1.
Pakistan
–
Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
2.
Dhaka
–
Dhaka is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh. It is one of the worlds most populated cities, with a population of 17 million people in the Greater Dhaka Area and it is also the 3rd most densely populated city in the world. Located in a district and division, it lies along the east bank of the Buriganga River in the heart of the Bengal delta. The city is a microcosm of the country, with diverse religious. Dhaka is the economic, cultural and political center of Bangladesh and its name was romanized as Dacca until the current spelling was adopted in 1983. It is the largest city in the Bengal region and it is also a major city of South Asia and among the OIC states. The old city of Dhaka was the Mughal capital of Bengal, the citys name was Jahangir Nagar in the 17th century. It was a commercial center and the hub of the worldwide muslin. The city hosted two important caravansaries of the subcontinent, the Bara Katra and Choto Katra, located on the riverfront of the Buriganga, the Mughals decorated the city with well-laid out gardens, tombs, mosques, palaces and forts. Dhaka became known as the City of Mosques in Bengal and it was also described as the Venice of the East. The old city was home to various Eurasian merchant groups, at the height of its medieval glory, Dhaka was regarded as one of the wealthiest and most prosperous cities in the world. It was central to the economy of Mughal Bengal, which generated 50% of Mughal GDP, modern Dhaka developed from the late 20th century under the administration of East Pakistan. Between 1905 and 1912, it was the capital of British Eastern Bengal, in 1947, after the region became known as Pakistan, it became the administrative capital of the eastern wing of Pakistan. It was declared as the capital of Pakistan in 1962. In 1971, it became the capital of an independent Bangladesh, the city has endured periods of famine, war and natural calamities. It continues to confront challenges faced by growing metropolises in developing countries, including poverty, Dhaka is home to thousands of Bangladeshi businesses and the offices of many international corporations. The Dhaka Stock Exchange is one of the largest in South Asia in terms of trading volume and it hosts several major arts festivals, including the annual Ekushey Book Fair, the Dhaka Literature Festival and the biannual Dhaka Art Summit. The city has the largest number of cycle rickshaws and is known as the Rickshaw Capital of the World, Dhakas highly popular cuisine features distinctive biryanis, kebabs and bakarkhanis as a legacy of its rule by the Mughals and the Nawabs of Dhaka
3.
Bengali language
–
Bengali, also known by its endonym Bangla, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in South Asia. With over 210 million speakers, Bengali is the seventh most spoken language in the world. Dominant in the last group was Persian, which was also the source of some grammatical forms, more recent studies suggest that the use of native and foreign words has been increasing, mainly because of the preference of Bengali speakers for the colloquial style. Today, Bengali is the language spoken in Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India. Both the national anthems of Bangladesh and India were composed in Bengali, in 1952, the Bengali Language Movement successfully pushed for the languages official status in the Dominion of Pakistan. In 1999, UNESCO recognized 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the movement in East Pakistan. Language is an important element of Bengali identity and binds together a diverse region. Sanskrit was spoken in Bengal since the first millennium BCE, during the Gupta Empire, Bengal was a hub of Sanskrit literature. The Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were spoken in Bengal in the first millennium when the region was a part of the Magadha Realm and these dialects were called Magadhi Prakrit. They eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi, Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what are called Apabhraṃśa languages at the end of the first millennium. Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali evolved circa 1000–1200 AD from Sanskrit, for example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. Proto-Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty, during the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterized by the elision of word-final অ ô, the spread of compound verbs and Arabic and Persian influences. Bengali was a court language of the Sultanate of Bengal. Muslim rulers promoted the development of Bengali as part of efforts to Islamize. Bengali became the most spoken language in the Sultanate. This period saw borrowing of Perso-Arabic terms into Bengali vocabulary, major texts of Middle Bengali include Chandidas Shreekrishna Kirtana. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the dialect spoken in the Nadia region, a west-central Bengali dialect. Bengali presents a case of diglossia, with the literary
4.
Urdu
–
Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
5.
Constitutional monarchy
–
A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as a sovereign who reigns, in addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, the oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape, the most recent country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008. At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801, Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbournes administration, today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial. No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen, with few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the years of the French Revolution. As originally conceived, a monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of servants of the people to reflect the new. In the course of Frances July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled King of the French rather than King of France, following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germanys defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy and this eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain, nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament, other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial
6.
Representative democracy
–
Representative democracy is a type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy. Representative democracy is often presented as the most efficient form of democracy possible in mass societies and it arguably allows for efficient ruling by a sufficiently small number of people on behalf of the larger number. Government efficiency can be judged based on metric of cost effectiveness, representatives voting on behalf of the people allows for a monetary benefit as there is lessened use of polling stations, vote counters, etc. The government is responsible for paying for the wages of the representatives. This system of governance is also time efficient as decisions can be made by a select few and it is a system in which people elect their lawmakers, who are then held accountable to them for their activity within government. It has been described by political theorists including Robert A Dahl, Gregory Houston. In it the power is in the hands of the representatives who are elected by the people in elections. Representatives are elected by the public, as in elections for the national legislature. Elected representatives may hold the power to other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature. The constitution may also provide for some deliberative democracy or direct popular measures, however, these are not always binding and usually require some legislative action—legal power usually remains firmly with representatives. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him, their opinion, high respect, their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs, and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man. These he does not derive from your pleasure, no, nor from the law and they are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his only, but his judgment. The Roman Republic was the first government in the world to have a representative government. In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of the United States in 1787
7.
Islamic republic
–
An Islamic republic is the name given to several states in countries ruled by Islamic laws, including the Islamic Republics of Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, and Mauritania. Pakistan first adopted the title under the constitution of 1956, Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958. Iran adopted it after the 1979 Iranian Revolution that overthrew the Pahlavi dynasty, Afghanistan adopted it in 1992 upon Jamiat-e Islami seizing capital Kabul from the Communists. Despite the similar name the countries differ greatly in their governments, the term Islamic republic has come to mean several different things, some contradictory to others. To some Muslim religious leaders in the Middle East and Africa who advocate it and they see it as a compromise between a purely Islamic caliphate, and secular nationalism and republicanism. On 12 Farvadin, it was announced that 98.2 percent of the Iranian voters wanted to establish the Islamic Republic, before the Islamic Republic referendum, some political groups suggested various names for the ideology of the Iranian revolution, such as the Republic or the democratic republic. But Ruhollah Khomeini, the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, asked people to vote for the name Islamic Republic, not a word more and not a word less. According to a commentary on Constitution, just as the establishment of Islamic Republic system is based on the beliefs of people namely governing of right, justice, however, its continuation lasted with the same principles and there is an important role for the beliefs of Iranian people. Also those beliefs are of complete and determinate roles in all affairs and those beliefs considered as guidelines for governors and statesmen. There is an important role for such as the principle of unity of God. There are, in spite of that, other principles are to the submission in front of Allah, therefore legislation is limited to god and laws so far as correspond to divine legislation are valid. Belief in divine revelation and prophecy also are essential to Islamic viewworld and we have two kinds of justice. First kind is legislative and the kind is creative or Takivini. Creative justice is based on the Justice and equality, legislative justice is respected to Making divine law in Islamic society. Besides, the basis of Shia school is in terms of Imamate or leadership, according to the principle of Imamate in Shia, it is indispensable to obey of the prophet of God and of those possessed of authority. Shia Ulama believe that the conception of term those possessed of authority denoted on Innocent Shia Imams, certainly when Imam is absent, Valy faghih is in charge of leadership of society. In other word, religious leaders undertake the responsibility of Imamate, sometimes it refers to generosity, nobleness and honor. However Islam considers with two sorts of dignity for human beings, essential or innate dignity and acquired dignity, according to innate dignity, Human being possessed of the right of living among other creatures
8.
