1.
Stephen, King of England
–
Stephen, often referred to as Stephen of Blois, was a grandson of William the Conqueror. He was King of England from 1135 to his death, Stephens reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda. He was succeeded by Matildas son, Henry II, the first of the Angevin kings. Stephen was born in the County of Blois in middle France, his father, Count Stephen-Henry, died while Stephen was still young, placed into the court of his uncle, Henry I of England, Stephen rose in prominence and was granted extensive lands. He married Matilda of Boulogne, inheriting estates in Kent. Stephen narrowly escaped drowning with Henry Is son, William Adelin, in the sinking of the White Ship in 1120, in 1138 the Empresss half-brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen, threatening civil war. Together with his advisor, Waleran de Beaumont, Stephen took firm steps to defend his rule. When the Empress and Robert invaded in 1139, however, Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly, captured at the battle of Lincoln in 1141, Stephen was abandoned by many of his followers and lost control of Normandy. Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son Eustace would inherit his throne, in 1153 the Empresss son, Henry FitzEmpress, invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim for the throne. The two armies met at Wallingford, but neither sides barons were keen to fight another pitched battle, Stephen began to examine a negotiated peace, a process hastened by the sudden death of Eustace. Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to the Treaty of Winchester, in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for peace, passing over William, Stephens second son. Modern historians have debated the extent to which Stephens personality, external events. Stephen was born in Blois in France, in either 1092 or 1096 and his father was Stephen-Henry, Count of Blois and Chartres, an important French nobleman, and an active crusader, who played only a brief part in Stephens early life. During the First Crusade Stephen-Henry had acquired a reputation for cowardice, Stephens mother, Adela, was the daughter of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders, famous amongst her contemporaries for her piety, wealth and political talent. She had a strong influence on Stephen during his early years. France in the 12th century was a collection of counties and smaller polities. The kings power was linked to his control of the province of Île-de-France. In the west lay the three counties of Maine, Anjou and Touraine, and to the north of Blois was the Duchy of Normandy, Williams children were still fighting over the collective Anglo-Norman inheritance
2.
Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke
–
Gilbert fitz Gilbert de Clare, was created Earl of Pembroke in 1138. He was commonly known as Strongbow, born at Tonbridge, Gilbert de Clare was a son of Gilbert Fitz Richard de Clare and Alice de Claremont. He started out without land and wealth of his own but was related to very powerful men, specifically his uncles Walter de Clare. He held the lordship of Nether Gwent and the castle of Striguil, King Stephen created him Earl of Pembroke, and gave him the rape and castle of Pevensey. He then joined Geoffreys plot against Stephen, but when that collapsed, he again adhered to Stephen. In 1147 he rebelled when Stephen refused to him the castles surrendered by his nephew Gilbert, 2nd Earl of Hertford, whereupon the King marched to his nearest castle. However, the Earl appears to have made his peace with Stephen before his death the following year and he married Isabel de Beaumont, before 1130, daughter of Sir Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester, Count of Meulan, and Elizabeth de Vermandois. Isabel had previously been the mistress of King Henry I of England, by her Gilbert had, Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke Basilia, who married Raymond FitzGerald and Geoffrey FitzRobert. A daughter who married William Bloet
3.
Wilton House
–
Wilton House is an English country house situated at Wilton near Salisbury in Wiltshire. It has been the seat of the Earls of Pembroke for over 400 years. The first recorded building on the site of Wilton House was a founded by King Egbert circa 871. Through the munificence of King Alfred, the priory was granted lands and manors until it became wealthy, however, by the time Wilton Abbey was dissolved in the Dissolution of the Monasteries set in motion by King Henry VIII, its prosperity was already on the wane. Following the seizure of the abbey, Henry presented it and its estates to William Herbert. William Herbert, the scion of a family in the Welsh marches, was a favourite of the king. Following a recommendation to King Henry by King Francis I of France, in 1538, Herbert married Anne Parr, daughter of Sir Thomas Parr of Kendal and sister of the future queen consort Catherine Parr and Sir William Parr, 1st Baron Parr of Kendal. The granting of a such as the Abbey of Wilton to Herbert was an accolade. The first grants dated March and April 1542, include the site of the late monastery and these were given to William Herbert, Esquire and Anne his wife for the term of their lives with certain reserved rents to King Henry VIII. Lady Anne had been a joint creator of the enterprise, Herbert immediately began to transform the deserted abbey into a fine house and symbol of his wealth. It has long claimed, without proof, that Hans Holbein the Younger re-designed the abbey as a rectangular house around a central courtyard. Holbein died in 1543, so his designs for the new house would have to have been very speedily executed indeed, if not by Holbein, it is certainly by the hand of a great master. Whoever the architect, nevertheless a great mansion arose, today only one other part of the Tudor mansion survives, the great tower in the centre of the east facade. With its central arch and three floors of windows above, the tower is slightly reminiscent of the entrance at Hampton Court. The Tudor house built by William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, on the succession of the 4th Earl in 1630, he decided to pull down the southern wing and erect a new complex of staterooms in its place. It is now that the great name associated with Wilton appears. While the remainder of the house is on three floors of equal value in the English style, the front has a low rusticated ground floor. Three small porches project at this level only, one at the centre, the next floor is the piano nobile, at its centre the great double-height Venetian window, ornamented at second floor level by the Pembroke arms in stone relief
4.
Pembroke Castle
–
Pembroke Castle is a medieval castle in Pembroke, West Wales. Standing beside the Pembroke River, it underwent major work in the early 20th century. The castle was the seat of the Earldom of Pembroke. In 1093 Arnulf of Montgomery built the first castle at the site when he fortified the promontory during the Norman invasion of Wales, a century later this castle was given to William Marshal by Richard I. Marshall, who would one of the most powerful men in 12th-century Britain. The castle is sited on a rocky promontory by the Milford Haven. The first fortification on the site was a Norman motte-and-bailey and it had earthen ramparts and a timber palisade. In 1189, Pembroke Castle was acquired by William Marshal, the Earl Marshal then set about turning the earth and wood fort into an impressive Norman stone castle. The inner ward, which was constructed first, contains the round keep with its domed roof. Its original first-floor entrance was through an external stairwell, inside, a spiral stairwell connected its four stories. The keeps domed roof also has several holes that supported a wooden fighting-platform. If the castle was attacked, the hoarding allowed defenders to go out beyond the keeps massive walls above the heads of the attackers, the inner wards curtain wall had a large horseshoe-shaped gateway. But only a wall was required along the promontory. This section of wall has an observation turret and a square stone platform. Domestic buildings including William Marshals Great Hall and private apartments were within the inner ward, in the late 13th century, additional buildings were added to the inner ward including a new Great Hall. A 55-step spiral stairwell was also created that led down to a limestone cave, known as Wogan Cavern. The cave, which was created by water erosion, was fortified with a wall, barred gateway. It may have served as a boathouse or a sallyport to the river where cargo or people could have been transferred, the outer ward was defended by a large twin-towered gatehouse, barbican and several round towers
5.
Welsh language
–
Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
6.
Pembroke, Pembrokeshire
–
Pembroke is a historic settlement and former county town of Pembrokeshire in West Wales. The town features a number of buildings and complexes and is one of the major population centres in the county. It was the birthplace of Henry Tudor, later Henry VII of England, Pembroke Castle, the remains of a stone mediæval castle was the birthplace of King Henry VII of England. Gerald de Windsor was Constable of Pembroke, Pembroke town and castle and its surroundings are linked with the early Christian church. Later this was the site of the Knights of St John in the UK, Monkton Priory has very early foundations and was renovated by the Knights in the last century. The first stone building was a tower, now known as the Medieval Chapel, 69a Main Street. There are the remains of a hall to the north. The building was used as an early church, the layout is the same as St. Govans Chapel and it was used by John Wesley from 1764 to preach Methodism. In 1866 it became the brewery for the York Tavern which was Oliver Cromwells headquarters at the Siege of Pembroke during the English Civil War, on both banks of the Pembroke River to the west of the castle are many remains of early activities. There is an early complete graving dock in what was Hancocks Yard. The bridge which crosses and constrains the millpond was constructed to house a tide mill, at Pennar Flats there was an early submarine base used for experiments in submarine warfare. Three of the houses on the foreshore, part of the shipyard before the Admiralty Dock Yard was built, are still standing but are heavily altered. The ferry port of Pembroke Dock is a town, which was established in 1814. It lies three miles to the north of Pembroke, the town and county derive their names from the cantref of Penfro, Pen = head or end, and bro = region, country, land, which has been interpreted to mean either Lands End or headland. Pembroke is on the south Pembrokeshire peninsula, by the estuary of the River Cleddau, Pembroke town is at the bottom of a small valley, flanked on all sides by woodland and arable farmland. The town is 8 miles south of the county town of Haverfordwest, the town is centred on Main Street, which is the only street that is inside the original town walls. Outside of the walls, residential estates have been built to the north towards Pembroke Dock, to the east towards the village of Lamphey, to the west of the town lies the village of Monkton, which is included as part of the community of Pembroke. At the 2001 census, the community had a population of 7,214, the conurbation of Pembroke Dock and Pembroke has a combined population of 15,890 and as such is one of the major population centres of West Wales
7.
