squadron at Kelly Field, Texas on 14 June 1917. World War I had begun in April of that year and the unit was targeted for overseas combat duty and their first European stop was Winchester, England in December 1917. Following the holidays the unit moved on to RFC Grantham, England to train for flying the Sopwith Scout. After eight months of training, the unit moved to the Western Front in August 1918. While in Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome, France, the 9th was assigned to the First Army Observation Group, also, after arrival in France, the unit began flying a new aircraft, the French Breguet 14. That aircraft would be used extensively to perform the units mission, by specializing in night reconnaissance, the 9th gained the unique distinction of being the first in the Army Air Service to do so. However, their missions were not without danger, in one case, two of the 9th aircraft were engaged by seven enemy Fokkers. The 9ths aircraft not only shot down two German aircraft, but completed their photographic mission, as the war progressed the unit participated in many night missions and battles. Most famous of those battles were the Battle of Lorraine, Battle of St Michiel, for those, the unit earned their first battle streamers. After the war had drawn to a close, the unit was moved to Trier, in June 1919, the unit was ordered back to the States where they were stationed at Mitchel Field, New York, Park Field, Tennessee, and at March Field, California. With the establishment of a permanent Army Air Service, on 14 March 1921, funding shortages, however led to the squadrons inactivation on 29 June 1922
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436th Training Squadron
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The 436th Training Squadron is a non-flying training squadron of the United States Air Force. The squadron deployed to France and fought on the Western Front during World War I as a Corps observation squadron. On 7 December 1941, elements of the 88th Reconnaissance Squadron were one of the B-17 Flying Fortress units that landed at Hickam Field, Hawaii during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Later in World War II as the 436th Bombardment Squadron, the unit earned the Distinguished Unit Citation, during the Cold War, it was part of Strategic Air Command equipped with B-52 Stratofortress bombers until its inactivation in 1963. The 436th Training Squadron provides formal training to Air Combat Command using 14 classes at Dyess AFB and 38 other programs exported directly to units for local training needs, the 436th Training Squadron also develops multimedia and formal presentations used in training program development and formal presentations. Multimedia personnel are based at Dyess AFB, and deploy worldwide to perform their mission, Unit products and services are used throughout the DOD. Activated in the summer of 1917 as the Air Service 88th Aero Squadron, deployed to France during World War I, engaged in combat as a corps observation squadron with I, III, IV, and V Army Corps,30 May –10 November 1918. After the armistice subsequently served with VII Army Corps in occupation force, re-designated as the 88th Squadron in 1921 and assigned to Langley Field, Virginia. Participated in demonstrations of effectiveness of aerial bombardment on warships, June–September 1921, deployed for service in connection with civil disorders arising from West Virginia coal strike, September 1921. Squadron moved to California in 1935 and was assigned to the new Hamilton Field near San Francisco, in October 1941, was ordered to Clark Field, Philippines Commonwealth to build up forces there due to increased tensions between the United States and the Japanese Empire. The Republic arrived the 28th of November, December 7th they had reached the Equator. Hearing the news of the attack on Pearl Harbor, they changed course, from the Philippines, now re-directed to Brisbane, Australia via Suva, the B-17s ended up coming in under attack during their arrival at Hickam on 7 December. Some of the managed to land at Haleiwa Fighter Strip, one set down on a golf course. After the Pearl Harbor Attack, the aircraft operated from Hawaii until February 1942. Moved to Australia with the 7th Bomb Group where the squadron reformed in northern Queensland in late February, became part of the new Fifth Air Force. Ceased bombing operations in late May 1945 and was attached to the Air Transport Command to haul gasoline from India over the Himalayas to China, Squadron demobilized in India, leaving B-24s to Indian Colonial forces, inactivated as a paper unit in the United States in early 1946. In June 1948 the first Consolidated B-36A Peacekeeper was delivered, operated B-36s until 1958 when the squadron began conversion to the B-52 Stratoforterss. In 1959 was reassigned to SAC provisional 4238th Strategic Wing, being re-equipped with B-52F Stratofortress intercontinental heavy bombers, was reassigned to Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana by SAC to disperse its heavy bomber force
21.
317th Airlift Group
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The 317th Airlift Group is a United States Air Force unit, stationed at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas. Assigned to Air Mobility Command Eighteenth Air Force, the 317 AG operates as a tenant unit to the 7th Bomb Wing, the 317 AG is a tactical airlift organization, flying the C-130 Hercules and Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules. Since December 2003, the 317th has been in a deployed status in support of the Global War on Terrorism. It has been engaged in Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom, during World War II, the units predecessor unit, the The 317 Troop Carrier Group was one of the most highly decorated troop carrier units of the United States Army Air Forces. Provided troop carrier and courier service in the Far East,1948, as a result of Soviet blockade of Berlin, moved by ship from Japan to West Germany, December 1948— January 1949 and reassigned to USAFE. Participated in Berlin Airlift,9 January –31 July 1949, from July 1952 to April 1957 provided C-119 troop carrier and airlift service in support of USAFE, NATO, and UN, at same time participating in numerous exercises and humanitarian missions. Moved to France in April 1957, replacing 465th Troop Carrier Wing on 8 July From April 1963 to June 1964, provided C-130 airlift in support of USAFE, NATO, reassigned to Tactical Air Command and moved to Ohio in June 1964. Became involved in TACs worldwide C-130 airlift operations, with training a major responsibility. In May 1967 the unit was redesignated the 317 Troop Carrier Wing and by 1971 it transferred to Pope Air Force Base, provided C-130 replacement training support for PACAF, October 1965— July 1971 and August— December 1971. Also provided C-123 combat crew training for the U. S. and Republic of Vietnam crews, reassigned to Military Airlift Command in December 1974. Crews and aircraft of assigned squadrons rotated periodically to England for European providing intra-theater airlift, after an Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990, transported troops, equipment, and supplies to Southwest Asia as part of Operation Desert Shield and participated in Operation Desert Storm in 1991. In 1992, the Fighting 3-1-7 took part in humanitarian airlifts to Bosnia and Somalia and it transported relief workers and supplies to Florida after Hurricane Andrew. As the Air Force continued to streamline its operations after the end of the Cold War, the 317th was inactivated at Pope Air Force Base in July 1993. Four years after the inactivation, in April 1997, a transfer of all U. S. based C-130 aircraft to Air Mobility Command resulted in the reactivation of the 317th as a group organization. In 2008, the 317th AG again supported Americans providing hurricane relief in Hurricanes Gustav and Ike, transporting patients, beginning 20 December 2003 and ending 20 March 2013, the 317th AG deployed for 3,378 continuous days in service to the United States at home and abroad. On 25 July 2013, the 317th AG received its 28th and final Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules, giving the Group the distinction of being the largest C-130J unit in the world. In May 2014, crews and planes of the deployed to Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti. During the deployment crews supported medical evacuations, disaster relief, humanitarian, operations included movement of the East Africa Response Force to forward positions