Martial law
–
It is usually imposed temporarily when the government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, such incidents may occur after a coup détat, when threatened by popular protest, to suppress political opposition, or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of natural disasters, however, most countries use a different legal construct. Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan as well as the Southern Reconstruction following the U. S. Civil War. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal, the Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people and it would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. Brunei has been under a law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 known as the Brunei Revolt and was put down by British troops from Singapore. e. The military does not administer justice, which remains in the hands of the courts, the Act has been invoked three times, During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, during the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the army of the American Continental Congress in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the territory of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections and it was imposed until April 27,1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4,1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, in Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, state of emergency was declared, Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since, the Parliament has renewed the emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006, but after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was an extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to Terrorism. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation, under martial law the source of power is not the people, not the parliament, not the constitution, not a Holy Text, but solely the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The military issued in its announcement the end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt. Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the power to declare a State of Emergency
9.
One Unit
–
The One Unit was a geopolitical program launched by the government of Pakistan led by then-Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra on 22 November 1954. The program was believed to be enacted after the government faced difficulty of administrating the two unequal polities of Pakistan separated from each other by more than a thousand miles. To diminish the differences between the two regions, the program merged the Four Provinces of West Pakistan into a province as was the case with East Pakistan. Pakistani scholars and researchers maintain that the One Unit program was viewed as a counterbalance against the political, the One Unit program was met with great resistance and grievances from the Four Provinces since its establishment, and it remained in effect until 1970. Finally, President General Yahya Khan imposed Legal Framework Order No.1970 to end the One Unit program and reinstate the provisional status of the Four Provinces as of August 1947. Although Pakistan was conceived by philosopher Sir Muhammad Iqbal in 1930, rationalizing the framework, Bogra enumerated the benefits of having one unit or province. There will be no Bengalis, no Punjabis, no Sindhis, no Pathans, no Balochis, no Bahawalpuris, the disappearance of these groups will strengthen the integrity of Pakistan. It would end the curse of provincial prejudices and it would allow the development of backward areas. It would make it easier to draw up a new constitution and it would give East and West Pakistan maximum autonomy. After the 1954 general election, the four provinces and Tribal Areas were merged in the western wing, the province was composed of twelve divisions and the provincial capital was established at Lahore. The province of East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan with the capital at Dacca. The federal government moved the capital in 1958 from Karachi to Rawalpindi. West Pakistan formed a single and united political entity but with marked linguistic and ethnic distinctions, the One Unit policy was regarded as an administrative reform that would reduce expenditure and help eliminate ethnic and parochial prejudices. However, with the coup of 1958, trouble loomed for the province when the office of Chief Minister was abolished. The province of West Pakistan was dissolved on 1 July 1970 by President General Yahya Khan, ethno-nationalists were against the unity and amalgamation of the federating units as West Pakistan. The actual author of the plan is alleged to be General Ayub Khan, formation of One Unit, storyofpakistan. com website, West Pakistan Established as One Unit province on 30 Sept.1955, Retrieved 16 August 2015
10.
Pakistani Instrument of Surrender
–
Lieutenant-General A A K Niazi, Martial Law Administrator of East Pakistan, surrendered to Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, Joint Commander of Indian and Bangladesh Forces. Air Commodore A. K. Khandker, Deputy Chief of Staff of the Bangladesh Forces, the day is commemorated as Victory Day, a national holiday in Bangladesh, and as Vijay Diwas on the Indian military calendar. On behalf of Bangladesh, Group Captain A. K. Khandker acted as witness to the surrender, the signing of the document marked the end of the Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and the creation of Bangla Desh. Lt. Gen. Aurora accepted the surrender without a word, the text of the surrender is now a public property of Indian, Bangladeshi and Pakistani governments and the text of the document can be seen on display in the National Museum in New Delhi
11.
Pakistani rupee
–
The Pakistani rupee is the currency of Pakistan. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the State Bank of Pakistan, the most commonly used symbol for the rupee is Rs, used on receipts when purchasing goods and services. In Pakistan, the rupee is also spelled as rupees, rupaya or rupaye, as standard in Pakistani English, large values of rupees are counted in terms of thousands, lakh and crore,1 Arab,1 Kharab. It is derived from the noun rūpa shape, likeness, image, rūpaya was used to denote the coin introduced by Sher Shah Suri during his reign from 1540 to 1545 CE. The Pakistani rupee was put into circulation in Pakistan after the dissolution of the British Raj in 1947, initially, Pakistan used British Indian coins and notes simply over-stamped with Pakistan. New coins and banknotes were issued in 1948, like the Indian rupee, it was originally divided into 16 annas, each of 4 pice or 12 pie. The currency was decimalised on 1 January 1961, with the rupee subdivided into 100 pice, however, coins denominated in paise have not been issued since 1994. = In 1948, coins were introduced in denominations of 1 pice, 1⁄2,1 and 2 annas, 1⁄4,1 pie coins were added in 1951. In 1961, coins for 1,5 and 10 pice were issued, followed later the year by 1 paisa,5 and 10 paise coins. In 1963,10 and 25 paise coins were introduced, followed by 2 paise the next year,1 rupee coins were reintroduced in 1979, followed by 2 rupees in 1998 and 5 rupees in 2002. 2 paise coins were last minted in 1976, with 1 paisa coins ceasing production in 1979, the 5,10,25 and 50 paise all ceased production in 1996. There are two variations of 2 rupee coins, most have clouds above the Badshahi Masjid but many dont, the one and two rupee coins were changed to aluminium in 2007. Paisa coins ceased to be legal tender in 2013, leaving Rs.1 coin as the legal tender.10 coin was introduced in circulation. Regular government issues commenced in 1948 in denominations of 1,5,10 and 100 rupees. The government continued to issue 1 rupee notes until the 1980s but other note issuing was taken over by the State Bank of Pakistan in 1953, only a few 2 rupees notes were issued. 50 rupees notes were added in 1957, with 2 rupees notes reintroduced in 1985, in 1986,500 rupees notes were introduced, followed by 1000 rupees the next year. 2 and 5 rupees notes were replaced by coins in 1998 and 2002,20 rupee notes were added in 2005, followed by 5000 rupees in 2006. Until 1971, Pakistani banknotes were bilingual, featuring Bengali translation of the Urdu text, all banknotes other than the 1 and 2 rupees feature a portrait of Muhammad Ali Jinnah on the obverse along with writing in Urdu
12.