Earl
–
An earl /ɜːrl/ is a member of the nobility. The title is Anglo-Saxon in origin, akin to the Scandinavian form jarl, in Scandinavia, it became obsolete in the Middle Ages and was replaced by duke. In later medieval Britain, it became the equivalent of the continental count, however, earlier in Scandinavia, jarl could also mean a sovereign prince. For example, the rulers of several of the petty kingdoms of Norway had the title of jarl, alternative names for the rank equivalent to Earl/Count in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as the hakushaku of the post-restoration Japanese Imperial era. In modern Britain, an earl is a member of the peerage, ranking below a marquess, a feminine form of earl never developed, instead, countess is used. The term earl has been compared to the name of the Heruli, proto-Norse eril, or the later Old Norse jarl, came to signify the rank of a leader. The Norman-derived equivalent count was not introduced following the Norman conquest of England though countess was and is used for the female title. In the other languages of Britain and Ireland, the term is translated as, Welsh iarll, Irish and Scottish Gaelic iarla, Scots yarl or yerl, Cornish yurl. An earl has the title Earl of when the title originates from a placename, in either case, he is referred to as Lord, and his wife as Lady. A countess who holds an earldom in her own right also uses Lady, younger sons are styled The Honourable, and daughters, The Lady. In the peerage of Scotland, when there are no courtesy titles involved, the heir to an earldom, and indeed any level of peerage, is styled Master of, and successive sons as younger of. In Anglo-Saxon England, earls had authority over their own regions and right of judgment in provincial courts and they collected fines and taxes and in return received a third penny, one-third of the money they collected. In wartime they led the kings armies, some shires were grouped together into larger units known as earldoms, headed by an ealdorman or earl. Under Edward the Confessor earldoms like Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, Earls originally functioned essentially as royal governors. Though the title of Earl was nominally equal to the duke, unlike them. After the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror tried to rule England using the traditional system, shires became the largest secular subdivision in England and earldoms disappeared. The Normans did create new earls like those of Herefordshire, Shropshire and their power and regional jurisdiction was limited to that of the Norman counts. There was no longer any administrative layer larger than the shire, Earls no longer aided in tax collection or made decisions in country courts and their numbers were small
8.
Wiltshire
–
Wiltshire is a county in South West England with an area of 3,485 km2. It is landlocked and borders the counties of Dorset, Somerset, the county town was originally Wilton, after which the county is named, but Wiltshire Council is now based in the new county town of Trowbridge. Wiltshire is characterised by its high downland and wide valleys, Salisbury Plain is noted for being the location of the Stonehenge and Avebury stone circles and other ancient landmarks, and as a training area for the British Army. The city of Salisbury is notable for its mediaeval cathedral, important country houses open to the public include Longleat, near Warminster, and the National Trusts Stourhead, near Mere. The county, in the 9th century written as Wiltunscir, later Wiltonshire, is named after the county town of Wilton. Wiltshire is notable for its pre-Roman archaeology, the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age people that occupied southern Britain built settlements on the hills and downland that cover Wiltshire. Stonehenge and Avebury are perhaps the most famous Neolithic sites in the UK, in the 6th and 7th centuries Wiltshire was at the western edge of Saxon Britain, as Cranborne Chase and the Somerset Levels prevented the advance to the west. The Battle of Bedwyn was fought in 675 between Escuin, a West Saxon nobleman who had seized the throne of Queen Saxburga, in 878 the Danes invaded the county. Following the Norman Conquest, large areas of the country came into the possession of the crown, at the time of the Domesday Survey the industry of Wiltshire was largely agricultural,390 mills are mentioned, and vineyards at Tollard and Lacock. In the 17th century English Civil War Wiltshire was largely Parliamentarian, the Battle of Roundway Down, a Royalist victory, was fought near Devizes. The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry currently lives on as Y Squadron, based in Swindon, around 1800 the Kennet and Avon Canal was built through Wiltshire, providing a route for transporting cargoes from Bristol to London until the development of the Great Western Railway. Information on the 261 civil parishes of Wiltshire is available on the Wiltshire Community History website, run by the Libraries and this site includes maps, demographic data, historic and modern pictures and short histories. The local nickname for Wiltshire natives is moonrakers and this originated from a story of smugglers who managed to foil the local Excise men by hiding their alcohol, possibly French brandy in barrels or kegs, in a village pond. The officials took them for simple yokels or mad and left them alone, many villages claim the tale for their own village pond, but the story is most commonly linked with The Crammer in Devizes. Two-thirds of Wiltshire, a rural county, lies on chalk. This chalk is part of a system of chalk downlands throughout eastern and southern England formed by the rocks of the Chalk Group, the largest area of chalk in Wiltshire is Salisbury Plain, which is used mainly for arable agriculture and by the British Army as training ranges. The highest point in the county is the Tan Hill–Milk Hill ridge in the Pewsey Vale, just to the north of Salisbury Plain, the chalk uplands run northeast into West Berkshire in the Marlborough Downs ridge, and southwest into Dorset as Cranborne Chase. Cranborne Chase, which straddles the border, has, like Salisbury Plain, yielded much Stone Age, the Marlborough Downs are part of the North Wessex Downs AONB, a 1,730 km2 conservation area
9.
Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke
–
Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke and 1st Earl of Montgomery KG was an English courtier, nobleman, and politician active during the reigns of James I and Charles I. Philip and his older brother William were the pair of brethren to whom the First Folio of Shakespeares collected works was dedicated in 1623. Born at Wilton House, he was the son of Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, in 1593, at age 9, Philip was sent to study at New College, Oxford, but left after a few months. In 1600 the 16-year-old Philip made his first appearance at court, in May 1603, James made Philip a gentleman of the privy chamber, he made him a Knight of the Bath in July of the same year. In 1604, with James Is enthusiastic urging, Philip married Susan de Vere, daughter of Edward de Vere, James continued bestowing favours throughout 1605, first making Philip a gentleman of the bedchamber and then creating him Baron Herbert of Shurland and Earl of Montgomery. In addition, James had Montgomery created MA during a visit of Oxford, in addition to hunting and hawking, during this period Montgomery regularly participated in tournaments and court masques. He also took an interest in gambling and amassed considerable debts which James paid off for him in 1606/07, in 1608, James made him a Knight of the Garter, and had him appointed high steward of Oxford in 1615. When Montgomery had a prominent quarrel with Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton, Montgomery had a second violent quarrel, this time with Lord Howard de Walden, in 1617. He was to become notorious for violent assaults, usually unprovoked, following Charles Is accession to the throne in 1625, Montgomery continued to receive royal favour. He was made Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire in 1628, Montgomery continued to be interested in colonial ventures under Charles I. He was an incorporator of the Guiana Company in 1626, in 1628, he received a grant of the islands of Trinidad, Tobago and Barbados. Montgomerys first wife died in early 1629, and in 1630 he remarried, to Lady Anne Clifford, daughter of George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland, and widow of Richard Sackville, 3rd Earl of Dorset. He was quickly appointed to his brothers former positions of high steward of the Duchy of Cornwall, Pembroke maintained a large of household of 80 at his home in London, and an even larger staff of over 150 at Wilton House, his familys ancestral seat in Wiltshire. Throughout the 1630s, Pembroke entertained Charles I at Wilton House for a hunting expedition every year, Charles encouraged Pembroke to rebuild Wilton House in the Palladian style, recommending Inigo Jones for the job. Pembroke was a fan of painting and a member of the Whitehall group. He amassed an art collection and was patron of Anthony van Dyck. Pembroke also promoted the career of his page, Richard Gibson. Pembroke was also a patron of literature, receiving the dedication of over forty books during his lifetime
10.
Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke
–
Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke KG was a Welsh nobleman, peer, and politician of the Elizabethan era. He was the son of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke and his aunt was queen consort Catherine Parr, last wife of King Henry VIII. His uncle was William Parr, 1st Marquess of Northampton, who was a man during the reigns of Edward VI. Herbert was responsible for the restoration of Cardiff Castle. Pembroke, like members of his family, was a man of culture. He was a patron of antiquaries and heralds and collected heraldic manuscripts. Herbert was educated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, under Archbishop John Whitgift and he is also said to have studied at Douay. In 1557, he took part in a tournament held before Queen Mary, on his fathers death in 1570, he succeeded to the Earldom of Pembroke and on 4 April 1570 was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Wiltshire. In right of his mother, Anne Parr, he succeeded as Lord Parr and Ros of Kendal, Lord FitzHugh, Lord Marmion, and Lord Quentin on 1 August 1571. In the court intrigues of Elizabeths reign, Pembroke was regarded as a partisan of Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, and was certainly in very intimate relations with him. He took a prominent part in the trials of the 4th Duke of Norfolk, Mary, Queen of Scots in October 1586, and Norfolks son Philip Howard, Earl of Arundel, in 1589. In 1586, he succeeded his father-in-law, Sir Henry Sidney, as Lord President of Wales, from thenceforth, he spent much time at Ludlow Castle, the official residence of the president of Wales where he actively discharged the duties of his office. In 1595, Pembroke was described as very pursife and maladise and by September 1599, Herbert died at Wilton House leaving his lady as bare as he could and bestowing all on the young lord even to her jewels. He was buried in Salisbury Cathedral, the union was never consummated, and in 1554, Queen Marys influence led to the consent of Herberts fathers dissolution of the marriage. His second wife was Lady Catherine Talbot, daughter of George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, Queen Elizabeth was extremely fond of Lady Catherine and when Catherine developed a fatal illness she often visited her at Baynards Castle. She died in 1575 leaving no children by Herbert, by April 1577, Herbert married his third wife, the former Mary Sidney, daughter of Sir Henry Sidney and Lady Mary Dudley, daughter of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland. Their children included William and Philip, who both were Earl of Pembroke after their father, Katherine, and Lady Anne Herbert, who died young. The armour of Henry Herbert is now on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in the Arms and Armor galleries
11.