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Air Mobility Command
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Air Mobility Command is a Major Command of the U. S. Air Force. AMC is headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois, east of St. Louis, the Commander of AMC is Gen Carlton D. Everhart II, with Lt Gen Wayne Schatz Jr as Vice Commander and CMSgt Shelina Frey as Command Chief Master Sergeant. Air Mobility Command was established on June 1,1992 and it was formed from elements of the inactivated Military Airlift Command and Strategic Air Command. AMC melded a worldwide system with a tanker force that had been freed from its strategic nuclear strike commitments by the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Air Mobility Commands mission is to provide global air mobility, the command also plays a crucial role in providing humanitarian support at home and around the world. Many special duty and operational aircraft and stateside aeromedical evacuation missions are also assigned to AMC. U. S. forces must be able to provide a rapid, tailored response with a capability to intervene against a foe, hit hard. Rapid global mobility lies at the heart of U. S. strategy in this environment, without the capability to project forces, there is no conventional deterrent. As the number of U. S. forces stationed overseas continue to decline, global interests remain, Air Mobility Command also has the mission of establishing bare air bases in contingencies. To accomplish this mission, AMC established two Contingency Response Wings, and operates the Eagle Flag exercise, in addition to its status as a MAJCOM of the Air Force, AMC is also the Air Force component command of the United States Transportation Command. It provides airlift, special missions, aerial refueling, and aeromedical evacuation for the United States armed forces]], AMC also operates VIP flights such as Air Force One, Air Force Two, and other Special Assignment Airlift Missions. Finally, AMC acts as the manager, on behalf of United States Transportation Command. Principal aircraft assets of the include, C-17 Globemaster III, C-5 Galaxy, C-130 Hercules, KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, C-40 Clipper, C-37 Gulfstream V. As of 2015, the command is preparing for the addition of the KC-46 Pegasus. Additional aircraft in support of high-profile VIP airlift include, VC-25, C-32, C-20 and these units train and exercise frequently and routinely provide augmentative operational support to AMCs active duty forces. Instead, they report to AMC via the National Guard Bureau, civil Reserve Air Fleet AMC has undergone considerable change since its establishment. Focusing on the mission of strategic air mobility, the command divested itself of infrastructure. The Air Rescue Service, intratheater aeromedical airlift forces based overseas, as a result of the Global War on Terrorism, on October 1,2003, AMC underwent a major restructuring, bringing a war fighting role to its numbered air force
23.
Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules
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The Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft. The C-130J is an update of the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, with new engines, flight deck. The Hercules family has the longest continuous run of any military aircraft in history. During more than 60 years of service, the family has participated in military, civilian, the Hercules has outlived several planned successor designs, most notably the Advanced Medium STOL Transport contestants. Fifteen nations have placed orders for a total of 300 C-130Js, the C-130J is the newest version of the Hercules and the only model still in production. Externally similar to the classic Hercules in general appearance, the J-model features considerably updated technology and these differences include new Rolls-Royce AE2100 D3 turboprop engines with Dowty R391 composite scimitar propellers, digital avionics, and reduced crew requirements. These changes have improved performance over its C-130E/H predecessors, such as 40% greater range, 21% higher maximum speed, the J-model is available in a standard-length or stretched -30 variant. The U. S. Marine Corps KC-130J uses a crew chief for expeditionary operations, the C-130Js cargo compartment is approximately 41 feet long,9 feet high, and 10 feet wide, and loading is from the rear of the fuselage. The aircraft can also be configured with the cargo handling system. Initially developed for the USAF, this system enables rapid role changes to be carried out, Lockheed Martin received the launch order for the J-model from the RAF, which ordered 25 aircraft, with first deliveries beginning in 1999 as Hercules C4 and Hercules C5. The standard C-130J had a flyaway cost of US$62 million in 2008, in mid-June 2008, the United States Air Force awarded a $470 million contract to Lockheed Martin for six modified KC-130J aircraft for use by the Air Force and Special Operations Command. The contract led to C-130J variants that will replace aging HC-130s and MC-130s, the HC-130J Combat King II personnel recovery aircraft completed developmental testing on 14 March 2011. The final test point was air-to-air refueling, and was the first ever boom refueling of a C-130 where the aircraft’s refueling receiver was installed during aircraft production and this test procedure also applied to the MC-130J Combat Shadow II aircraft in production for Air Force Special Operations Command. This capability, designated as Harvest HAWK, can be used in scenarios where precision is not a requisite, the aircraft retains its original capabilities in refueling and transportation. The entire system can be removed within a day if necessary, the Super Hercules has been used extensively by the USAF and USMC in Iraq and Afghanistan. Canada has also deployed its CC-130J aircraft to Afghanistan, C-130Js from several countries have been deployed in support of the US Operation Odyssey Dawn and NATOs Operation Unified Protector during the 2011 Libyan civil war. From the first flight on 5 April 1996 to 30 April 2013,290 C-130J Super Hercules aircraft operated by 13 nations surpassed 1 million flight hours, in January 2013, it was reported that some of Canadas C-130J transports had counterfeit Chinese microchips in their cockpit displays. These parts are likely to fail and result in failures such as blank instrument screens during flight
24.
39th Airlift Squadron
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The 39th Airlift Squadron is a United States Air Force unit based at Dyess Air Force Base, Abilene, Texas. The unit flies the Lockheed C-130J Super Hercules, provide services and support, which promote quality of life and project global power through combat-proven airlift and airdrop. The 39th conducted paratroop drops on Noemfoor, Luzon, as well as transportation in the Pacific Theater of Operations during World War II. The squadron participated in the Berlin Airlift in 1948 and it was part of airlift missions to Grenada, in October 1983, to Panama, December 1989-January 1990, and to Southwest Asia, August 1990-March 1991
25.