East Bengal
–
East Bengal was the name used during two periods in the 20th century for a territory that roughly corresponded to the modern state of Bangladesh. Both instances involved a violent partition of Bengal which made one half East Bengal or Bangladesh, the area compromises roughly two-thirds of the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. The first instance of the name was during the British rule of India, British governance of large swathes of Indian territory began with Robert Clives victory over the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The victory gave the British East India Company dominion over Bengal, after the Indian rebellion of 1857, the British government took direct control away from the East India Co. and established its imperial capital at Calcutta, the city founded by the Company. By 1900, the British province of Bengal constituted a huge territory, with the assumption of Lord Curzon to the office of Viceroy of India, British India was finally put under the charge of a man who considered himself an expert in Indian affairs. Curzon, seeing the logistical problems of administering such a large province, Bengal, henceforth, would encompass Calcutta and the western territories, roughly comprising modern West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Orissa. Eastern Bengal and Assam, the new province, would roughly encompass modern Bangladesh, the partition of Bengal, effected in July 1905, sparked a firestorm in the nationalist movement. In the now divided Bengal, East Bengal comprised an area of 196,540 square miles that included 18 million Muslims and 12 million Hindus, the Bengal area had 141,580 square miles with a majority of 42 million Hindus and 9 million Muslims. Bengal was divided into two provinces on 3 July 1946 in preparation for the partition of India - the Muslim-majority East Bengal, the two provinces each had their own Chief Minister. In August 1947, West Bengal became part of India, tensions between East Bengal and the western wing of Pakistan led to the One Unit policy. In 1955, most of the wing was combined to form a new West Pakistan province while East Bengal became the new province of East Pakistan. This system lasted until 1971 when East Pakistan declared independence during the Liberation War of Bangladesh, after absorption into the Dominion of Pakistan, the province of East Pakistan was administered by a ceremonial Governor and an indirectly elected Chief Minister. During the year from May 1954 to August 1955, executive powers were exercised by the Governor, British India History of Pakistan History of Bangladesh Barak Valley East Bengal CFL2015 points table top
13.
Provisional Government of Bangladesh
–
The Provisional Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh was established following the declaration of independence of East Pakistan on 10 April 1971. It was the leadership of the Bangladeshi liberation movement. The provisional government was formed in the town of Mujibnagar and its capital in exile was Calcutta, the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal and the former capital of British India, which hosted thousands of Bangladeshi refugees escaping the 1971 genocide. The provisional government included many defectors from the Pakistani government, foreign service and military, as well as leading intellectuals and its chief executive was Tajuddin Ahmad, the first Bangladeshi Prime Minister. Acting as an administration, the Provisional Governments principal responsibility was co-ordinating war efforts. With support from India, its military forces waged a guerrilla war against Pakistan. A worldwide campaign was undertaken by the Provisional Government to garner support for Bangladeshs independence, genocide victims and it appointed special envoys and operated representative missions in New Delhi, Washington D. C. and London among many other cities. The provisional government was established in the town on Baidyanathtala in Meherpur and its leaders were administered their oaths at a mango orchard near the site of the Battle of Plassey, in which the British defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal in 1757. The legal basis of the Bangladeshi provisional government was provided by the proclamation of independence issued on 10 April 1971, the proclamation declared Bangladesh as a Peoples Republic with equality, human dignity and social justice as its fundamental principles. The interim constitution converted elected Bengali members of Pakistans national and provincial assemblies into members of the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh, the military wing of the provisional government was the Mukti Bahini. The Bangladeshi liberation guerrillas were based in camps on the East Pakistan-India border, in the first months of the war, the Mukti Bahini liberated many districts of Bangladesh, before succumbing to Pakistani onslaughts in the monsoon. The Mukti Bahini secured control of the countryside by November, in December, it joined Indian forces as part of a combined Bangladesh-Indian allied offensive against Pakistan, which resulted in victory. Many Bengali members of the Civil Service of Pakistan defected to the government of Bangladesh. Dr. Kamal Uddin Siddiqui, Nurul Kader Khan, S. A. Samad, Khondker Asaduzzaman, Dr. Sadat Hussain, the provisional government established an elaborate structure of administrative departments. Yusuf Ali and J. G. Bhowmik served as the chief Relief Commissioners for Bangladeshi refugees, the noted artist Quamrul Hassan served as Director of Art and Design. Calcutta and Agartala were the centres of the government-in-exile. The Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra served as the propaganda wing of the Bangladeshi provisional government
14.
Bangladesh
–
Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation
15.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
16.
Myanmar
–
Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in South East Asia bordered by Bangladesh, India, China, Laos and Thailand. About one third of Myanmars total perimeter of 5,876 km, forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km along the Bay of Bengal, the countrys 2014 census revealed a much lower population than expected, with 51 million people recorded. Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometres in size and its capital city is Naypyidaw and its largest city and former capital city is Yangon. Early civilizations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma, the Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur. The British invaded Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the became a British colony. Myanmar became an independent nation in 1948, initially as a nation and then, following a coup détat in 1962. For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife, during this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election. While former military leaders still wield enormous power in the country, there is, however, continuing criticism of the governments treatment of the Muslim Rohingya minority and its poor response to the religious clashes. In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyis party won a majority in both houses, Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP stood at US$56.7 billion, the income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government. As of 2016, according to the Human Development Index, Myanmar had a level of human development. The renaming remains a contested issue, many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country. The countrys official name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form Union of Burma instead, in English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/. Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group, Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from Bamar, the colloquial form of the groups name
17.
Bay of Bengal
–
The Bay of Bengal, the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. Roughly triangular, it is bordered mostly by India and Sri Lanka to the west, Bangladesh to the north, and Myanmar, the Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,172,000 square kilometres. Among the important ports are Chennai, Chittagong, Colombo, Kolkata, Mongla, Paradip, Tuticorin, Visakhapatnam, on the south, Adams Bridge and from the southern extreme of Dondra Head to the north point of Poeloe Bras. The bay gets its name from the historical Bengal region, in ancient Hindu scriptures, this water body is referred to as Mahodadhi while it appears as Sinus Gangeticus or Gangeticus Sinus, meaning Gulf of the Ganges, in ancient maps. The other Sanskrit names for Bay of Bengal are Vangopasagara, also called as Vangasagara. Even today in Bengali, it is known as Bongoposagor, many major rivers of the Indian subcontinent flow west to east before draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga is the northernmost of these and its main channel enters and flows through Bangladesh, where it is known as the Padma River, before joining the Meghna River. However, the Brahmaputra River flows from east to west in Assam before turning south and this joins the Padma whereupon the Padma joins the Meghna River that finally drains into Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans mangrove forest at the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers lies partly in West Bengal, the Brahmaputra at 2,948 km is the 28th longest River in the world. The Hooghly River, another channel of the Ganga that flows through Calcutta drains into Bay of Bengal in India itself, the Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers deposits nearly 1000 million tons of sediment per year. The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the fan has buried organic carbon at a rate of nearly 1.1 trillion mol/yr since the early Miocene period. The two rivers currently contribute nearly 8% of the organic carbon deposited in the worlds oceans. Due to high TOC accumulation in the sea bed of the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh can reclaim land substantially and economically from the sea area by constructing sea dikes, bunds, causeways and by trapping the sediment from its rivers. Further south of Bengal, the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri Rivers are the rivers that flow from west to east in the Indian subcontinent. Many small rivers drain directly into the Bay of Bengal. The Irrawaddy River in Myanmar flows into the Andaman Sea of the Bay of Bengal, some of the biggest ports in the world — Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Kolkata in India as well as Chittagong and Mongla in Bangladesh — are on the bay. Other Indian ports on the bay include Kakinada, Pondicherry, Dhamra, the islands in the bay are numerous, including the Andaman Islands, Nicobar and Mergui groups of India
18.