Isle of Sheppey
–
The Isle of Sheppey is an island off the northern coast of Kent, England in the Thames Estuary, some 46 miles to the east of London. It has an area of 36 square miles, the island forms part of the local government district of Swale. Todays island was known as the Isles of Sheppey which were Sheppey itself, the Isle of Harty to the south east. Over time the channels between the isles have silted up to make one continuous island, Sheppey, like much of north Kent, is largely formed from London Clay and is a plentiful source of fossils. The Mount near Minster rises to 250 feet above sea level and is the highest point on the island, the rest of Sheppey is low-lying and the southern part of the island is marshy land criss-crossed by inlets and drains. Sheppey is separated from the mainland by a called the Swale. Three ferries have operated between the mainland and the isle, one to the west, called the Kings Ferry, one at Elmley, and another, giving access from Faversham, All had long histories, particularly the last. None operate today, the Harty Ferry ceased operation at the start of the First World War and that at Harty is below the Ferry House Inn, while seeing the one at Elmley requires a walk of about a mile and a half from the RSPB car park. Additionally the South Eastern Railway operated a passenger ferry to Sheerness from Port Victoria railway terminus on the Grain Peninsula for some years. Several ferry services to Southend have also tried but proved short-lived. An attempt to start a small hovercraft service between the Harty Ferry Inn and Oare Creek near Faversham in 1970 by the landlord, Ben Fowler. A number of ferry services have operated from the Isle of Sheppey. A large ferry terminal was built by the London, Chatham and Dover Railway at Queenborough Pier in 1876 and operated a service to Flushing in the Netherlands. These services ceased during the First World War but it was used for military traffic. The port there was closed and dismantled in the 1930s, a passenger, car and lorry ferry operated to Vlissingen from Sheerness through the 1980s and 1990s, but there has been no ferry service of any kind in recent years. The Kingsferry Bridge was first built in 1860, thus eliminating the need for ferries, over time, there have been four bridges built over the Swale at this point. It had a central span raised between two towers, trains and road traffic were able to use it, as with the next two bridges. 6 November 1906, The South Eastern and Chatham Railway replaced the first bridge with one having a rolling lift design and it was originally worked by hand, but later by electricity
12.
Henry VIII of England
–
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship
13.
Marquess of Pembroke
–
Marquess of Pembroke was a title in the Peerage of England created by King Henry VIII of England for his mistress and future spouse, Anne Boleyn. It was the first hereditary title granted to a woman. The then extinct title of Earl of Pembroke had been significant for the House of Tudor. It was held by Henry VIIIs grand-uncle, Jasper Tudor, Henry VIII decided to raise his secret lover to the dignity of a marquess prior to finally marrying her and he chose to grant her the Marquessate of Pembroke. On Sunday,1 September 1532, Anne Boleyn was granted the Marquessate of Pembroke and land, mostly in Wales, the investiture ceremony was performed by Henry VIII himself in Windsor Castle. The French ambassador was also present, the Bishop of Winchester read the patent of creation while Anne knelt before the King who then invested her with the coronet, the robe of estate and the charters of creation and of the lands. The sixteenth-century spelling of her title was often Marquesse or Marquess of Pembroke, sometimes Lady marquesse, the attending peers did not fail to notice this unusual omission. It is not clear how the Marquessate of Pembroke ceased to exist, there are three possibilities, It may have merged with the Crown on the marriage of the Marquess to the King on 28 May 1533. It may have been forfeited on 15 May 1536, when Anne was declared guilty of high treason and it may have become extinct on Annes death, without male heirs, on 19 May 1536. List of peerages created for women
14.
Anne Boleyn
–
Anne Boleyn was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536 as the second wife of King Henry VIII, and Marquess of Pembroke in her own right. Henrys marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution by beheading, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation. Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, in February/March 1526, Henry VIII began his pursuit of Anne. She resisted his attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress – which her sister Mary had been and it soon became the one absorbing object of Henrys desires to annul his marriage to Queen Catherine so he would be free to marry Anne. When it became clear that Pope Clement VII would not annul the marriage, in 1532, Henry granted Anne the Marquessate of Pembroke. Henry and Anne married on 25 January 1533, after a marriage on 14 November 1532. On 23 May 1533, newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherines marriage null and void, five days later, he declared Henry, shortly afterwards, the Pope decreed sentences of excommunication against Henry and Cranmer. As a result of marriage and these excommunications, the first break between the Church of England and Rome took place and the Church of England was brought under the Kings control. Anne was crowned Queen of England on 1 June 1533, on 7 September, she gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth I. Henry was disappointed to have a rather than a son but hoped a son would follow. Anne subsequently had three miscarriages, and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour, in order to marry Jane Seymour, Henry had to find reasons for his marriage with Anne to end. Henry had Anne investigated for treason in April 1536. She was beheaded four days later, modern historians view the charges against her, which included adultery, incest, and plotting to kill the king, as unconvincing. Some say that Anne was accused of witchcraft but the indictments make no mention of this charge, after the coronation of her daughter, Elizabeth, as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe. Over the centuries, she has inspired, or been mentioned, in artistic and cultural works. Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, Thomas Boleyn was a well respected diplomat with a gift for languages, he was also a favourite of King Henry VII, who sent him on many diplomatic missions abroad. Anne and her siblings grew up at Hever Castle in Kent, however, the siblings were born in Norfolk at the Boleyn home at Blickling. A lack of records from the period has made it impossible to establish Annes date of birth
15.
Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford
–
Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford, Earl of Pembroke, KG was the uncle of King Henry VII of England and the architect of his successful conquest of England and Wales in 1485. He was from the noble Tudor family of Penmynydd in North Wales, Jasper Tudor bore the Kings arms, with the addition of a bordure azure with martlets or. Jasper was the son of Owen Tudor and the former Queen Catherine of Valois. He was the half-brother to Henry VI, who, on attaining his majority in 1452, through his father, Jasper was a direct descendant of Ednyfed Fychan, Llywelyn the Greats renowned Chancellor. This connection added greatly to his status in Wales, Jasper was born at the Bishop of Elys manor at Hatfield in Hertfordshire in 1431, his parents second child. His older brother, Edmund, was born at Much Hadham Palace in 1430. His younger brother, Owen, was born in 1432 at Westminster Abbey, according to Henry VIIs personal historian Polydore Vergil, Owen was taken and raised by the monks to become a member of the order, living under the name Edward Bridgewater until his death in 1502. Vergil also mentions a daughter who became a nun, but little is known of her, Catherines last child would be born in 1437, mere days before her own untimely death on 3 January. After Catherines death, Owen Tudor was arrested and sent to Newgate prison, Jasper, Edmund, and possibly their sister were put into the care of Katherine de la Pole, a nun at Barking Abbey, in Essex, from July 1437 to March 1442. She was the sister of William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, a favorite of Henry VI, and was able to provide Jasper and his siblings with food, clothing. They were also permitted servants to wait upon them as the Kings half-siblings, in 1442, their half-brother the King began to take an interest in their upbringing. Sometime after March 1442, Jasper and his brother were brought to live at court, Henry arranged for the best priest to educate them intellectually and morally. The brothers also received training, when they grew up they were given military positions. Jasper was recognized as Henry VI’s uterine brother when he was created Earl of Pembroke, Owen Tudor was released from prison, most likely thanks to his stepson Henry VI who, after providing for his stepfather, also provided for his two half-brothers. It is not clear whether Henry VI had known of the existence of his half-brothers until his mother told him while she was dying in Bermondsey Abbey. It was after her death that Henry would begin to care for them, Jasper became Earl of Pembroke on 23 November 1452. In turn, Edmund and Jasper swore unwavering loyalty to Henry and fought, however, Jasper enjoyed all the privileges appropriate to his birth, including being invested as a Knight of the Garter. After 1485, he would describe himself as the “high and mighty Prince Jasper, brother and uncle of Kings, Duke of Bedford and Earl of Pembroke”
16.