40th Airlift Squadron
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The 40th Airlift Squadron is a United States Air Force unit based at Dyess Air Force Base, Abilene, Texas. The unit currently flies the new Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules aircraft, nicknamed the Screaming Eagles, it is one of the most decorated airlift units in the U. S. Air Force. On 18 February 1942, the squadron was activated as the 40th Transport Squadron at Duncan Field, San Antonio, beginning with only a second lieutenant squadron commander and eight enlisted men, the squadron slowly took shape, and in about four months was full-sized. At this time it transferred to Bowman Field, Kentucky where it began flying the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, a few days later, the Squadron left North Carolina for the Mobile Air Depot, Alabama where it received thirteen new C-47s. After they checked out the airplanes, the squadron flew to California, on 5 January 1943, the Squadron left California for the Southwest Pacific Theater of operations. Two days later it landed at Brisbane, Australia where it came under the command of the Fifth Air Force, after a short time in Brisbane, the Squadron moved to Barbutt Field, Townsville, Australia, the Squadrons first permanent oversees home. In the Buna campaign, the 40th ferried food, ammunition, equipment, as the battle of Buna neared its end, the fight for Wau was just beginning. At Wau, the Squadron supported Australian commandos known as the Kanga Force who were harassing the Japanese, Squadron pilots soon became accustomed to landing on the 3, 000-foot dirt strip at Wau with its 12 per cent grade heading directly at Kainde Mountain. The crews flew in reinforcements, ammunition, artillery pieces, food, Wau saw the 40ths first combat casualties when a crew crashed while attempting to land on 18 January. On 29 January, the Japanese began an assault on the airstrip. They managed to reach one end of the runway, which they placed under constant mortar fire, at times, planes circled as the Australians fought the Japanese far enough back into the jungle to allow the aircraft to land. Many of the reinforcements flown into the strip jumped from the planes straight into the battle with their guns firing, by the end of 30 January, most of the Japanese attacks had been repulsed, and the airstrip remained in Allied hands for the remainder of the war. The 40th Troop Carrier Squadron received its first Distinguished Unit Citation for its efforts at Wau, after these two battles, the 40th established and operated air routs across Australia, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. The pace of operations did not slacken and the squadron engaged in a variety of tactical airlift actions. Primarily, these included airlifting troops, reinforcements, supplies, and equipment into combat and it frequently dropped paratroopers during airborne assault operations, and delivered equipment and supplies by airdrop. The 40ths next major battle occurred on 5 September, when Allied Forces assaulted the island of Lae, the Squadron joined the rest of the 317th Troop Carrier Group in an air assault on the Nadzab plain. General Kenney, Fifth Air Force commander, later said, I truly don’t believe that air force in the world today could have put this over as perfectly as the Fifth Air Force did. As Allied troops pressed westward across New Guinea, the Squadron moved to Ward Airdrome at Port Moresby and this move, accomplished on 6 October 1943, placed the Squadron closer to combat, and eliminated many of the long flights back to Australia
26.
Albany, Texas
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Albany is the a city in Shackelford County, Texas, United States. The population was 2,034 at the 2010 Census and it is the county seat of Shackelford County. Established in 1873, Albany was named by county clerk William Cruger after his home of Albany. Lieutenant Colonel William Dyess, survivor of the Bataan Death March in the Philippines, williams, who led the World War II aerial bombing raid on Schweinfurt, Germany, was born in Albany on November 9,1901. Albany is located northeast of Abilene, the seat of Taylor County, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.5 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,921 people,746 households, the population density was 1,305.9 people per square mile. There were 880 housing units at a density of 598.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 93. 13% White,0. 68% African American,0. 47% Native American,4. 84% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 8. 07% of the population. Of all households 27. 3% were made up of individuals and 16. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 3.08. In the city, the population was out with 27. 0% under the age of 18,6. 4% from 18 to 24,25. 4% from 25 to 44,23. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 86.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.2 males, the median income for a household in the city was $31,563, and the median income for a family was $40,592. Males had an income of $28,846 versus $17,411 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,470, about 8. 1% of families and 9. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10. 1% of those under age 18 and 11. 1% of those age 65 or over. Albany is served by the Albany Independent School District and their mascot is the Lion and their school colors are Red and White. The program, the content of which is different each year, the Dallas Morning News describes Fandangle, accordingly, as professional as a multi-million dollar Broadway musical, with sets and costumes to match, with a cast of three hundred. The Abilene Reporter-News calls the program Frontier history served up with genuine earthiness, spiced by rare humor
27.
Lockheed P-38 Lightning
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The Lockheed P-38 Lightning is a World War II-era American piston-engined fighter aircraft. Developed to a United States Army Air Corps requirement, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms, Allied propaganda claimed it had been nicknamed the fork-tailed devil by the Luftwaffe and two planes, one pilot by the Japanese. In the South West Pacific theater, the P-38 was the primary fighter of United States Army Air Forces until the appearance of large numbers of P-51D Mustangs. The P-38 was unusually quiet for a fighter, the exhaust muffled by the turbo-superchargers and it was extremely forgiving and could be mishandled in many ways but the rate of roll in the early versions was too slow for it to excel as a dogfighter. The P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, at the end of the war, orders for 1,887 more were cancelled. Lockheed designed the P-38 in response to a February 1937 specification from the United States Army Air Corps, Kelsey was looking for a minimum of 1,000 lb of armament. Kelsey and Saville aimed to get a capable fighter, better at dog-fighting. Specifications called for a maximum airspeed of at least 360 mph at altitude, and a climb to 20,000 ft within six minutes, the unbuilt Vultee XP1015 was designed to the same requirement, but was not advanced enough to merit further investigation. A similar single-engine proposal was issued at the time, Circular Proposal X-609. Both proposals required liquid-cooled Allison V-1710 engines with turbo-superchargers and gave points for tricycle landing gear. The Lockheed team chose twin booms to accommodate the tail assembly, engines, the XP-38 gondola mockup was designed to mount two. 50-caliber M2 Browning machine guns with 200 rounds per gun, two. In the YP-38s, a 37 mm M9 autocannon with 15 rounds replaced the T1, the 15 rounds were in three five-round clips, an unsatisfactory arrangement according to Kelsey, and the M9 did not perform reliably in flight. Further armament experiments from March to June 1941 resulted in the P-38E combat configuration of four M2 Browning machine guns, and one Hispano 20 mm autocannon with 150 rounds. Clustering all the armament in the nose was unusual in U. S. aircraft, nose-mounted guns did not suffer from having their useful ranges limited by pattern convergence, meaning that good pilots could shoot much farther. A Lightning could reliably hit targets at any range up to 1,000 yd, whereas the wing guns of other fighters were optimized for a specific range. The rate of fire was about 650 rounds per minute for the 20×110 mm cannon round at a velocity of about 2,887 ft/s. Combined rate of fire was over 4,000 rpm with roughly every sixth projectile a 20 mm shell, the duration of sustained firing for the 20 mm cannon and. 50-caliber machine guns was approximately 14 seconds and 35 seconds, respectively. The P-38 was the first American fighter to make use of stainless steel and smooth
28.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
29.