Mohammad Ali Bogra
–
Shahebzada Mohammad Ali Bogra, also known as Mohammad Ali of Bogra, was a notable East Pakistani politician, diplomat and statesman from East Pakistan. He served as the third Prime Minister of Pakistan, Mohammad Ali Bogra studied at Presidency College, Calcutta. He was elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly from Bogra in 1937 and he was a minister in the cabinet of Prime Minister H. S. Suhrawardy in British Bengal. In 1948, he opposed the declaration of Urdu as the official language of Pakistan. He also formulated the Bogra Formula for Pakistan to adopt a federal constitution, Mohammad Ali Bogra was born in Barisal in 1909 to Nawabzada Altaf Ali. His grandfather was Syed Nawab Ali Chowdhury, one of the founders of the University of Dhaka, Ali grew up in the Bogra Estate. He studied at Hastings House and a madrassa in Kolkata and he attended Presidency College in Calcutta University. His first wife was Begum Hamida Mohammad Ali, with whom he had two sons and he later married Aliya Saddy in 1955. His second marriage led to protests against polygamy by women activists in the country. A member of the All India Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Bogra contested elections from Bogra in 1937 and he was elected as an opposition MLA in the Bengal Legislative Assembly from the Muslim league. However, his father was a member of the upper house from the ruling Krishak Praja Party. Ali served in opposition until 1943, when the Muslim League gained power and he was parliamentary secretary to the Chief minister of Bengal. In 1946, he joined the H. S. Suhrawardy Ministry, holding the portfolios of health, finance, as health minister, he founded the Dhaka Medical College and the Calcutta Lake Medical College. Upon the formation of Pakistan in 1947, Mohammad Ali Bogra was elected to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, during the visit of Governor General Muhammad Ali Jinnah to Dhaka in 1948, Ali dissented on the issue of Bengali being excluded as an official state language. He strongly advised Chief Minister Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin to restrain Jinnah from announcing the measure, furious with Alis dissent, Jinnah ordered him to take a diplomatic assignment. He was offered to be sent as ambassador to Egypt, Ali was renowned for his diplomatic credentials. He was ambassador in Rangoon in 1948, in 1949, he was appointed High Commissioner to Canada. In 1952, he was made Ambassador to the United States, in 1953, Ali was recalled to Karachi from Washington DC
19.
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
–
The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The monarchs title is King or Queen, the current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952. The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, as the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces, from 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, the Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the worlds surface at its greatest extent in 1921. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch is the Head of State, oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, the Monarch takes little direct part in Government. Executive power is exercised by Her Majestys Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet and they have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services. Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution, the Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. Powers independent of government are legally granted to public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council. The Sovereigns role as a monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions. This role has been recognised since the 19th century, the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the dignified part rather than the efficient part of government. Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister, the Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after kissing hands that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments, the first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilsons Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party, the second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II
20.
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy
–
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy was an East Pakistani politician and statesman in the first half of the 20th century. Born into a prominent Bengali Muslim family, Suhrawardy was educated at Oxford, and joined the Swaraj Party of Chittaranjan Das upon returning to India in 1921. He became the Mayor of Calcutta, the largest city in British India, during the 1930s, along with Sarat Chandra Bose, Suhrawardy mooted the United Bengal proposal, in an attempt to prevent the Partition of Bengal. Following the independence of Pakistan in 1947, he became a leading populist statesman of East Pakistan, leaving the Muslim League to join the newly formed centre-left Awami League in 1952. Along with A. K. Fazlul Huq and Maulana Bhashani, he led the pan-Bengali United Front alliance to a victory in the 1954 East Bengal elections. In 1956, the Awami League formed an alliance with the Republican Party to lead a government in Pakistan. Suhrawardy became prime minister and pledged to resolve the energy crises and his initiatives included supply side economic policies, planning nuclear power and energy and reorganizing and reforming the Pakistani military. In foreign policy, he pioneered a strategic partnership with the United States and he was banned from public life by the military junta of General Ayub Khan. Suhrawardy died in 1963 in Beirut, Lebanon after suffering a heart attack. Suhrawardy was born on 8 September 1892 to a Bengali Muslim family in the town of Midnapore, now in West Bengal. He was the son of Justice Sir Zahid Suhrawardy, a prominent judge of the Calcutta High Court and of Khujastha Akhtar Banu a noted name in Urdu literature. Banu was the daughter of Maulana Ubaidullah Al Ubaidi Suhrawardy and sister of British Army officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Hassan Suhrawardy, OBE, Suhrawardy had an elder brother Shahid Suhrawardy, the co-founder of Pakistan PEN Miscellenay with Professor Ahmed Ali. Suhrawardy attended the St. Xaviers College, where he obtained BS in Mathematics in 1910, in 1913, he gained MA in Arabic language and won a scholarship to proceed his education abroad. Afterwards, he moved to the United Kingdom to attend St. Catherines Society, Oxford from where he obtained a BCL degree in civil law, upon leaving Oxford, he was called to the bar at Grays Inn and later started his practice at Calcutta High Court. In 1920, Suhrawardy married Begum Niaz Fatima, daughter of Sir Abdur Rahim, Suhrawardy had two children from this marriage, Ahmed Shahab Suhrawardy and Begum Akhtar Sulaiman. Ahmed Suhrawardy died from pneumonia whilst he was a student in London in 1940, Begum Akhtar Sulaiman was married to Shah Ahmed Sulaiman and had one child, Shahida Jamil. Shahida Jamil has two sons, Zahid Jamil and Shahid Jamil and his first wife, Begum Niaz Fatima, died in 1922. In 1940 Suhrawardy married Vera Alexandrovna Tiscenko Calder, who, after her conversion to Islam had changed her name to Begum Noor Jehan and she was a Russian actress of Polish descent from the Moscow Art Theatre and protege of Olga Knipper
21.