Henry VII of England
–
Henry VII was King of England from seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, and the first monarch of the House of Tudor. He ruled the Principality of Wales until 29 November 1489 and was Lord of Ireland, Henry won the throne when his forces defeated King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses. Henry was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle and he cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and niece of Richard III. Henry was successful in restoring the power and stability of the English monarchy after the civil war and his supportive stance of the islands wool industry and stand off with the Low Countries had long lasting benefits to all the British Isles economy. However, the capriciousness and lack of due process that many would tarnish his legacy and were soon ended upon Henry VIIs death. According to the contemporary historian Polydore Vergil, simple greed underscored the means by which royal control was over-asserted in Henrys final years, Henry VII was born at Pembroke Castle on 28 January 1457 to Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond. His father, Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, died three months before his birth, Henrys paternal grandfather, Owen Tudor, originally from the Tudors of Penmynydd, Isle of Anglesey in Wales, had been a page in the court of Henry V. He rose to one of the Squires to the Body to the King after military service at the Battle of Agincourt. Owen is said to have married the widow of Henry V. One of their sons was Edmund Tudor, father of Henry VII, Edmund was created Earl of Richmond in 1452, and formally declared legitimate by Parliament. Henrys main claim to the English throne derived from his mother through the House of Beaufort, Henrys mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, was a great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, fourth son of Edward III, and his third wife Katherine Swynford. Katherine was Gaunts mistress for about 25 years, when married in 1396, they already had four children. Thus Henrys claim was somewhat tenuous, it was from a woman, in theory, the Portuguese and Castilian royal families had a better claim as descendants of Catherine of Lancaster, the daughter of John of Gaunt and his second wife Constance of Castile. Gaunts nephew Richard II legitimised Gaunts children by Katherine Swynford by Letters Patent in 1397, in 1407, Henry IV, who was Gaunts son by his first wife, issued new Letters Patent confirming the legitimacy of his half-siblings, but also declaring them ineligible for the throne. Henry IVs action was of doubtful legality, as the Beauforts were previously legitimised by an Act of Parliament, but it further weakened Henrys claim. Henry also made political capital out of his Welsh ancestry, for example in attracting military support. He came from an old, established Anglesey family that claimed descent from Cadwaladr and he took it, as well as the standard of St George, on his procession through London after the victory at Bosworth. A contemporary writer and Henrys biographer, Bernard André, also much of Henrys Welsh descent
17.
County palatine
–
A county palatine or palatinate was an area ruled by a hereditary nobleman possessing special authority and autonomy from the rest of a kingdom or empire. The name derives from the Latin adjective palatinus, relating to the palace, from the noun palatium and it thus implies the exercise of a quasi-royal prerogative within a county, that is to say a jurisdiction ruled by an earl, the English equivalent of a count. A duchy palatine is similar but is ruled over by a duke, the nobleman swore allegiance to the king yet had the power to rule the county largely independently of the king. It should therefore be distinguished from the barony, held from the king. Rulers of counties palatine did however create their own feudal baronies, to be directly from them in capite. County palatine jurisdictions were created in England under the rule of the Norman dynasty, on continental Europe, they have an earlier date. For the English sovereign in Norman times this applied to northern England, Wales, as the authority granted was hereditary, some counties palatine legally survived well past the end of the feudal period. Palatinates emerged in England in the following the Norman conquest, as various earls or bishops were granted palatine powers. However, palatine powers were granted over areas such as the Isle of Ely which were not near any frontier. Palatine powers over Cheshire were acquired by the Earls of Chester, Chester had its own parliament, consisting of barons of the county, and was not represented in Parliament until 1543, while it retained some of its special privileges until 1830. Exceptional powers were granted to the Bishops of Durham, who during the aftermath of the Norman conquest had been put in charge of secular administration in what became County Durham. The bishops mitre which crowns the bishop of Durhams coat of arms is encircled with a coronet which is otherwise used only by dukes. Palatine powers over Lancashire were conferred on the first Duke of Lancaster in 1351 and this was only the second dukedom created in England, following that of Cornwall in 1337, which also became associated with palatine powers. The rights exercised through the Duchy rather than the Crown included its palatine powers over Lancashire, in the county palatine of Lancaster, the loyal toast is to the Queen, Duke of Lancaster. The kings writs did not run in these three counties until the nineteenth century and, until the 1970s, Lancashire and Durham had their own courts of chancery. The appeal against a decision of the County Court of a County Palatine had, in the first instance, to be to the Court of Common Pleas of that County Palatine. In the history of Wales in the Norman era, the term most often used is Marcher Lord, which is similar to, but not strictly the same as, nevertheless, a number of strictly Palatine jurisdictions were created in Wales. There were several palatine districts in Ireland of which the most notable were those of the Earls of Desmond, the latter continued in legal existence until the County Palatine of Tipperary Act 1715
18.
Pembrokeshire
–
Pembrokeshire is a county in the south west of Wales. It borders Carmarthenshire to the east and Ceredigion to the north east, Pembrokeshire County Councils headquarters are in the county town of Haverfordwest. Over the years Pembrokeshires beaches have received many International Blue Flag Awards, Green Coast Awards. In 2011 it had 39 beaches recommended by the Marine Conservation Society, industry is nowadays focused on agriculture and tourism, but historically mining and fishing were important activities. The county has a geography and a complex history. Pembrokeshires population was 122,400 at the 2011 census, an increase of 7. 2% from the 2001 figure of 114,131, Pembrokeshire is bordered by the sea on three sides, and by the counties of Ceredigion to the north east and Carmarthenshire to the east. Other towns include Pembroke, Pembroke Dock, Milford Haven, Fishguard, Tenby, Saundersfoot, Narberth, Neyland, St Davids, in the west of the county, is the United Kingdoms smallest city with a population of 2,000. Saundersfoot is the biggest village in Pembrokeshire with a population of well over 2,500, see List of places in Pembrokeshire for a comprehensive list of settlements in Pembrokeshire. The countys coastline includes internationally important seabird breeding sites and numerous bays, Pembrokeshire contains a predominantly coastal park, Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, which includes a 186-mile walking trail, the Pembrokeshire Coast Path. A large estuary and natural harbour at Milford Haven cuts deeply into the coast, this inlet is formed by the confluence of the Western Cleddau, the Eastern Cleddau, and rivers Cresswell and Carew. The estuary is bridged by the large Cleddau Bridge which carries the A477 between Neyland and Pembroke Dock, upstream bridges span the Cleddau at Haverfordwest and Canaston Bridge, large bays are Newport Bay, Fishguard Bay, St Brides Bay and a portion of Carmarthen Bay. There are several islands off the Pembrokeshire coast, the largest of which are Ramsey Island, Grassholm Island, Skomer Island. Pembrokeshires diverse range of features was a key factor in the establishment of the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park. Younger rocks have been lost by subsequent geological processes, the land on which Pembrokeshire is today was established approximately 60 million years ago by a combination of uplift and falling sea levels. The sea cliffs and inland tors that are now a feature of the county were those that were resistant to weathering that has taken place since. The landscape was subject to change as a result of the ice ages over the last several thousand years. About 20,000 years ago the Irish Sea ice sheet deposited areas of clays, while Pembrokeshire is not a seismically active area, two periods of activity were noted in the 19th century. In 1873 there was a shock in the west of the county
19.
Chepstow
–
Chepstow is a town in Monmouthshire, Wales, adjoining the border with Gloucestershire, England. It is located on the River Wye, about 2 miles above its confluence with the River Severn and it is 16 miles east of Newport,18 miles north-west of Bristol and 110 miles west of London. Chepstow Castle, situated on a clifftop above the Wye and its bridge, is cited as the oldest surviving stone castle in Britain. The castle was established by William FitzOsbern immediately after the Norman conquest, a Benedictine priory was also established within the walled town, which was the centre of the Marcher lordship of Striguil. In the late eighteenth century the town was a focus of tourism as part of the Wye Tour. Chepstow is also known for its racecourse, which has hosted the Welsh National each year since 1949. The town had a population of 10,821 according to the 2001 census and it is served by the M48 motorway, and its accessibility to the cities of Bristol, Newport and Cardiff means it has a large number of commuters. It is administered as part of Monmouthshire County Council, and is within the Monmouth parliamentary constituency, Chepstow is on the western bank of the Wye, while adjoining villages on the eastern bank of the river, Tutshill and Sedbury, are located in England. The name Chepstow derives from the old English ceap / chepe stowe, the word stow usually denotes a place of special significance, and the root chep is the same as that in other placenames such as Chipping Sodbury and Cheapside. The name is first recorded in 1307, but may have used by the English in earlier centuries. However, the used by the Normans for the castle and lordship was Striguil, probably from a Welsh word ystraigyl. The Welsh name Cas-gwent refers to the castle of Gwent. There are also Iron Age fortified camps in the area, dating from the time of the Silures, at Bulwark,1 mile south of the town centre, and at Piercefield and Lancaut, some 1.5 miles to the north. During the Roman occupation, there was a bridge or causeway across the Wye, Chepstow is located at a crossing point directly between the Roman towns at Gloucester and Caerwent. Although historians think it likely that there was a small Roman fort in the area, after the Romans left, Chepstow was within the southern part of the Welsh kingdom of Gwent, known as Gwent Is-coed. To the north of the town centre, a small church was established dedicated to St. Cynfarch. This later became an Augustinian priory on what is now Kingsmark Lane, the town is close to the southern point of Offas Dyke, which begins on the east bank of the Wye at Sedbury and runs all the way to the Irish Sea in north Wales. It is possible, though not clearly substantiated, that Chepstow may have superseded Caerwent as a trading centre, after the Norman conquest of England, Chepstow was a key location
20.