Second Air Force
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The Second Air Force is a USAF numbered air force responsible for conducting basic military and technical training for Air Force enlisted members and support officers. In World War II the CONUS unit defended the Northwestern United States and Upper Great Plains regions and during the Cold War, was Strategic Air Command unit with strategic bombers and missiles. Elements of Second Air Force engaged in operations during the Korean War, Vietnam War. The Northwest Air District of the GHQ Air Force was activated on 19 October 1940 at McChord Field along with 3 other CONUS districts, the district was redesignated 2nd Air Force on 9 April 1941. 5th Bombardment Wing was assigned to Second Air Force up to 5 September 1941, on 11 December 1941, four days after the Pearl Harbor attack, 2d Air Force was placed under Western Defense Command. However, on 5 January 1942, it was returned to the Air Force Combat Command, from December 1941, 2d Air Force organized air defense for the northwest Pacific Ocean coastline of the United States and flew antisubmarine patrols along coastal areas until October 1942. It appears that immediately after 7 December 1941, only the 7th, 17th, 39th, as the Second Air Force it became predominantly the training organization of B-17 Flying Fortress and B-24 Liberator heavy bombardment groups. Nearly all new heavy bomb groups organized after Pearl Harbor were organized and trained by Second Air Force OTU units, under the newly organized XX Bomber Command, B-29 aircraft were received from Boeings manufacturing plants and new combat groups were organized and trained. XX Bomber Command and the first B-29 groups were deployed in December 1943 to airfields in India for Operation Matterhorn operations against Japan, a football team made up of Second Air Force personnel defeated Hardin-Simmons University in the 1943 Sun Bowl. A third B-29 organization, XXII Bomber Command was formed by Second Air Force in August 1944, however the organization never got beyond forming Headquarters echelon and Headquarters squadron. Inactivated before any operational groups were assigned, as XX Bomber Command units were reassigned from India to the Marianas, the training of B-29 groups and replacement personnel continued until August 1945 and the end of the Pacific War. With the wars end, Second Air Force was inactivated on 30 March 1946, the command was reactivated on 6 June 1946 under Air Defense Command, at Fort Crook, Nebraska. During this period of the forces history its home base was redesignated Offutt Air Force Base, the Second Air Force assumed responsibility for the air defense of certain portions of the continental United States. In 1947, the 73d Bomb Wing was reactivated with the 338th and 351st Bomb Groups being assigned to it, the wing was assigned to Second Air Force. A third group, the 381st was added in 1948, however SAC was having enough difficulties keeping its front-line active duty bomb units in the air to maintain even minimal pilot proficiency in the late 1940s. The wing and its groups were all inactivated in 1949. The Second Air Force was also assigned the reserve 96th Bomb Wing, which was redesignated an air division. One of these groups was the 440th Troop Carrier Group and it was again inactivated on 1 July 1948
30.
Douglas SBD Dauntless
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The Douglas SBD Dauntless was a World War II American naval scout plane and dive bomber that was manufactured by Douglas Aircraft from 1940 through 1944. The SBD was the United States Navys main carrier-borne scout plane, the SBD was also flown by the United States Marine Corps, both from land air bases and aircraft carriers. The SBD is best remembered as the bomber that delivered the blows to the Japanese carriers at the Battle of Midway in June 1942. During its combat service, the SBD was an excellent naval scout plane and it possessed long range, good handling characteristics, maneuverability, potent bomb load, great diving characteristics, good defensive armament and ruggedness. One land-based variant of the SBD — in omitting the arrestor hook — was purpose-built for the U. S. Army Air Forces, design work on the Northrop BT-1 began in 1935. In 1937, the Northrop Corporation was taken over by Douglas, the Northrop BT-2 was developed from the BT-1 by modifications ordered in November 1937, and provided the basis of the SBD, which first entered service in mid-1939. Ed Heinemann led a team of designers who considered a development with a 1,000 hp Wright Cyclone engine. The plane was developed at the Douglas El Segundo, CA plant, one year earlier, both the U. S. Navy and Marine Corps had placed orders for the new dive bomber, designated the SBD-1 and SBD-2. The SBD-1 went to the Marine Corps in late 1940, the distinctive perforated split flaps or dive-brakes had been incorporated into the BT-1 to eliminate tail buffeting during diving maneuvers. The next version was the SBD-3, which began manufacture in early 1941 and it had increased armor, self-sealing fuel tanks, and four machine guns. The SBD-4 provided a 12-volt electrical system, and a few were converted into SBD-4P reconnaissance aircraft, the next version, the SBD-5, was produced mostly in the Douglas plant in Tulsa, Oklahoma. This version was equipped with a 1,200 hp engine, over 2,400 of these were built. A few of them were shipped to the Royal Navy for evaluation, some SBDs were also flown by the Free French Air Force against the Nazi German Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe. SBDs were also sold to Mexico, the final version, the SBD-6, had more improvements, but its production ended during the summer of 1944. The U. S. Army Air Force had its own version of the SBD and it lacked the tail hook used for carrier landings, and a pneumatic tire replaced the solid tail wheel. First assigned to the 27th Bombardment Group at Hunter Field, Georgia, there were three versions of the Banshee flown by the Army to a very minor degree in the early stages of the war. The USAAF used 948 of the 5,937 Dauntlesses built. U. S. Navy and Marine Corps SBDs saw their first action at Pearl Harbor, most U. S. Navy SBDs were operating with their aircraft carriers, which did not operate in close cooperation with the rest of the fleet
31.
Douglas A-26 Invader
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A limited number of highly modified United States Air Force aircraft served in Southeast Asia until 1969. It was a fast aircraft capable of carrying twice its specified bomb load, a range of guns could be fitted to produce a formidable ground-attack aircraft. A re-designation of the type from A-26 to B-26 led to confusion with the Martin B-26 Marauder, which first flew in November 1940, about 16 months before the Douglas designs maiden flight. The A-26 was Douglas Aircrafts successor to the A-20 Havoc, also known as Douglas Boston, one of the most successful and widely operated types flown by Allied air forces in World War II. Designed by Ed Heinemann, Robert Donovan, and Ted R. Smith, the Douglas XA-26 prototype first flew on 10 July 1942 at Mines Field, El Segundo, with test pilot Benny Howard at the controls. Flight tests revealed excellent performance and handling, but problems with engine cooling led to cowling changes, repeated collapses during testing led to strengthening of the nose landing gear. The A-26 was originally built in two different configurations, the A-26B had a gun nose, which originally could be equipped with a combination of armament including.50 caliber machine guns, 20mm or 37mm auto cannon, or even a 75mm pack howitzer. Normally the gun nose version housed six.50 caliber machine guns, officially termed the all-purpose nose, the A-26Cs glass nose, officially termed the Bombardier nose, contained a Norden bombsight for medium altitude precision bombing. The A-26C nose section included two fixed M-2 guns, later replaced by underwing gun packs or internal guns in the wings. An A-26C nose section could be exchanged for an A-26B nose section, or vice versa, in a few man-hours, thus changing the designation. The flat-topped canopy was changed in late 1944 after about 820 production aircraft, alongside the pilot in an A-26B, a crew member typically served as navigator and gun loader for the pilot-operated nose guns. In an A-26C, that crew member served as navigator and bombardier, a small number of A-26Cs were fitted with dual flight controls, some parts of which could be disabled in flight to allow limited access to the nose section. A tractor-style jump seat was located behind the navigators seat, general George Kenney, commander of the Far East Air Forces stated that, We do not want the A-26 under any circumstances as a replacement for anything. Until changes could be made, the 3d Bomb Group requested additional Douglas A-20 Havocs, the 319th Bomb Group worked up on the A-26 in March 1945, joining the initial 3rd BG, with the 319th flying until 12 August 1945. The A-26 operations wound down in mid-August 1945 with only a few dozen missions flown, several of the A-20 and B-25 AAF units in the Pacific received the A-26 for trials, in limited quantities. Douglas needed better results from the Invaders second combat test, so A-26s began arriving in Europe in late September 1944 for assignment to the Ninth Air Force, the initial deployment involved 18 aircraft and crews assigned to the 553d Squadron of the 386th Bomb Group. This unit flew its first mission on 6 September 1944, no aircraft were lost on the eight test missions, and the Ninth Air Force announced that it was happy to replace all of its A-20s and B-26s with the A-26 Invader. Due to a shortage of A-26C variants, the groups flew a combined A-20/A-26 unit until deliveries of the glass-nose version caught up, besides bombing and strafing, tactical reconnaissance and night interdiction missions were undertaken successfully
32.