Prime Minister of Pakistan
–
The Prime Minister of Pakistan, is the head of government of Pakistan and designated as the chief executive of the Republic. This position places its holder in leadership of the nation and in control all matters of internal. The incumbent Prime Minister is Nawaz Sharif–a presiding figure of the conservative Pakistan Muslim League, the Prime Minister is elected by the members of the National Assembly and therefore is usually the leader of the majority party in the parliament. Powers of the Prime Minister have significantly grown with a system of the check. The position was absent during years of 1960–73 and 1977-85 due to imposed martial law, in each of these periods, the military junta led by the President had the powers of the Prime Minister. The Constitution envisages a scheme of affairs in which the President of Pakistan is the head of state who represents the unity of the Republic, the system of government in Pakistan is based on codified constitution which sees the Prime Minister as chief executive of the Republic. As in most of the democracies, a head of states duties are mostly ceremonial. The Prime Minister of Pakistan is the head of government and has the responsibility for executive power, the Prime minister, in common with all other ministers, either has to be a current member of National Assembly, or be elected within six months of being appointed. The official residence and principal workplace of the Prime Minister is the Prime Ministers Secretariat— the cabinet secretariat located in the northeast Islamabad, the Prime Minister is the Chief Executive who heads and exercise authority of the Government of Pakistan. After gaining the vote of confidence, the Prime Minister is invited by the President to take oath, in practice, the Prime Minister nominates to form the Cabinet as in-charge of the important functions and ministries of the Government of Pakistan. In addition, the Prime Minister thoroughly communicates with the President all decisions of the Cabinet relating to the administration of the affairs of the state, some specific ministries/department are not allocated to anyone in the cabinet but the prime minister himself. The Constitution of Pakistan requires that the Prime Minister be a Muslim member of the National Assembly, in addition to these requirements to be a member of the National Assembly one must be, a citizen of Pakistan. Usually, the leader of the majority party in the parliament retains the office of minister who forms the government either by coalition or by simple majority. The candidate must retain the vote of confidence be the members of the parliament before being invited by the President to form the government, the Prime Minister can be removed before the expiry of the term through the vote of no confidence in the parliament. If the vote of no confidence is passed by the National Assembly by not less than 20%, the prime minister is elected by the National Assembly. The National Assembly meets on the twenty-first day after an election unless the President calls for a vote of no confidence. Whichever member of the National assembly is chosen serves as the Prime Minister until the election or until he fails to maintain the confidence of the National Assembly. The first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, exercised central executive powers until his assassination in 1951, however, the powers slowly began to reduced as a result of constant intervention by the Governor-General
22.
Iskander Mirza
–
Iskander Ali Mirza, CIE, OBE, was an East Pakistani politician who served as the first President of Pakistan, elected in this capacity in 1956 until being dismissed in 1958. A great grandson of Mir Jafar, Mirza was educated at the University of Mumbai before attending the academy in Sandhurst. Mirza lived in the United Kingdom for the remainder of his life and his legacy and image is viewed very negatively by the Pakistani historians who believed that Mirza was responsible for this political instability in the country. Iskander Ali Mirza was born in Murshidabad in Bengal of British Indian Empire, on 13 November 1899, into an elite, Mirza was the eldest child of Fateh Ali Mirza and his first wife, Dilshad Begum née Tyabji. His paternal grandfather was Mir Jafar, generally known to Indians as a quisling, the title, Mirza, is an honorific surname bestowed to him to represent the Bengali royalty, which is customary to give to individuals in India. From his grandfathers ancestral roots, he was of the Arabian descent, the Mirza family was an extremely influential and wealthy feudal family in Bengal, with close ties with British monarchy. His father, Fateh Ali Mirza belonged to the house of Murshidabad. Mirza was noted as being the first Indian graduate of the military academy, on 16 July 1920, his rank was promoted as lieutenant in the British Indian Army and moved to command a platoon on 30 December 1921. His military career was spent in the Military Police and attacked to the second battalion, in spite of hailing from Bengal, his military career was mostly spent in the violent Western region of India, first taking participation in the Waziristan war in 1920. After the campaign, he was transferred to the 17th Poona Horse, as an army inspector and his first assignment was posted in Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh as an assistant commissioner before posting as political agent in Hazara in the North West Frontier Province. His commission in the British Indian Army was continuously subjected to promotion, promoted to major on 16 July 1938, he became the Political Agent of the Tribal Belt in April 1938, stationed at Khyber. Mirza was appointed and served as the agent of Odisha. He was promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel on 16 July 1946 and his ability to run the colonial administrative units had brought him to a prominence that prompted the British Indian Government to appoint him as the Joint Defence Secretary of India in 1946. In this position, he was responsible for dividing the British Indian Army into the armies of Pakistan. Around this time, he became closer to Liaquat Ali Khan and began formatting political relations with the politicians of the Muslim League. As Defence secretary, he oversaw the efforts in the first war with India in 1947. He was appointed as commandant of the Military Police while serving as the Defence secretary in the in the Liaquat administration. In 1951, Prime minister Ali Khan appointed him as the director of the Department of Kashmir and Afghanistan Affairs
23.
President of Pakistan
–
The President of Pakistan, is the ceremonial head of state of Pakistan and a figurehead who represents the unity of the Republic. The President holds the title de jure and is a civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces as per the constitution of Pakistan. In addition, the constitution prohibits the President from exercising the authority of running the government, the president is indirectly elected by the Parliament through the Electoral College for a five-year term. The Constitution requires the President to be a Muslim of not less than forty-five years of age, the President resides in an estate in Islamabad known as Aiwan-e-Sadar. There have been a total of 12 Presidents, in case of absence of the President, the Chairman Senate takes over as the Acting President until the President resumes office, or the election for the next President is held. The current President is Mamnoon Hussain, who took office on 9 September 2013 as the 12th President of Pakistan, the official residence and principal workplace of the president is the Aiwan-e-Sadr— the presidential palace located in northeastern Islamabad. The presidency forms the vital institutional organ of state and is part of the bicameral Parliament, powers to exercise the authority are limited to the ceremonial figurehead, and required to address the Parliament to give a direction for national policies before being informed of its key decisions. In addition, the President is also a civil commander-in-chief of the military, after a thorough confirmation comes from the Prime Minister, the President confirms the judicial appointments in the national court system. In addition, the Constitution allows the President to grant pardons, reprieves, and clemency in cases recommended to him by the executive and the judiciary. The President himself has absolute immunity from criminal and civil proceedings. There shall be a President of Pakistan who shall be the Head of State, furthermore, the presidential powers have significantly declined with Pakistans government reversed to a parliamentary democratic republic. The Constitution of Pakistan sets the qualifications that the candidate must meet to be eligible to the office of the President. A President has to be, A citizen of Pakistan, at least 45 years of age. Qualified to be elected as member of the National Assembly, whenever the Aiwan-e-Sadr becomes vacant, the selection of president is done by the electoral college, which consists of both houses of Parliament and the four provincial assemblies. The Chief Election Commissioner has to conduct elections to the office of the President in a special session, each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the number of votes cast by members of Parliament equals the total number of votes cast by provincial legislators. Also, legislators from larger states cast more votes than those from smaller provinces, the president is elected indirectly for a term of five years. The incumbent president is eligible for re-election to that office, the President may be removed before the expiry of the term through impeachment
24.
Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan)
–
Trained at British Sandhurst Military College, Ayub Khan fought in World War II as a Colonel in the British Indian Army. He opted for Pakistan and joined the military establishment as an aftermath of partition of British India in 1947. From 1953–58, he served in the government as Defence and Home Minister. Two weeks later, he took over the presidency from Mirza after the meltdown of civil-military relations between the military and the civilian President, relations with neighboring China were strengthened but deteriorated with Soviet Union in 1962, and with India in 1965. His presidency saw the war with India in 1965 which ended with Soviet Union facilitating the agreement between two nations, at home front, the policy of privatisation and industrialization was introduced that made the countrys economy as Asias fastest-growing economies. In 1965, Ayub Khan entered in a race as PML candidate to counter the popular and famed non-partisan Fatima Jinnah. Forced to resigning to further protests while inviting army chief Yahya Khan to imposed second martial law, he fought a brief illness. Ayub Khan was born on 14 May 1907 in Rehana, a village in Haripur District in Hazara region of then North-West Frontier Province and he was of the Hindkowan descent that hailed from the Tarin tribe of ethnic Pashtuns settled in Hazara region. He was the first child of the wife of Mir Dad. For his basic education, he was enrolled in a school in Sarai Saleh and he used to go to school on a mules back and was shifted to a school in Haripur, where he started living with his grandmother. He was admitted to study at the famed Aligarh Muslim University where he performed excellently, Ayub Khan was fluent in Urdu, English and his regional Hindko dialect as well as Pashto. Ayub Khans performance at the Sandhurst Military Academy in the United Kingdom was excellent, earning him many awards and scholarships by his British superiors. He was commissioned as 2nd Lt. on 2 February 1928 in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment of British Indian Army— it is now known as the 5th battalion of the Punjab Regiment of Pakistan Army. Amongst those who passed out with him was the army chief of the Indian Army. He was promoted to lieutenant on 2 May 1930 and to army captain on 2 February 1937. On 19 May 1941, he was promoted to Major in the British Indian Army, during World War II, he was promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel in 1942 and was posted to participate in first phase of Burma Front in 1942–43. At the time of his joining, the Indian Army sent the military seniority list to Pakistans Ministry of Defence where he was the 10th ranking officer in terms of seniority with Service No. Upon promoted as two-star assignment, he was elevated as Major-General and commanded the 14th Army Division as its GOC, stationed in Dacca, Prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan approved the relief papers of Lieutenant General Sir Douglas Gracey on 16 January 1951 after his term was completed
25.
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
–
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the founding leader of Bangladesh. He served twice as the countrys President and was its strongman premier between 1972 and 1975, Rahman was the leader of the Awami League. He is popularly known as the Bangabandhu and he is credited as the central figure in Bangladeshs liberation movement and is considered the founding father of Bangladesh. His daughter Sheikh Hasina is the current Prime Minister of Bangladesh, an advocate of socialism, Rahman rose with the ranks of the Awami League and East Pakistani politics as a charismatic and forceful orator. He became popular for his opposition to the ethnic and institutional discrimination of Bengalis in Pakistan, at the heightening of sectional tensions, he outlined a 6-point autonomy plan and was jailed by the regime of Field Marshal Ayub Khan for treason. Rahman led the Awami League to win the first democratic election of Pakistan in 1970, despite gaining a majority, the League was not invited by the ruling military junta to form a government. As civil disobedience erupted across East Pakistan, Rahman announced the Bangladeshi struggle for independence during a speech on 7 March 1971. After Bangladeshs liberation, Rahman was released from Pakistani custody and returned to Dhaka in January 1972, Rahman became the Prime Minister of Bangladesh under a parliamentary system adopted by the new country. His government enacted a constitution proclaiming socialism and secular democracy, the Awami League won a huge mandate in the countrys first general election in 1973. However, Rahman faced challenges of rampant unemployment, poverty and corruption, a famine took place in 1974. The government was criticized for denying constitutional recognition to indigenous minorities and human rights violations by its security forces, amid rising political agitation, Rahman initiated one party socialist rule in January 1975. Six months later, he and most of his family were assassinated by army officers during a coup. A martial law government was subsequently established, in a 2004 BBC Bengali opinion poll, Rahman was voted as the Greatest Bengali of All Time. He was born into a native Bengali family as the child in a family of four daughters. In 1929, Mujib entered into class three at Gopalganj Public School, and two later, class four at Madaripur Islamia High School. However, Mujib withdrew from school in 1934 to undergo eye surgery, Mujib became politically active when he joined the All India Muslim Students Federation in 1940. He enrolled at the Islamia College, a college affiliated to the University of Calcutta to study law. He joined the Bengal Muslim League in 1943, during this period, Mujib worked actively for the Leagues cause of a separate Muslim state of Pakistan, and in 1946 he went on to become general secretary of the Islamia College Students Union
26.
Six point movement
–
The Six Point Movement was a movement in East Pakistan, spearheaded by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, which called for greater autonomy for East Pakistan. Following the end of British rule in the Indian subcontinent, the new state of Pakistan came into being, the inhabitants of East Pakistan made up the majority of its population, and exports from East Pakistan were a majority of Pakistans export income. However, East Pakistanis did not feel they had a share of political power. As a result, the economists, intelligentsia and the politicians of East Pakistan started to raise questions about this discrimination, the federal government should deal with only two subjects, Defence and Foreign Affairs, and all other residual subjects should be vested in the federating states. Furthermore, a separate Banking Reserve should be established and separate fiscal, the power of taxation and revenue collection should be vested in the federating units and the federal centre would have no such power. The federation would be entitled to a share in the taxes to meet its expenditures. East Pakistan should have a military or paramilitary force. Bangladesh Liberation War Awami League Language Movement
27.