Battle of Lincoln (1141)
–
The Battle of Lincoln, or the First Battle of Lincoln, occurred on 2 February 1141 between King Stephen of England and forces loyal to Empress Matilda. Stephen was captured during the battle, imprisoned, and effectively deposed while Matilda ruled for a short time, cadwaladr was the brother of Owain, Prince of Gwynedd, but Owain did not support any side in The Anarchy. Stephen’s force included William of Ypres, Simon of Senlis, Gilbert of Hertford, William of Aumale, Alan of Richmond, as soon as the battle was joined, the majority of the leading magnates fled the king. The earls, outnumbered and outfought, were put to flight. King Stephen and his knights were surrounded by the Angevin force. With horses spurred on, they charged the troop, slew some, wounded others. No rest, no breathing time was granted them, except in the quarter where stood that most valiant king, the earl of Chester, on perceiving this, envying the king his glory, rushed upon him with all the weight of his armed men. Then was seen the might of the king, equal to a thunderbolt, slaying some with his immense battle-axe, then arose the shouts afresh, all rushing against him and him against all. At length through the number of the blows, the kings battle-axe was broken asunder, instantly, with his right hand, drawing his sword, well worthy of a king, he marvellously waged the combat, until the sword as well was broken asunder. On seeing this William Kahamnes, a most powerful knight, rushed upon the king, the rest of his division fought on with no hope of escape until all were killed or had surrendered. Baldwin fitz Richard and Richard fitz Urse having received many wounds, after fierce fighting in the citys streets, Stephens forces were defeated. Stephen himself was captured and taken to Bristol, where he was imprisoned and he was subsequently exchanged for Robert of Gloucester, who was later captured in the Rout of Winchester the following September. This ended Matildas brief ascendancy in the wars with Stephen and this battle is featured in the historical novel The Pillars of the Earth by Ken Follett, and is described almost as it happened, including the capture of King Stephen and his subsequent exchange. Similarly, it is recounted in When Christ and his Saints Slept by Sharon Penman, the battle of Lincoln is also an important plot element in Dead Mans Ransom, a novel in the Brother Cadfael series by Edith Pargeter. An older novel, The Villains of the Piece, by Graham Shelby, also has a chapter in it describing First Lincoln
21.
Empress Matilda
–
Empress Matilda, also known as the Empress Maude, was the claimant to the English throne during the civil war known as the Anarchy. The daughter of King Henry I of England, she moved to Germany as a child when she married the future Holy Roman Emperor Henry V. She travelled with her husband into Italy in 1116, was crowned in St. Peters Basilica. Matilda and Henry had no children, and when Henry died in 1125, meanwhile, Matildas younger brother, William Adelin, died in the White Ship disaster of 1120, leaving England facing a potential succession crisis. On Henry Vs death, Matilda was recalled to Normandy by her father, Henry died in 1135 but Matilda and Geoffrey faced opposition from the Norman barons and were unable to pursue their claims. The throne was taken by Matildas cousin Stephen of Blois. Stephen took steps to solidify his new regime, but faced threats both from neighbouring powers and from opponents within his kingdom. Matildas forces captured Stephen at the Battle of Lincoln in 1141, as a result of this retreat, Matilda was never formally declared Queen of England, and was instead titled the Lady of the English. Robert was captured following the Rout of Winchester in 1141, Matilda became trapped in Oxford Castle by Stephens forces that winter, and was forced to escape across the frozen River Isis at night to avoid capture. The war degenerated into a stalemate, with Matilda controlling much of the south-west of England, and Stephen the south-east, large parts of the rest of the country were in the hands of local, independent barons. Matilda returned to Normandy, now in the hands of her husband, in 1148, leaving her eldest son to continue the campaign in England, he eventually succeeded to the throne as Henry II in 1154. She settled her court near Rouen and for the rest of her life concerned herself with the administration of Normandy, particularly in the early years of her sons reign, she provided political advice and attempted to mediate during the Becket controversy. She worked extensively with the Church, founding Cistercian monasteries, and was known for her piety and she was buried under the high altar at Bec Abbey after her death in 1167. Matilda was born to Henry I, King of England and Duke of Normandy, Henry was the youngest son of William the Conqueror, who had invaded England in 1066, creating an empire stretching into Wales. The invasion had created an Anglo-Norman elite, many with estates spread across both sides of the English Channel. These barons typically had close links to the kingdom of France and her mother Matilda was the daughter of King Malcolm III of Scotland, a member of the West Saxon royal family, and a descendant of Alfred the Great. For Henry, marrying Matilda of Scotland had given his reign increased legitimacy, Matilda had a younger, legitimate brother, William Adelin, and her fathers relationships with numerous mistresses resulted in around 22 illegitimate siblings. Little is known about Matildas earliest life, but she stayed with her mother, was taught to read
22.
Henry I of England
–
Henry I, also known as Henry Beauclerc, was King of England from 1100 to his death. Henry was the son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin. On Williams death in 1087, Henrys elder brothers Robert Curthose and William Rufus inherited Normandy and England, respectively, Henry purchased the County of Cotentin in western Normandy from Robert, but William and Robert deposed him in 1091. Henry gradually rebuilt his power base in the Cotentin and allied himself with William against Robert, Henry was present when William died in a hunting accident in 1100, and he seized the English throne, promising at his coronation to correct many of Williams less popular policies. Henry married Matilda of Scotland but continued to have a number of mistresses. Robert, who invaded in 1101, disputed Henrys control of England, the peace was short-lived, and Henry invaded the Duchy of Normandy in 1105 and 1106, finally defeating Robert at the Battle of Tinchebray. Henry kept Robert imprisoned for the rest of his life, following Henrys victory at the Battle of Brémule, a favourable peace settlement was agreed with Louis in 1120. Considered by contemporaries to be a harsh but effective ruler, Henry skilfully manipulated the barons in England, Normandy was also governed through a growing system of justices and an exchequer. Many of the officials who ran Henrys system were new men of obscure backgrounds rather than families of high status. Henry encouraged ecclesiastical reform, but became embroiled in a dispute in 1101 with Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury. He supported the Cluniac order and played a role in the selection of the senior clergy in England. Henrys only legitimate son and heir, William Adelin, drowned in the White Ship disaster of 1120, Henry took a second wife, Adeliza, in the hope of having another son, but their marriage was childless. In response to this, Henry declared his daughter, Matilda, his heir, the relationship between Henry and the couple became strained, and fighting broke out along the border with Anjou. Henry died on 1 December 1135 after a week of illness, despite his plans for Matilda, the King was succeeded by his nephew, Stephen of Blois, resulting in a period of civil war known as the Anarchy. Henry was probably born in England in 1068, in either the summer or the last weeks of the year, possibly in the town of Selby in Yorkshire. His father was William the Conqueror, who had originally been the Duke of Normandy and then, following the invasion of 1066, became the King of England, the invasion had created an Anglo-Norman elite, many with estates spread across both sides of the English Channel. These Anglo-Norman barons typically had close links to the kingdom of France, Henrys mother, Matilda of Flanders, was the granddaughter of Robert II of France, and she probably named Henry after her uncle, King Henry I of France. Henry was the youngest of William and Matildas four sons, physically he resembled his older brothers Robert Curthose, Richard and William Rufus, being, as historian David Carpenter describes, short, stocky and barrel-chested, with black hair
23.
Earl of Leicester
–
The title Earl of Leicester was created in the 12th century in the Peerage of England, and is currently a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, created in 1837. The title was first created for Robert de Beaumont, but he always used his French title of Count of Meulan. Three generations of his descendants, all also named Robert, called themselves Earls of Leicester, the Beaumont male line ended with the death of the Fourth Earl. His property was split between his two sisters, with Simon IV de Montfort, the son of the eldest sister, acquiring Leicester, de Montfort however was never formally recognized as earl, due to the antipathy between France and England at that time. His second son, Simon V de Montfort, did succeed in taking possession of the earldom and he is the Simon de Montfort who became so prominent during the reign of Henry III. He was killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and his lands, in 1267 the title was created a second time and granted to the kings youngest son Edmund Crouchback. In 1276 he also became Earl of Lancaster, and the titles became united, crouchbacks son Thomas lost the earldom when he was executed for treason in 1322, but a few years later it was restored to his younger brother Henry. Henrys son Henry of Grosmont left only two daughters, and his estate was divided between them, the eldest daughter Matilda receiving the earldom, which was held by her husband William V of Holland. Matilda, however, soon died, and the passed to John of Gaunt, husband of her younger sister, Blanche. Both the dukedom and the earldom were inherited by John of Gaunts son, Henry Bolingbroke, the properties associated with the earldom became part of what was later called the Duchy of Lancaster. In 1564 the earldom was created for Queen Elizabeth Is favourite. Since Dudley died without heirs, the title became extinct at his death, the title was again created in 1618 for Robert Sidney, his nephew. Along with the earldom Robert Sidney was granted the title of Viscount Lisle on 4 May 1605. The Sidneys retained the titles until the death of the seventh Earl in 1743, the title of earl was then recreated for Thomas Coke, but it became extinct when he, too, died without heirs. Townshend was a female-line great-great-great-grandson of Lady Lucy Sydney, daughter of the second Earl of the 1618 creation, the earldom became extinct yet again upon the death of his son, the third Marquess and second Earl, in 1855. The Coke family is descended from the judge and politician Sir Edward Coke. His great-great-great-grandson Thomas Coke was a landowner, politician and patron of arts, Lord Leicester began the construction of Holkham Hall in Norfolk. He married Margaret Tufton, 19th Baroness de Clifford and their only child Edward Coke, Viscount Coke, predeceased both his parents, without issue
24.