Curtiss P-40 Warhawk
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The Curtiss P-40 Warhawk is an American single-engined, single-seat, all-metal fighter and ground-attack aircraft that first flew in 1938. The P-40 design was a modification of the previous Curtiss P-36 Hawk which reduced development time and enabled a rapid entry into production, the Warhawk was used by most Allied powers during World War II, and remained in frontline service until the end of the war. P-40 Warhawk was the name the United States Army Air Corps and after June 1941, USAAF-adopted name for all models, making it the official name in the U. S. for all P-40s. The British Commonwealth and Soviet air forces used the name Tomahawk for models equivalent to the P-40B and P-40C, P-40s first saw combat with the British Commonwealth squadrons of the Desert Air Force in the Middle East and North African campaigns, during June 1941. However, between 1941 and 1944, the P-40 played a role with Allied air forces in three major theaters, North Africa, the Southwest Pacific, and China. It also had a significant role in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, Alaska, the P-40s performance at high altitudes was not as important in those theaters, where it served as an air superiority fighter, bomber escort and fighter-bomber. The P-40 offered the advantage of low cost, which kept it in production as a ground-attack aircraft long after it was obsolete as a fighter. On 14 October 1938, Curtiss test pilot Edward Elliott flew the prototype XP-40 on its first flight in Buffalo, the first prototype placed the glycol coolant radiator in an underbelly position on the fighter, just aft of the wings trailing edge. USAAC Fighter Projects Officer Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey flew this prototype some 300 miles in 57 minutes, hiding his disappointment, he told reporters that future versions would likely go 100 miles per hour faster. Kelsey was interested in the Allison engine because it was sturdy and dependable, Curtiss engineers worked to improve the XP-40s speed by moving the radiator forward in steps. Seeing little gain, Kelsey ordered the aircraft to be evaluated in a NACA wind tunnel to identify solutions for better aerodynamic qualities, from 28 March to 11 April 1939, the prototype was studied by NACA. Based on the data obtained, Curtiss moved the glycol coolant radiator forward to the chin, other improvements to the landing gear doors and the exhaust manifold combined to give performance that was satisfactory to the USAAC. Without beneficial tail winds, Kelsey flew the XP-40 from Wright Field back to Curtisss plant in Buffalo at an speed of 354 mph. Further tests in December 1939 proved the fighter could reach 366 mph, an unusual production feature was a special truck rig to speed delivery at the main Curtiss plant in Buffalo, New York. The rig moved the newly built P-40s in two components, the main wing and the fuselage, the eight miles from the plant to the airport where the two units were mated for flight and delivery. The P-40 was conceived as an aircraft and was agile at low and medium altitudes. At medium and high speeds it was one of the tightest-turning early monoplane designs of the war, and it could out turn most opponents it faced in North Africa and the Russian Front. In the Pacific Theater it was out-turned at lower speeds by the lightweight fighters A6M Zero, the American Volunteer Group Commander Claire Chennault advised against prolonged dog-fighting with the Japanese fighters due to speed reduction favouring the Japanese
33.
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt
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The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was a World War II era fighter aircraft produced by the United States between 1941–1945. Its primary armament was eight. 50-caliber machine guns and in the fighter-bomber ground-attack role it could carry five-inch rockets or a load of 2,500 pounds. When fully loaded the P-47 weighed up to eight tons making it one of the heaviest fighters of the war. The P-47 was designed around the powerful Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp engine which was used by two U. S. Navy fighters, the Grumman F6F Hellcat and the Vought F4U Corsair. The Thunderbolt was effective as a short-to-medium range escort fighter in high-altitude air-to-air combat, the P-47 was one of the main United States Army Air Forces fighters of World War II, and served with Allied air forces including France, Britain, and Russia. Mexican and Brazilian squadrons fighting alongside the U. S. were equipped with the P-47, the armored cockpit was relatively roomy and comfortable, offering good visibility. A modern-day U. S. ground-attack aircraft, the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II, both had fled from their homeland to escape the Bolsheviks. In 1939, Republic Aviation designed the AP-4 demonstrator powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-1830 radial engine with a belly-mounted turbocharger. While the resulting Republic P-43 Lancer was in limited production, Republic had been working on an improved P-44 Rocket with a powerful engine. The latter was an aircraft powered by the Allison V-1710 liquid-cooled V-12 engine. The United States Army Air Corps backed the project and gave it the designation XP-47, as the war in Europe escalated in spring 1940, Republic and the USAAC concluded that the XP-44 and the XP-47 were inferior to the Luftwaffe fighters. Republic unsuccessfully attempted to improve the design, proposing the XP-47A, kartveli then designed a much larger fighter, which was offered to the USAAC in June 1940. The Air Corps ordered a prototype in September, to be designated the XP-47B, the XP-47A, which had little in common with the new design, was abandoned. The XP-47B was of construction with elliptical wings, with a straight leading edge that was slightly swept back. The air-conditioned cockpit was roomy and the seat was comfortable—like a lounge chair. Main and auxiliary self-sealing fuel tanks were placed under the cockpit, the cowling admitted cooling air for the engine, left and right oil coolers, and the turbosupercharger intercooler system. At full power, the pipes glowed red at their forward ends, the complicated turbosupercharger system with its ductwork gave the XP-47B a deep fuselage, and the wings had to be mounted in a relatively high position. This was problematic since long-legged main landing gear struts were needed to provide clearance for the enormous propeller
34.
Continental Air Command
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Continental Air Command was a Major Command of the United States Air Force responsible primarily for administering the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve. During the Korean War, ConAC provided the necessary augmentation to the regular Air Force while it rebuilt itself under wartime conditions, later, during the 1950s, it was a training force for reservists with no prior military service. ConAC provided peacetime airlift missions for the Air Force and it was mobilized twice in 1961 and 1962 by president Kennedy for the Berlin and Cuban Missile Crisis. Lastly, it was used by president Lyndon B. Johnson for airlift operations into the Dominican Republic and it was inactivated in 1968 and replaced by Headquarters, Air Force Reserve. After the end of World War II, the Truman Administration was determined to bring the Federal budget back into balance, an enormous deficit had built up, so expenditure was cut, resulting in relatively little money for the new United States Air Force to modernize its forces. Planning for reserve forces took place, in any event. Their single firm conviction about the nature of the program was that it must provide opportunities for pilots to fly. This was fundamentally different from the National Guard concept, the National Guard is the designated state militia by the Constitution of the United States. Although the Air National Guard fulfills state and some federal needs, in the first place, not every person in the United States with an obligation or desire for military service wants to serve in a state militia. Second, the prescribed nature and organization of the National Guard does not provide for service as individuals. As the Army Air Forces demobilized in 1945 and 1946, inactivated unit designations were allotted and transferred to various State Air National Guard bureaus, as individual units were organized, they began obtaining federal recognition, and the state Air National Guard units were established. The Army Air Forces Air Reserve program was approved by the War Department in July 1946, Army Air Forces Base Units were organized by Air Defense Command at each training location. They were located at both Army Airfields and civil airports where the Air Force retained partial jurisdiction after turning over the facility to the community after the end of World War II. The reservists were to report to a unit located in their area. The base unit furnished the personnel to operate the detachment and provided base services. ADC programmed to have AT-6 Texans, AT-11 Kansans and P-51 Mustangs available for pilots to fly four hours per month to train and maintain proficiency. ADC intended to activate forty base units operational by 1 July, by the end of 1946, the command had organized Air Reserve training detachments at seventy bases and airfields. On 21 February 1947, Headquarters Army Air Forces informed ADC to eliminate twenty-nine reserve training detachments as quickly as possible, the Air Force Reserve was affected by fundamental legislation pertaining to the parent Air Force
35.
Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth
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This military airfield is operated by the United States Navy Reserve. It is located in the cities of Fort Worth, Westworth Village, several United States Navy headquarters and operational units are based at NAS Fort Worth JRB, including Naval Air Reserve air wings and aviation squadrons, intelligence commands and Seabees. The Air Force Reserve Commands Tenth Air Force headquarters and its 301st Fighter Wing continue to be based at the installation, as well as the 136th Airlift Wing of the Texas Air National Guard. A Marine Aircraft Group, several squadrons, and various ground units of the U. S. Marine Corps Reserve are also co-located at NAS Fort Worth JRB. Recently, the U. S. Army Reserve also based a battalion of RC-12 Guardrail reconnaissance aircraft at NAS Fort Worth JRB, Carswell Air Force Base was named after Medal of Honor recipient Major Horace S. Carswell, Jr. USAAF. Major Carswell was returning from an attack on Japanese shipping in the South China Sea on 26 October 1944 when he attempted to save a crewmember whose parachute had been destroyed by flak. He remained at the controls of his crippled bomber and died while crash-landing the B-24 Liberator near Tungchen, the base was renamed in his honor on 29 January 1948. Carswells origins date back to the years of aviation. In June, the War Department inspected 6 sites around Fort Worth, in August the War Department signed leases with the RFC on 3 sites around Fort Worth. Knows as the Flying Triangle, these sites were Hicks Field, Barron Field, in April 1918 these airfield were turned over to the Air Service, United States Army as training fields for American pilots. Hundreds of pilots learned their basic and primary flying skills at these airfields in the Fort Worth area during the war and they were closed in 1919 when the war ended. In 1940 the City of Fort Worth had filed an application with the Civil Aeronautics Administration, in May, General Jacob E. Fickel visited Fort Worth on an inspection visit. Fickel had learned to fly at Carruthers Field in 1918, at the same time, the Fort Worth Chamber of Commerce was trying to convince aircraft manufacturers to build an aircraft assembly plant in the area. Consolidated Aircraft, wanting to build in the area, suggested to the Air Corps that they build an airfield adjacent to the heavy bomber plant they wanted to build in Fort Worth. On 16 June 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved $1.75 million to construct an airfield next to the Consolidated manufacturing plant. The Army wanted to have the airfield ready quickly before the plant was put into production and construction of the Lake Worth Bomber Plant Airport began almost immediately. However, after the Attack on Pearl Harbor, the Army changed its plans and instead of being a base, Tarrant Field as the facility was called. The first unit assigned to the base was the Army Air Forces Training Command Combat Crew School on 1 July 1942, at the same time, the Consolidated plant began assembly of B-24D Liberator aircraft in May, with the first aircraft being assigned to the school in August
36.
Texas Army National Guard
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The Texas Army National Guard is a component of the United States Army, the United States National Guard and the Texas Military Forces. Texas Army National Guard units are trained and equipped as part of the United States Army, the same ranks and insignia are used and National Guardsmen are eligible to receive all United States military awards. The Texas Guard also bestows a number of awards for local services rendered in or to the state of Texas. The Texas Army National Guard is composed of approximately 19,000 soldiers, state duties include disaster relief, emergency preparedness, security assistance to state law enforcement agencies, and some aspects of border security. The Governor can activate the National Guard components under his control for state active duty in Texas, the Texas Army National Guard has its roots in the Texas Militia formed by Sam Houston during the Texas Revolution of 1835 -1836. The Militia Act of 1903 organized the state militias into the present National Guard system. After World War II, the previous Texas ARNG 36th Infantry Division was reorganised as the 49th Armored Division, the 49th Armored Division was ordered to active federal service in October 1961 at Dallas, for the 1961 Berlin Crisis, and reverted to state control in August 1962. The 49th was deactivated in 1968 and re-organized into three brigades, the 36th Infantry Brigade, 71st Infantry Brigade and 72nd Infantry Brigade. The division was reactivated on 1 November 1973, with its headquarters at Camp Mabry, Austin, Texas. McGrath says the 36th Bde insignia with star was authorized for wear from 10 May 1967 -1 November 1973, the 36th Airborne Brigade was active from 1973 to 1980, and disbanded 1980. It was reconstituted as a formation from 1988-92. In 1992 it became the 36th Brigade of the 49th Armored Division based at Houston and it seems likely to have been active between 1992 and May 2004 when the 49th Armoured Division became the 36th Infantry Division. The unit includes a headquarters and headquarters company,3 rifle companies, a weapons company. Most elements of the battalion will be located in Texas, with Co B in Alaska, rather than converting an existing TX ARNG unit, the battalion is being built from the ground up. According to the U. S. Army Center for Military History, 1st Battalion, 143d Infantry Regiment is a separate infantry battalion
37.
Project Nike
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Project Nike, was a U. S. Army project, proposed in May 1945 by Bell Laboratories, to develop a line-of-sight anti-aircraft missile system. The project delivered the United States first operational anti-aircraft missile system, a great number of the technologies and rocket systems used for developing the Nike Ajax were re-used for a number of functions, many of which were given the Nike name. The missiles first-stage solid rocket booster became the basis for many types of rocket including the Nike Hercules missile and NASAs Nike Smoke rocket, a much longer-ranged collision-course system was developed by General Electric, named Project Thumper, eventually delivering the BOMARC missile. Bell Labs proposal would have to deal with bombers flying at 500 mph or more, at these speeds, even a supersonic rocket is no longer fast enough to be simply aimed at the target. The missile must lead the target to ensure the target is hit before the missile depletes its fuel and this means that the missile and target cannot be tracked by a single radar, increasing the complexity of the system. By this point, the US had considerable experience with lead-calculating analog computers, starting with the British Kerrison Predictor, for Nike, three radars were used. The acquisition radar searched for a target to be handed over to the Target Tracking Radar for tracking, the Missile Tracking Radar tracked the missile by way of a transponder, as the missiles radar signature alone was not sufficient. The MTR also commanded the missile by way of pulse-position modulation, once the tracking radars were locked the system was able to work automatically following launch, barring any unexpected occurrences. The computer compared the two directions, along with information on the speeds and distances, to calculate the intercept point. The entirety of this system was provided by the Bell Systems electronics firm, the Douglas-built missile was a two-stage missile using a solid fuel booster stage and a liquid fueled second stage. The missile could reach a speed of 1,000 mph. The missile contained an unusual three part payload, with explosive charges at three points down the length of the missile to help ensure a lethal hit. The missiles limited range was seen by critics as a serious flaw, after disputes between the Army and the Air Force, all longer-range systems were assigned to the Air Force during 1948. They merged their own research with Project Thumper, while the Army continued to develop Nike. During 1950 the Army formed the Army Anti-Aircraft Command to operate batteries of anti-aircraft guns, ARAACOM was renamed the US Army Air Defense Command during 1957. It adopted a simpler acronym, ARADCOM, in 1961, the first successful Nike test was during November 1951, intercepting a drone B-17 Flying Fortress. The first type, Nike Ajax, were deployed starting in 1953, the Army initially ordered 1,000 missiles and 60 sets of equipment. They were placed to protect strategic and tactical sites within the US, as a last-line of defense from air attack, they were positioned to protect cities as well as military installations
38.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
39.