Yahya Khan
–
His presidency witnessed the breaking-up the unity of Pakistan from being the largest Muslim country in the world to economic and military collapse through a foreign intervention in 1971. After controversially appointed to assume the command, Yahya Khan took over the presidency. Following these events, he turned over the leadership of the country to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and he suffered with further humiliation when he was withdrawn from his service honors and was put on house surveillance for most of 1970s. After being released of his restrictions in 1977, he died in Rawalpindi in 1980 and he is viewed largely negatively by Pakistani historians, and is considered among the least successful of the countrys leaders. Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan was born in Chakwal, Punjab, British Indian Empire on 4 February 1917 and he and his family were of Pathan origin. Few Pakistanis knew anything about Yahya Khan when he was vaulted into the two years ago. The stocky, bushy–browed Pathan had been the chief of staff since 1966. Yahya Khan was commissioned from Indian Military Academy Dehra Dun on 15 July 1939, Yahya Khan served in World War II as an officer in the 4th Infantry Division. He served in Iraq, Italy, and North Africa, after the World War II, he decided to join the Pakistan Army in 1947. At the age of 34, he was promoted to Brigadier due to extensive bending over for the British and he was appointed as commander of the 105 Independent Brigade that was deployed in LoC ceasefire region in Jammu and Kashmir in 1951-1952. Yahya also performed the duties of Chief of General Staff from 1958 to 1962 from where he went on to command a division from 1962 to 1965. Yahya also co-founded the Command and Staff College in Quetta, Balochistan and he played a pivotal role in sustaining the support for President Ayub Khans campaign in 1965 presidential elections against Fatima Jinnah. In recognition, he was promoted as Major-General and made GOC of 7th Infantry Division of Pakistan Army and he was appointed as commander-in-chief of Pakistan Army in March 1966. At promotion, Yahya Khan superseded two of his seniors, Lieutenant-General Altaf Qadir and Lieutenant-General Bakhtiar Rana, Yahya energetically started reorganizing the Pakistan Army in 1965. The post 1965 situation saw major organizational as well as changes in the Pakistan Army. Till 1965 it was thought that divisions could function effectively while getting orders directly from the armys GHQ, in 1965 war the Pakistan Army had only one corps headquarters. Soon after the war had started the U. S. had imposed an embargo on military aid on both India and Pakistan and this embargo did not affect the Indian Army but produced major changes in the Pakistan Armys technical composition. US Secretary of State Dean Rusk well summed it up when he said, Well if you are going to fight, go ahead and fight, but we’re not going to pay for it
28.
1970 Bhola cyclone
–
The 1970 Bhola cyclone was a devastating tropical cyclone that struck East Pakistan and Indias West Bengal on November 12,1970. It remains the deadliest tropical cyclone ever recorded and one of the deadliest natural disasters, up to 500,000 people lost their lives in the storm, primarily as a result of the storm surge that flooded much of the low-lying islands of the Ganges Delta. This cyclone was the sixth storm of the 1970 North Indian Ocean cyclone season. The cyclone formed over the central Bay of Bengal on November 8 and traveled north and it reached its peak with winds of 185 km/h on November 11, and made landfall on the coast of East Pakistan the following afternoon. The storm surge devastated many of the islands, wiping out villages. In the most severely affected upazila, Tazumuddin, over 45% of the population of 167,000 was killed by the storm. The remnants of Tropical Storm Nora from the Pacific, which had lasted for two days in the South China Sea, moved west over the Malay Peninsula on November 5. The remnants of this contributed to the development of a new depression in the central Bay of Bengal on the morning of November 8. The depression intensified as it moved northward, and the India Meteorological Department upgraded it to a cyclonic storm the next day. No country in the region had ever named tropical cyclones during this time, the storm became nearly stationary that evening near 14. 5° N, 87° E, but began to accelerate to the north on November 10. The storm further intensified into a cyclonic storm on November 11. It developed an eye, and reached its peak later that day with 3-minute sustained winds of 185 km/h. The cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of November 12, once over land, the system began to weaken, it degraded to a cyclonic storm on November 13 when it was about 100 km south-southeast of Agartala. The storm then weakened into a remnant low over southern Assam that evening. A large part of the population were taken by surprise by the storm. There were indications that the warning system that existed in East Pakistan was not used properly. The Pakistan Meteorological Department issued a report calling for danger preparedness in the regions in danger during the day on November 12. As the storm neared the coast, a danger signal was broadcast on Pakistan Radio
29.
Bangladesh Awami League
–
The Bangladesh Awami League, is one of the two major political parties of Bangladesh. It is the current governing party, after winning a majority in heavily criticized 2014 parliamentary elections where the majority of seats were uncontested. The Pakistan Awami Muslim League was established as the Bengali alternative to the domination of the Muslim League in Pakistan, after the emergence of independent Bangladesh, the Awami League won the first general elections in 1973 but was overthrown in 1975 after the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The party was forced by subsequent military regimes onto the sidelines and many of its senior leaders. After the restoration of democracy in 1990, the Awami League emerged as one of the players of Bangladeshi politics. Amongst the leaders of the Awami League, five have become the President of Bangladesh, four have become the Prime Minister of Bangladesh, the incumbent Prime Minister of Bangladesh, Sheikh Hasina, has headed the party since 1981. The student wing of the party is the Bangladesh Chhatra League, on 14 August 1947, the partition of India saw the establishment of the Muslim state of Pakistan on the basis of the Two-Nation Theory. The new country comprised two wings, separated by 1000 miles of Indian territory, in the Indian Subcontinent, the western wing consisted of the provinces of Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier Province and Balochistan, while the province of East Bengal constituted the eastern wing. From the onset of independence, Pakistan was led by its founder Muhammad Ali Jinnah, in 1948, there was rising agitation in East Bengal against the omission of Bengali script from coins, stamps and government exams. Thousands of students, mainly from the University of Dhaka, protested in Dhaka, in March, senior Bengali political leaders were attacked whilst leading protests demanding that Bengali be declared an official language in Pakistan. The leaders included the A. K. Fazlul Huq, the former Prime Minister of undivided Bengal, amidst the rising discontent in East Bengal, Jinnah visited Dhaka and announced that Urdu would be sole state language of Pakistan given its significance to Islamic nationalism in South Asia. The announcement caused uproar in East Bengal, where the native Bengali population resented Jinnah for his attempts to impose a language they hardly understood. The resentment was fuelled by rising discrimination against Bengalis in government, industry, bureaucracy and the armed forces. The Bengalis argued that they constituted the majority of Pakistans population and Urdu was remote to the land of Bengal. The only language in Pakistan not written in the Persian-Arabic script was Bengali, against this backdrop, Bengali nationalism began to take root within the Muslim League and the partys Bengali members began to rebel. On 23 June 1949, Bengali nationalists from East Bengal broke away from the Muslim League, Pakistans dominant political party, the party was founded at the Rose Garden mansion in the old part of Dhaka. K. Rafiqul Hussain were elected the partys first Joint Secretaries, the party was formed to champion the rights of masses in Pakistan against the powerful feudal establishment led by the Muslim League. However, due to its strength stemming from the discriminated Bengali population of Pakistans eastern wing, the alliance was termed the Jukta Front or United Front and formulated the Ekush Dafa, or 21-point Charter, to fight the Muslim League
30.