Arnulf de Montgomery
–
Arnulf de Montgomery was an Anglo-Norman magnate. He was a son of Roger de Montgomery and Mabel de Bellême. Arnulfs father was a magnate in Normandy and England. Following the Montgomerys successes against the Welsh, Arnulf established himself at Pembroke, where a earth and timber castle was erected, and was likely rewarded with the title Earl of Pembroke. At the turn of the twelfth century Arnulf reached height, with his lordship including much of the former Welsh Kingdom of Deheubarth as well as lands in Yorkshire. Not long after reaching this apex of his career, Arnulf assisted his eldest surviving brother, Robert de Bellême, in a rebellion against Henry I, King of England. It was also about time that Arnulf married a daughter of Muirchertach Ua Briain, King of Munster. Arnulfs career exemplifies the opportunities available to younger sons of the Anglo-Norman aristocracy, Arnulf appears to have died between 1118 and 1122. He is not known to have any descendants, and the familys surname appears to have died with him. Arnulf was likely born in the late 1060s, possibly about 1066 and he was a younger son of Roger de Montgomery, Vicomte of the Hièmois and Mabel de Bellême. Arnulfs parents likely married in about 1050 and his mother was a daughter of, and eventual heiress of, William de Bellême, Lord of Alençon. Arnulfs father, an apparent kinsman and close companion of William II, as tutor to Matilda, Duchess of Normandy, Roger and his eldest sons did not embark on the 1066 Norman invasion of England. Soon afterwards, Roger was made Earl of Shrewsbury, by 1086, he was one of the wealthiest tenants-in-chief in England. This source identifies several leading members of the insurrection, including three unnamed sons of Roger, Arnulfs father was one of three close supporters of the king who were settled along the Anglo-Welsh border, in a region known as the Welsh marches. In 1093, encroaching marcher lords engaged and slew Rhys ap Tewdwr, contemporaries marked Rhys fall as the end of kingship amongst the Welsh, and his demise left a power-vacuum in which men such as Arnulf seized upon. The south-west Welsh gwladoedd of Ceredigion and Dyfed were thus overwhelmed and settled by the conquering incomers, in the latter gwlad, Arnulfs father founded an earth and timber castle in which Arnulf established himself. This ringwork, strategically seated on the highest point of a promontory between two inlets, sat on the site where the castle of Pembroke stands today. Although nothing now remains of the castle, it is described by the twelfth–thirteenth-century Itinerarium Kambriæ as a slender fortress built of stakes
25.
William II of England
–
William II, the third son of William I of England, was King of England from 1087 until 1100, with powers over Normandy, and influence in Scotland. He was less successful in extending control into Wales, William is commonly known as William Rufus or William the Red, perhaps because of his red-faced appearance. He was a figure of complex temperament, capable of both bellicosity and flamboyance and he did not marry, nor did he produce any offspring, legitimate or otherwise. He died after being struck by an arrow while hunting, under circumstances that remain murky, circumstantial evidence in the behaviour of those around him raise strong but unproven suspicions of murder. His younger brother Henry hurriedly succeeded him as king, on the other hand, he was a wise ruler and victorious general. Barlow finds that, His chivalrous virtues and achievements were all too obvious and he had maintained good order and satisfactory justice in England and restored good peace to Normandy. He had extended Anglo-Norman rule in Wales, brought Scotland firmly under his lordship, recovered Maine, Williams exact date of birth is not known, but it was some time between the years 1056 and 1060. He was the third of four born to William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders, the eldest being Robert Curthose, the second Richard. William succeeded to the throne of England on his fathers death in 1087, Richard had died around 1075 while hunting in the New Forest. William had five or six sisters, records indicate strained relations between the three surviving sons of William I. A brawl broke out, and their father had to intercede to restore order, the division of William the Conquerors lands into two parts presented a dilemma for those nobles who held land on both sides of the English Channel. The only solution, as they saw it, was to unite England, in 1091 he invaded Normandy, crushing Roberts forces and forcing him to cede a portion of his lands. The two made up their differences and William agreed to help Robert recover lands lost to France, William Rufus was thus secure in what was then the most powerful kingdom in Europe, given the contemporary eclipse of the Salian emperors. Less than two years after becoming king, William II lost his father William Is adviser and confidant, after Lanfrancs death in 1089, the king delayed appointing a new archbishop for many years, appropriating ecclesiastical revenues in the interim. The English clergy, beholden to the king for their preferments, in 1095 William called a council at Rockingham to bring Anselm to heel, but the archbishop remained firm. In October 1097, Anselm went into exile, taking his case to the Pope, the diplomatic and flexible Urban II, a new pope, was involved in a major conflict with the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, who supported an antipope. Reluctant to make another enemy, Urban came to a concordat with William Rufus, whereby William recognised Urban as pope, Anselm remained in exile, and William was able to claim the revenues of the archbishop of Canterbury to the end of his reign. Lanfranc retorted that you will not seize the bishop of Bayeux and it seems reasonable to suppose that such details are indicative of William IIs personal beliefs
26.
Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke
–
Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, Lord of Leinster, Justiciar of Ireland was a Welsh-Norman lord notable for his leading role in the Norman invasion of Ireland. Like his father, Richard fitz Gilbert has since become known by his nickname Strongbow which may be a mistranscription or mistranslation of Striguil. Richards cognomen Strongbow has become the name he is best known by, cognomens of other Cambro-Norman and Norman lords were exclusively Norman-French as the nobility spoke French and, with few exceptions, official documents were written in Latin during this period. The confusion seems to have arisen when Richards name was being translated into Latin, in the Domesday Exchequer annals between 1300 and 1304 it was written as Ricardus cognomento Stranghose Comes Strugulliae. It is in the century that we have Richards name finally rendered as Strongbow Earl Richard son of Gilbert Strongbow. Richard was the son of Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke, Richards father died in about 1148, when he was roughly 18 years old, and Richard inherited the title count of Strigoil Earl of Pembroke. It is probable that this title was not recognized at Henry IIs coronation in 1154. Richard was in fact, called by his contemporaries Count Striguil, for his lordship of Striguil where he had a fortress at a place now called Chepstow. He saw an opportunity to reverse his bad fortune in 1168 when he met Diarmait Mac Murchada, in 1167, Diarmait Mac Murchada was deprived of the Kingdom of Leinster by the High King of Ireland – Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair. The grounds for the dispossession were that Mac Murchada had, in 1152, abducted Derbforgaill, to recover his kingdom, Mac Murchada solicited help from the King of England – Henry II. The deposed king embarked for Bristol from near Bannow on 1 August 1166 and he met Henry in Aquitaine in the Autumn of 1166. Henry could not help him at this time, but provided a letter of comfort for willing supporters of Mac Murchadas cause in his kingdom, however, after his return to Wales, he failed to rally any forces to his standard. He eventually met the count of Striguil and other barons of the Welsh Marches. As Henry’s approval or license to Mac Murchada was a general one, the license he got was to aid Mac Murchada in the recovery of his kingdom of Leinster. Mac Murchada and Richard de Clare raised an army, which included Welsh archers. The force took the Ostman towns of Wexford, Waterford, Richard de Clare, however, was not with the first invading party and arrived later, in August 1170. In May 1171, Diarmait Mac Murchada died and his son, Donal MacMurrough-Kavanagh, Richard de Clare also claimed the kingship in the right of his wife. At this time, Strongbow sent his uncle, Hervey de Montmorency and this was necessary to appease the King who was growing restive at the counts increasing power
27.