The Pentagon
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The Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense, located in Arlington County, Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, D. C. As a symbol of the U. S. military, The Pentagon is often used metonymically to refer to the U. S. Department of Defense, the Pentagon was designed by American architect George Bergstrom, and built by general contractor John McShain of Philadelphia. Ground was broken for construction on September 11,1941, General Brehon Somervell provided the major motive power behind the project, Colonel Leslie Groves was responsible for overseeing the project for the U. S. Army. The Pentagon is one of the worlds largest office buildings, with about 6,500,000 sq ft, approximately 23,000 military and civilian employees and about 3,000 non-defense support personnel work in the Pentagon. It has five sides, five floors above ground, two basement levels, and five ring corridors per floor with a total of 17.5 mi of corridors. It was the first significant foreign attack on Washingtons governmental facilities since the city was burned by the British, when World War II broke out in Europe, the War Department rapidly expanded in anticipation that the United States would be drawn into the conflict. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson found the situation unacceptable, with the Munitions Building overcrowded, Stimson told U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in May 1941 that the War Department needed additional space. On July 17,1941, a hearing took place, organized by Virginia congressman Clifton Woodrum. Reybold agreed to back to the congressman within five days. The War Department called upon its construction chief, General Brehon Somervell, Government officials agreed that the War Department building, officially designated Federal Office Building No 1, should be constructed across the Potomac River, in Arlington County, Virginia. Requirements for the new building were that it be no more than four stories tall, the requirements meant that, instead of rising vertically, the building would be sprawling over a large area. Possible sites for the building included the Department of Agricultures Arlington Experimental Farm, adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery, the site originally chosen was Arlington Farms which had a roughly pentagonal shape, so the building was planned accordingly as an irregular pentagon. Concerned that the new building could obstruct the view of Washington, D. C. from Arlington Cemetery, the building retained its pentagonal layout because a major redesign at that stage would have been costly, and Roosevelt liked the design. Freed of the constraints of the asymmetric Arlington Farms site, it was modified into a pentagon which resembled the star forts of the gunpowder age. While the project went through the process in late July 1941, Somervell selected the contractors, including John McShain, Inc. and Doyle and Russell. In addition to the Hoover Airport site and other government-owned land, construction of the Pentagon required an additional 287 acres, which were acquired at a cost of $2.2 million. The Hells Bottom neighborhood, a slum with numerous pawnshops, factories, approximately 150 homes, Later 300 acres of land were transferred to Arlington National Cemetery and to Fort Myer, leaving 280 acres for the Pentagon. Contracts totaling $31,100,000 were finalized with McShain and the contractors on September 11
40.
Lyndon B. Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
41.
341st Missile Wing
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The United States Air Forces 341st Missile Wing is an intercontinental ballistic missile unit headquartered at Malmstrom Air Force Base, Montana. Up until 1 July 2008, it was designated as the 341st Space Wing, today, the 341st is one of three remaining United States Air Force wings that maintain and operate the LGM-30 Minuteman III intercontinental ballistic missile. The mission of the 341st Missile Wing is to defend America with safe, secure, effective nuclear forces, the base is also host to two tenant units, the 819th RED HORSE Squadron and the 40th Helicopter Squadron. 341st Operations Group 10th Missile Squadron 12th Missile Squadron 490th Missile Squadron 341st Operations Support Squadron The 564th Missile Squadron served with the wing from 1967–2008, the 341st Security Forces Group is the largest security forces group in the USAF. The 341st Missile Wing has its origins in the China-Burma-India Theater of World War II, the unit was one of the first bomber units in the CBI, being equipped with B-25 Mitchell medium bombers which were shipped from the United States to Karachi. The aircraft were readied for operations by Air Technical Service Command at Karachi Air Depot and dispatched to Chakulia Airfield. The group was formed with two squadrons which had been attached to the 7th Bombardment Group since May 1942. The 11th Bombardment Squadron was already in China, having flown combat missions with China Air Task Force since 1 July 1942, planes and crews of the 22d Bombardment Squadron had been flying recon and tactical missions over north and central Burma, also since July. The group entered combat early in 1943 and operated chiefly against enemy transportation in central Burma until 1944 and it bombed bridges, locomotives, railroad yards, and other targets to delay movement of supplies to the Japanese troops fighting in northern Burma. The 341st Bomb Group usually functioned as if it were two groups and for a time as three, fourteen months later the group headquarters along with 22d and the 491st Squadrons joined the 11th Squadron under the command of 69th Composite Wing, Fourteenth Air Force. 341st Group HQ was Kunming and the 22d and 491st were at Yangkai, while the 11th continued to be based at Kweilin, however, the 490th Burma Bridge Busters remained in India, under the command of Major-General Howard Davidsons Tenth Air Force. Still later the 11th Squadron and a detachment of the 491st operated for a time under the East China Task Force. </ref name=Strotman/>From several airfields in China the group engaged primarily in attacking enemy concentrations and storage areas and in conducting sea sweeps and attacks against inland shipping. They also bombed and strafed such targets as trains, harbors, and railroads in French Indochina, received a DUC for developing and using a special bombing technique against enemy bridges in French Indochina. It was inactivated on 2 November 1945, the day after Group and Squadron personnel debarked at Newark, the 341st flew the B-47 in training missions and participated in various SAC exercises and deployments with the Stratojet to bases in Morocco and England designed for forward deployments. Also controlled a KC-97 Stratotanker squadron to provide air refueling for B-47 operations, the Stratojet began to be phased out of the inventory and the 341st Bomb Wing began sending its aircraft to storage at Davis-Monthan AFB in 1961. The unit was inactivated on 25 June, on 15 July 1961 the 341st was reactivated as the 341st Strategic Missile Wing. A year later, in late July 1962, the first LGM-30A Minuteman I ICBM arrived at Malmstrom and was placed at Alpha-9 launch facility, the 10th Strategic Missile Squadron accepted its final missile on 28 February 1963. Two months later, the 12th SMS became 100 percent combat ready, in July, the 490th SMS became fully operational, giving the 341st SMW responsibility for 150 silos
42.