Isabel de Clare, 4th Countess of Pembroke
–
Isabel de Clare, suo jure Countess of Pembroke and Striguil, was a Cambro-Norman-Irish noblewoman and one of the wealthiest heiresses in Wales and Ireland. She was the wife of William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke and her marriage had been arranged by King Richard I. The latter was a daughter of Muirchertach Ua Tuathail and Cacht Ní Morda, the marriage of Strongbow and Aoife took place in August 1170, the day after the capture of Waterford by the Cambro-Norman forces led by Strongbow. Isabels paternal grandparents were Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke and she had a younger brother Gilbert de Striguil who, being a minor, was not formally invested with either the earldom of Pembroke or of Striguil. It is unlikely that his father could have passed on the title to Pembroke as he himself did not possess it, when Gilbert died in 1185, Isabel became Countess of Pembroke in her own right until her death in 1220. In this way, she could be said to be the first successor to the earldom of Pembroke since her grandfather Gilbert, by this reckoning, Isabel ought to be called the second countess, not the fourth countess of Pembroke. In any event, the title Earl was re-created for her husband and she also had an illegitimate half-sister Basile de Clare, who married three times. Basiles husbands were, Robert de Quincy, Raymond Fitzgerald, Constable of Leinster, Geoffrey FitzRobert, Isabel was described as having been the good, the fair, the wise, the courteous lady of high degree. She allegedly spoke French, Irish and Latin, after her brother Gilberts death, Isabel became one of the wealthiest heiresses in the kingdom, owning besides the titles of Pembroke and Striguil, much land in Wales and Ireland. She inherited the castles on the inlet of Milford Haven, guarding the South Channel. She was a ward of King Henry II, who carefully watched over her inheritance. The new King Richard I arranged her marriage in August 1189 to William Marshal, regarded by many as the greatest knight and soldier in the realm. Henry II had promised Marshal he would be given Isabel as his bride, at the time of her marriage, Isabel was residing in the Tower of London in the protective custody of the Justiciar of England, Ranulf de Glanville. Following the wedding, which was celebrated in London with due pomp and ceremony, marriage to Isabel elevated William Marshal from the status as a landless knight into one of the richest men in the kingdom. He would serve as Lord Marshal of England, four kings in all, Henry II, Richard I, John, and Henry III. Shortly after their marriage, Marshal and Isabel arrived in Ireland, at Old Ross, a motte was hastily constructed, a medieval borough quickly grew around it, and afterwards the Marshals founded the port town by the river which subsequently became known as New Ross. The Chronicles of Ross, which are housed in the British Museum, described Isabel and Marshals arrival in Ireland and records that Isabella set about building a lovely city on the banks of the Barrow. In 1192, Isabel and her husband assumed the task of managing their vast lands, starting with the rebuilding of Kilkenny Castle, later they commissioned the construction of several abbeys in the vicinity
28.
House of Plantagenet
–
The House of Plantagenet was a royal house which originated from the lands of Anjou in France. The family held the English throne from 1154, with the accession of Henry II, until 1485, under the Plantagenets, England was transformed, although this was only partly intentional. The Plantagenet kings were forced to negotiate compromises such as Magna Carta. These constrained royal power in return for financial and military support, the king was no longer just the most powerful man in the nation, holding the prerogative of judgement, feudal tribute and warfare. He now had defined duties to the realm, underpinned by a justice system. A distinct national identity was shaped by conflict with the French, Scots, Welsh and Irish, in the 15th century, the Plantagenets were defeated in the Hundred Years War and beset with social, political and economic problems. Popular revolts were commonplace, triggered by the denial of numerous freedoms, the Tudors worked to centralise English royal power, which allowed them to avoid some of the problems that had plagued the last Plantagenet rulers. The resulting stability allowed for the English Renaissance, and the advent of early modern Britain, Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York, adopted Plantagenet as his family name in the 15th century. Plantegenest had been a 12th-century nickname for his ancestor Geoffrey, count of Anjou, one of many popular theories suggests the common broom, planta genista in medieval Latin, as the source of the nickname. It is uncertain why Richard chose this name, although during the Wars of the Roses it emphasised Richards status as Geoffreys patrilineal descendant. It was only in the late 17th century that it passed into common usage among historians, the three Angevin kings were Henry II, Richard I and John, Angevin can also refer to the period of history in which they reigned. Many historians identify the Angevins as a distinct English royal house, Angevin is also used in reference to any sovereign or government derived from Anjou. The term Angevin Empire was coined by Kate Norgate in 1887, the Empire portion of Angevin Empire has been controversial. In 1986 a convention of historians concluded that there had not been an Angevin state, and therefore no Angevin Empire, nonetheless, historians have continued to use Angevin Empire. The later counts of Anjou, including the Plantagenets, descended from Geoffrey II, Count of Gâtinais, in 1060 the couple inherited the title via cognatic kinship from an Angevin family that was descended from a noble named Ingelger, whose recorded history dates from 870. During the 10th and 11th centuries, power struggles occurred between rulers in northern and western France including those of Anjou, Normandy, Brittany, Poitou, Blois, Maine, and the kings of France. In the early 12th century Geoffrey of Anjou married Empress Matilda, King Henry Is only surviving legitimate child and heir to the English throne. As a result of marriage, Geoffreys son Henry II inherited the English throne as well as Norman and Angevin titles, thus marking the beginning of the Angevin
29.
Henry II of England
–
Henry was the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England. He became actively involved by the age of 14 in his mothers efforts to claim the throne of England, then occupied by Stephen of Blois and he inherited Anjou in 1151 and shortly afterwards married Eleanor of Aquitaine, whose marriage to Louis VII of France had recently been annulled. Stephen agreed to a treaty after Henrys military expedition to England in 1153. Henry was an energetic and sometimes ruthless ruler, driven by a desire to restore the lands and privileges of his royal grandfather, Henrys desire to reform the relationship with the Church led to conflict with his former friend Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This controversy lasted for much of the 1160s and resulted in Beckets murder in 1170, Henry soon came into conflict with Louis VII and the two rulers fought what has been termed a cold war over several decades. By 1172, he controlled England, large parts of Wales, the half of Ireland and the western half of France. Henry and Eleanor had eight children, as they grew up, tensions over the future inheritance of the empire began to emerge, encouraged by Louis and his son King Philip II. In 1173 Henrys heir apparent, Young Henry, rebelled in protest, he was joined by his brothers Richard and Geoffrey and by their mother, France, Scotland, Flanders, and Boulogne allied themselves with the rebels. The Great Revolt was only defeated by Henrys vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them new men appointed for their loyalty, Young Henry and Geoffrey revolted again in 1183, resulting in Young Henrys death. The Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for his youngest son John, Philip successfully played on Richards fears that Henry would make John king, and a final rebellion broke out in 1189. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from an ulcer, Henry retreated to Chinon in Anjou. Henrys empire quickly collapsed during the reign of his youngest son John, many of the changes Henry introduced during his long rule, however, had long-term consequences. Historical interpretations of Henrys reign have changed considerably over time, in the 18th century, scholars argued that Henry was a driving force in the creation of a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. Late-20th-century historians have combined British and French historical accounts of Henry, Henry was born in France at Le Mans on 5 March 1133 as the eldest child of the Empress Matilda and her second husband, Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou. In theory, the county answered to the French king, but royal power over Anjou weakened during the 11th century, Henrys mother, firstly married to the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V, was the eldest daughter of Henry I, King of England and Duke of Normandy. She was born into a ruling class of Normans, who traditionally owned extensive estates in both England and Normandy. Geoffrey took advantage of the confusion to attack the Duchy of Normandy but played no role in the English conflict, leaving this to Matilda and her half-brother. The war, termed the Anarchy by Victorian historians, dragged on, Henry probably spent some of his earliest years in his mothers household, and accompanied Matilda to Normandy in the late 1130s
30.
Ireland
–
Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
31.
Diarmait Mac Murchada
–
Diarmait Mac Murchada, anglicised as Dermot MacMurrough, Dermod MacMurrough, Dermot MacMorrogh or Dermot MacMorrow, was a King of Leinster in Ireland. In 1167, he was deprived of his kingdom by the High King of Ireland – Ruaidri Ua Conchobair, the grounds for the dispossession were that Mac Murchada had, in 1152, abducted Derbforgaill, the wife of the King of Breifne, Tiernan ORourke. To recover his kingdom, Mac Murchada solicited help from King Henry II of England, in return, Mac Murchada pledged an oath of allegiance to Henry, who sent troops in support. As a further thanks for his reinstatement, Mac Murchadas daughter Aoife was married to Richard de Clare, Henry II then mounted a larger second invasion in 1171 to ensure his control over Strongbow, resulting in the Lordship of Ireland. Mac Murchada was later known as Diarmait na nGall, Mac Murchada was born around 1110, a son of Donnchad mac Murchada, King of Leinster and Dublin. His fathers grandmother Dervorgilla was a daughter of Donnchad, King of Munster and therefore she was a granddaughter of Brian Boru. His father was killed in battle in 1115 by his cousin Sigtrygg Silkbeard, king of the Dublin Vikings, Mac Murchada had two wives, the first of whom, Sadb Ní Faeláin, was mother of a daughter named Órlaith who married Domnall Mór, King of Munster. His second wife, Mór Ní Tuathail, was mother of Aoife / Eva of Leinster and he also had two other sons, Domhnall Caomhánach mac Murchada and Énna Cennselach mac Murchada. Diarmait Mac Murchada is buried in the Cathedral graveyard of Ferns village, after the death of his older brother, Énna Mac Murchada, Diarmait unexpectedly became King of Leinster. This was opposed by the then High King of Ireland, Toirdelbach Ua Conchobair who feared that Mac Murchada would become a rival, Toirdelbach sent one of his allied Kings, the belligerent Tigernán Ua Ruairc to conquer Leinster and oust the young Mac Murchada. Ua Ruairc went on a brutal campaign slaughtering the livestock of Leinster, Mac Murchada was ousted from his throne, but was able to regain it with the help of Leinster clans in 1132. Afterwards followed two decades of a peace between Ua Conchobair and Diarmait. In 1152 he even assisted the High King to raid the land of Ua Ruairc who had by then become a renegade. Mac Murchada also is said to have abducted Ua Ruaircs wife Derbforgaill along with all her furniture and goods, with the aid of Derbforgaills brother, a future pretender to the kingship of Meath. Other sources say that Derbforgaill was not a prisoner and that she remained in Ferns with Mac Murchada in comfort for a number of years. Her advanced age indicates that she may have been a refugee or a hostage, whatever the reality, the abduction was given as a further reason for enmity between the two kings. He also sponsored the career of churchman St Lawrence OToole. He married OTooles half-sister Mor in 1153 and presided at the synod of Clane in 1161 when OToole was installed as archbishop of Dublin
32.
Waterford
–
Waterford is a city in Ireland. It is in the South-East Region, Ireland and is part of the province of Munster, the city is situated at the head of Waterford Harbour. It is the oldest and the fifth most populous city in the Republic of Ireland and it is the eighth most populous city on the island of Ireland. Waterford City and County Council is the government authority for the city. Waterford is known for Waterford Crystal, a legacy of the citys former glass-making industry, according to the 2011 Census,65,928 people live in the Waterford Metropolitan District, however this figure does not include its suburbs in County Kilkenny and County Wexford. There are over 80,000 people within a 15 km radius of the city centre, with a population of 51,519, Waterford is the fifth most populous city in the State and the 32nd most populous area of local government. Following the Local Government Reform Act 2014, Waterford City and County Council is the government authority for the city. The authority came into operation on 1 June 2014, prior to this the city had its own local council, Waterford City Council. The new Council is the result of a merger of Waterford City Council, the Council has 32 representatives who are elected from five electoral areas. The city itself forms three of the electoral areas – which when combined form the Metropolitan District of Waterford –, residents in these areas are restricted to voting for candidates located in their ward for local elections. The office of the Mayor of Waterford was established in 1377, a mayor is then elected by the councillors from the two electoral areas of the Metropolitan District of Waterford every year, and there is no limit to the number of terms an individual may serve. Mary OHalloran who was mayor during 2007–2008 was the first woman to hold the post, the current mayor is Adam Wyse. The constituency elects four deputies to Dáil Éireann, there are no such ward restrictions for these elections and voters are entitled to vote for any candidate throughout the city and county. The name Waterford comes from Old Norse Veðrafjǫrðr, meaning ram fjord, the Irish name is Port Láirge, meaning Lárags port. Viking raiders first established a settlement near Waterford in 853 and it and all the other longphorts were vacated in 902, the Vikings having been driven out by the native Irish. Among the most prominent rulers of Waterford was Ivar of Waterford, in 1167, Diarmait Mac Murchada, the deposed King of Leinster, failed in an attempt to take Waterford. He returned in 1170 with Cambro-Norman mercenaries under Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, together they besieged, in furtherance of the Norman invasion of Ireland, King Henry II of England landed at Waterford in 1171. Waterford and then Dublin were declared cities, with Dublin also declared capital of Ireland
33.
Dublin
–
Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
34.
Aoife MacMurrough
–
Aoife MacMurrough, also known by later historians as Eva of Leinster, was an Irish noble, lady of Leinster and countess of Pembroke. She was the daughter of Dermot MacMurrough, King of Leinster and her father, Dermot MacMurrough, who was seeking a military alliance with Strongbow in his feud with King of Breffney, Tiernan ORuark, had promised Aoife to Pembroke. However, according to Brehon law, both the man and the woman had to consent to the marriage, so it is fair to conclude that Aoife accepted her fathers arrangements, under Anglo-Norman law, this gave Strongbow succession rights to the Kingdom of Leinster. Aoife led troops in battle and is known as Red Eva. Aoife O Croinin, Daibhi Early Medieval Ireland 400-1200 London, Longman Press, p.281 Salmonson, ISBN 1-55778-420-5 Weis, Frederick Lewis Ancestral Roots of Certain American Colonists Who Came to America Before 1700, Lines, 66-26, 175-7, 261-30
35.
William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke
–
William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, also called William the Marshal, was an Anglo-Norman soldier and statesman. He served five English kings – Henry II, his sons The Young King Henry, Richard I, John, knighted in 1166, he spent his younger years as a knight errant and a successful tournament competitor, Stephen Langton eulogized him as the best knight that ever lived. In 1189, he received the title of Earl of Pembroke through marriage during the creation of the Pembroke Earldom. In 1216, he was appointed protector for the nine-year-old Henry III, William became known as the Marshal, although by his time much of the function was actually delegated to more specialized representatives. Because he was an Earl, and also known as the Marshal, the term Earl Marshal was commonly used and this later became an established hereditary title in the English Peerage. When King Stephen besieged Newbury Castle in 1152, according to Williams biographer, John, however, used the time allotted to reinforce the castle and alert Matildas forces. Subsequently, there was a made to launch William from a pierrière. Fortunately for the child, Stephen could not bring himself to harm young William, William remained a crown hostage for many months, only being released following the peace that resulted from the terms agreed at Winchester on 6 November 1153 that ended the civil war. As a younger son of a nobleman, William had no lands or fortune to inherit. Here he began his training as a knight and this would have included basic biblical stories and prayers written in Latin, as well as exposure to French romances, which conferred the basic precepts of chivalry to the budding knight. In addition, while in Tancarville’s household, it is likely that Marshal also learned important and he was knighted in 1166 on campaign in Upper Normandy, then being invaded from Flanders. His first experience in battle came with mixed reviews, according to LHistoire, everyone who witnessed the young knight in action agreed that he had acquitted himself well in combat. However, as medieval historian David Crouch explains, “War in the century was not fought wholly for honour. Profit was there to be made…” On this front, Marshal was not so successful, as described in LHistoire, the Earl of Essex, who was expecting the customary tribute from his valorous knight following battle, jokingly remarked, “Oh. But Marshal, what are you saying and you had forty or sixty of them — yet you refuse me so small a thing. ”In 1167 he was taken by William de Tancarville to his first tournament where he found his true métier. Quitting the Tancarville household he served in the household of his mothers brother, Patrick. In 1168 his uncle was killed in an ambush by Guy de Lusignan, William was injured and captured in the same skirmish. It is known that William received a wound to his thigh and he received a loaf of bread in which were concealed several lengths of clean linen bandages with which he could dress his wounds
36.
William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke
–
William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke was a medieval English nobleman and was one of Magna Carta sureties. He fought during the First Barons War and was present at the Battle of Lincoln, William was born in Normandy probably during the spring of 1190, the son of the famous William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, Marshal of England. He commissioned a biography of his father to be written, called LHistoire de Guillaume le Mareschal. During the First Barons War of 1215, William was on the side of the supporting the claim of King Louis VIII of France while his father was fighting for the right of the English king. In March 1217, he was absolved from excommunication and rejoined the royal cause, at the Battle of Lincoln in 1217 he was fighting with his father. Following his fathers death in 1219 he succeeded him as both Earl of Pembroke and as Lord Marshal of England and these two powerful titles, combined with his fathers legendary status, could not help but make William one of the most prominent and powerful nobles in England. In 1223, William crossed over from his Irish lands to campaign against Llywelyn the Great and he was successful, but his actions were seen as too independent by the regents of the young King Henry III. In 1224 Hugh de Lacy began attacking Irish lands held by William together with the royal demesnes in that island, William was appointed as Justiciar of Ireland and managed to subdue de Lacy. In 1225 he founded the Dominican Priory of the Holy Trinity in Kilkenny and began the construction of Carlow, in 1226 he was ordered to surrender to the crown the custody of the royal castles of Cardigan and Carmarthen which he had captured from Llywelyn. In 1226 he was removed from his role as justiciar due to his opposition to the treatment of Aodh OConnor during a campaign in Connacht, William accompanied the king to Brittany in 1230, and assumed control of the forces when the king returned to England. William married twice, but produced no surviving progeny, Firstly in September 1214, aged 24, William married Alice de Bethune. She was murdered while pregnant with her son, no surviving male progeny resulted, as her son died as she did. There are no existing sources to prove this, they simply state she died nine months after the marriage, shortly before her death she was involved in a land dispute, leading to theories she was murdered. Secondly in 1224 William married Eleanor of Leicester, youngest daughter of King John by Isabella of Angoulême, William died on 6 April 1231. Matthew Paris recorded that Hubert de Burgh, Justiciar of England, was accused of poisoning William. He was buried in the Temple Church in London, next to his father, William had no surviving male progeny, thus his titles passed to his younger brother Richard Marshal, 3rd Earl of Pembroke. His lack of progeny was credited to a curse bestowed upon the family by the Bishop of Ferns, Ailbe Ua Maíl Mhuaidh. All of Williams brothers inherited the title successively, but as Ua Maíl Mhuaidh predicted, none had children and the male line of the family died out on the death of Anselm Marshal in 1245
.svg)
.svg)
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pembroke, Earls of". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the