Strategic Air Command
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At a lower echelon, headquarters divisions included Aircraft Engineering, Missile Concept, and Strategic Communications. In 1992, as part of an overall post-Cold War reorganization of the U. S. Planning to reorganize for a separate and independent postwar U. S. Air Force had begun by the fall of 1945, with the Simpson Board tasked to plan. the reorganization of the Army, SAC initially totaled 37,000 USAAF personnel. S. Air Force as an independent service, kenney, initial units reporting to the Strategic Air Command headquarters on 21 March 1946 included the Second Air Force, the IX Troop Carrier Command and the 73d Air Division. In addition to the bombing mission, SAC also devoted significant resources to aerial reconnaissance. An F-13 squadron, the F-13 later re-designated as the RB-29 Superfortress, was also established, SAC conducted routine aerial reconnaissance missions near the Soviet borders or near the 12-mile international waters limit, although some missions actually penetrated into Soviet airspace. The flight profiles of these missions—above 30,000 feet and in excess of 300 knots—made interception by Soviet air forces difficult until the Soviets 1948 introduction of the MiG-15 jet fighter. Project Nanook, the Cold War’s first Top Secret reconnaissance effort, used the first RB-29 missions for mapping and visual reconnaissance in the Arctic, later missions were Project LEOPARD along the Chukchi Peninsula, followed by Projects RICKRACK, STONEWORK, and COVERALLS. In 1946, the US possessed only nine atomic bombs and twenty-seven B-29s capable at any one time of delivering them, unfortunately, postwar budget and personnel cuts had had an insidious effect on SAC as its Deputy Commander, Major General Clements McMullen, implemented mandated force reductions. This continued to wear down SAC as a command and morale plummeted, as a result, by the end of 1947, only two of SACs eleven groups were combat ready. In terms of overall Air Force basing and infrastructure, SAC continued to acquire a share of USAF infrastructure. In 1947, before the USAF was established as an independent service, construction commenced on Limestone AAF, Maine, fort Dix AAF, New Jersey, Spokane AAF, Washington, and Wendover Field, Utah were also transferred to SAC between 30 April and 1 September 1947. Following establishment of the USAF as a service, SAC bases in the United States consisted of
43.
Boeing B-47 Stratojet
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The Boeing B-47 Stratojet was an American long range, six-engine, turbojet-powered strategic bomber designed to fly at high subsonic speed and at high altitude to avoid enemy interceptor aircraft. The B-47s primary mission was to drop bombs on the Soviet Union. With its engines carried in nacelles under the wing, the B-47 was a major innovation in post-World War II combat jet design. The B-47 entered service with the United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command in 1951 and it never saw combat as a bomber, but was a mainstay of SACs bomber strength during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and remained in use as a bomber until 1965. The B-47 arose from an informal 1943 requirement for a reconnaissance bomber. In December 1944, North American Aviation, the Convair Corp, Boeing and the Glenn Martin Company submitted proposals for the new long-range jet bomber. The USAAF awarded study contracts to all four companies, requiring that North American and Convair concentrate on four-engined designs, while Boeing, the powerplant was to be General Electrics new TG-180 turbojet engine. In May 1945, the von Kármán mission of the Army Air Forces inspected the secret German aeronautics laboratory near Braunschweig, on von Kármáns team was the eminent chief of the technical staff at Boeing, George S. Schairer. He wired his home office, Stop the bomber design, analysis work by Boeing engineer Vic Ganzer suggested an optimum sweepback angle of about 35 degrees. Boeings aeronautical engineers modified their Model 432 design to include swept wings and tail, resulting in the Model 448, the Model 448 retained its four TG-180 jet engines in its forward fuselage, with two more TG-180s in the rear fuselage. The flush-mounted air intakes for the engines were inadequate, while the USAAF disliked the installation of engines within the fuselage. The Army Air Force liked this new configuration, and so Boeings team of engineers continued to refine it, with the engines being moved further inboard. As the landing gear arrangement made rotation impossible, the gear was designed so that the aircraft rested on the ground at the proper angle for takeoff. The USAAF was very pleased with the refined Model 450 design, and in April 1946, the first XB-47 was rolled out on 12 September 1947, a few days before the USAAF became a separate service, the U. S. Air Force, on 18 September 1947. The XB-47 prototype flew its first flight on 17 December 1947, with the test pilots Robert Robbins and it flew from Boeing Field in Seattle to the Moses Lake Airfield in central Washington state, in a flight that lasted just 27 minutes, with no major problems. In Feb.1949, Russ Schleeh and Joe Howell broke all coast-to-coast speed records flying from Moses Lake Air Force Base to Andrews Air Force Base and they averaged 607.8 miles per hour. During early tests of the XB-47 prototype, the canopy came off at high speed, the copilot safely landed the aircraft. This resulted in a redesign, and the hiring of pilot Tex Johnston as chief test pilot
44.
96th Test Wing
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The 96th Test Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Air Force Test Center of Air Force Materiel Command at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. The wing was activated at Eglin in 1994 as the 96th Air Base Wing, the headquarters for all units on Eglin. In 2012, it absorbed the mission and resources of the 46th Test Wing and added the mission of testing and evaluating weapons, navigation and guidance systems and command, the wings first predecessor was organized during World War II as the 96th Bombardment Group. After training in the United States, the group flew Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses from England, the group led the first shuttle mission to Regensburg on 17 August 1943. The group earned two Distinguished Unit Citations for its combat performance, after VE Day, the group returned to the United States and was inactivated. The group was active in the Air Force Reserve from 1947 until 1949. In 1957 the wing moved to Dyess Air Force Base, Texas where it converted to the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress in 1963, the wing also operated air refueling aircraft, and during the early 1960s was assigned a squadron of intercontinental ballistic missiles. In 1984, the World War II group was consolidated with the wing, the 96th Test Wing performs developmental test and evaluation for Air Force weapons while also providing support for all other units on Eglin Air Force Base as the installation host wing. Eglin is the Department of Defenses largest Air Force installation, supported units include three wings, the Armament Systems Directorate, nine operating locations, five detachments and more than 25 associate units. 96th Maintenance Group The group manages and maintains 41 modified test aircraft, 96th Test Group The group is located at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico. It also deploys combat ready forces in support of contingency operations. 96th Medical Group The group manages and provides care for 83,000 eligible beneficiaries. It operates a teaching hospital with graduate level programs in family practice, general dentistry. After moving to Gowen Field, Idaho the group received its initial cadre, the group trained at various bases in the northwestern United States. In November 1942 the group moved to Pocatello Army Air Base, Idaho, oTUs were oversized parent units that provided cadres to form satellite groups. In early 1943, the 96th relocated to Pyote Army Air Base, Texas, in April 1943 the group began its overseas movement. The group arrived at RAF Grafton Underwood England in May 1943, the group was assigned to the 45th Combat Bombardment Wing of the 3d Bombardment Division. The group commenced operations on 14 May with an attack on Kortryk
United States Air Force
7th Bomb Wing
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
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