Pakistan Peoples Party
–
The Pakistan Peoples Party is a left-wing, socialist, and progressivist political party of Pakistan. Since its foundation in 1967, it had been a major and influential political left-wing force in the country and its centre of power lies in the southern province of Sindh. Since its formation in 1967, the PPP has been voted into power on five separate occasions. It dominated the politics of Pakistan during the 1970s, and after the re-establishment of Pakistan Muslim League, until the disqualification of Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani by the Supreme Court in 2012, the PPP was regarded as the most influential political party in the country. It is currently the largest opposition party in the National Assembly, the party maintains its status as the governing party in its stronghold province of Sindh, as well as the majority party in the Senate. The PPP was launched at its founding convention held in Lahore on November 30, at the same meeting, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was elected as its Chairman. Among the express goals for which the party was formed were the establishment of an egalitarian democracy, a more immediate task was to struggle against the hated dictatorship of General Ayub Khan, who was at the height of his power when the PPP was formed. The Pakistan Peoples Party was founded by members of the now-defunct Pakistan Socialist Party. In the 1960s, support for socialism as well as opposition to President Ayub Khans pro-Western/pro-American policies mounted in West-Pakistan, Khans unpopularity continued to grow following his decision to sign the Tashkent Agreement with rival India, in an effort to end the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965. It called for equality of citizens fraternity under the rule of democracy, within an order of social. In 1968, a massive program was launched by the party. Bhuttos program directly targeted the countrys poverty-stricken masses, the working class and labour movement quickly flocked to the party, believing it to be a party dedicated to the destruction of capitalism in the country. Many other members of society who had felt stifled and repressed by the press-control, the partys manifesto also attracted the countrys numerous sectarian minorities, who quickly joined the party. Eventually, the socialist-oriented catchphrase Roti, Kapra aur Makan, became a nationwide rallying-call for the party, by the 1970s, the Pakistan Peoples Party had become the largest and most influential leading socialist and democratic entity in the country. The party published its ideas in its newspapers, such as Nusrat, Fatah, after its foundation, the party gained prominence at an immediate, gravitating the poor mass, peasants and workers, and students throughout in West Pakistan. During this time, the Peoples Party intensified its support in West Pakistan, organizing itself and its socialist rationale Roti Kapra Aur Makaan and all power to the people, further popularize the party and the prominence that arise Bhutto and the Peoples Party. Tensions arisen with Peoples League and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the ideological differences further created hatred towards each other. The situation reached to a climax in 1970 where Awami League secured 160 seats out of 300 where the Peoples Party winning the 81 of 138 seats allocated to West Pakistan in the National Assembly
31.
Bangladesh Liberation War
–
It resulted in the independence of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. The war began after the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971 and it pursued the systematic elimination of nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The junta annulled the results of the 1970 elections and arrested Prime Minister-elect Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed following the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, which had the backing of Islamists, created radical religious militias – the Razakars, Al-Badr, members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape. The capital Dhaka was the scene of massacres, including the Dhaka University killings. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighbouring India, while 30 million were internally displaced, sectarian violence broke out between Bengalis and Urdu-speaking immigrants. An academic consensus prevails that the committed by the Pakistani military were a genocide. The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from Chittagong by members of the Mukti Bahini – the national liberation army formed by Bengali military, paramilitary, the East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles played a crucial role in the resistance. Led by General M. A. G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders and they liberated numerous towns and cities in the initial months of the conflict. The Pakistan Army regained momentum in the monsoon, Bengali guerrillas carried out widespread sabotage, including Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy. The nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases, by November, the Bangladesh forces restricted the Pakistani military to its barracks during the night. They secured control of most parts of the countryside, the Provisional Government of Bangladesh was formed on 17 April 1971 in Mujibnagar and moved to Calcutta as a government in exile. Bengali members of the Pakistani civil, military and diplomatic corps defected to the Bangladeshi provisional government, thousands of Bengali families were interned in West Pakistan, from where many escaped to Afghanistan. Bengali cultural activists operated the clandestine Free Bengal Radio Station, the plight of millions of war-ravaged Bengali civilians caused worldwide outrage and alarm. The Indian state led by Indira Gandhi provided substantial diplomatic, economic, British, Indian and American musicians organised the worlds first benefit concert in New York City to support the Bangladeshi people. India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on North India, the subsequent Indo-Pakistani War witnessed engagements on two war fronts. With air supremacy achieved in the theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India. The war changed the landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the seventh-most populous country in the world
32.
1971 Bangladesh genocide
–
Independent researchers estimate the number of people killed as being between 300, 000–500,000, and describe the 3 million number as excessively inflated. The actions against women were supported by Muslim religious leaders, who declared that Bengali women were gonimoter maal, as a result of the conflict, a further eight to ten million people, mostly Hindus, fled the country at the time to seek refuge in neighbouring India. It is estimated that up to 30 million civilians became internally displaced, during the war there was also ethnic violence between Bengalis and Urdu-speaking Biharis. Non-Bengalis were also killed by Bengalis during the war, there is an academic consensus that the events which took place during the Bangladesh Liberation War constituted a genocide, and warrant judicial accountability. Following the partition of India, the new state of Pakistan represented a geographical anomaly, the wings were not only separated geographically, but also culturally. The authorities of the West viewed the Bengali Muslims in the East as too Bengali and their application of Islam as inferior and impure, to this extent the West began a strategy to forcibly assimilate the Bengalis culturally. The Bengali people were the majority in Pakistan, making up an estimated 75 million in East Pakistan. The majority in the East were Muslim, with minorities of Hindus, Buddhists. He branded those who supported the use of Bengali as communists, traitors, a 1952 protest in Dhaka, the capital of East Pakistan, was forcibly broken up, resulting in the deaths of several protesters. Bengali nationalists viewed those who had died as martyrs for their cause, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 caused further grievances, as the military had assigned no extra units to the defence of the East. The slow response to the Bhola cyclone which struck on 12 November 1970 is widely seen as a factor in the December 1970 general election. The East Pakistan-based Awami League, headed by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a majority in the first democratic election since the creation of Pakistan. But, the West Pakistani establishment prevented them forming a government. President Yahya Khan, encouraged by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, banned the Awami League, the Pakistani Army demolished Ramna Kali Mandir and killed 85 Hindus. On 22 February 1971, General Yahya Khan said “Kill three million of them, and the rest will eat out of our hands. Additionally, some Bengali officers and soldiers remained loyal to the Pakistani Army and were taken as Prisoners of War by India along with other West Pakistani soldiers, thus, according to Sarmila Bose, there were many pro-regime Bengalis who killed and persecuted the pro-liberation fighters. Sydney Schanberg reported the formation of armed civilian units by the Pakistani Army in June 1971, only a minority of the recruits were Bengali while most were Biharis and Urdu speakers. The units with local knowledge played an important role in the implementation of the Pakistani Armys genocide, Operation Searchlight was a planned military operation carried out by the Pakistani Army to curb elements of the separatist Bengali nationalist movement in East Pakistan in March 1971
33.
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
–
The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand The organizations headquarters were also in Bangkok. SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after many members lost interest and these treaties and agreements were intended to create alliances that would contain communist powers. This policy was considered to have largely developed by American diplomat. The organization, headquartered in Bangkok, was created in 1955 at the first meeting of the Council of Ministers set up by the treaty, also present were committees for economics, security, and information. Unlike the NATO alliance, SEATO had no joint commands with standing forces. S. military intervention in the region during the Vietnam War, despite its name, SEATO mostly included countries located outside of the region but with an interest either in the region or the organization itself. They were Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, the Philippines and Thailand were the only Southeast Asian countries that actually participated in the organization. Both shared close ties with the United States, particularly the Philippines, Thailand became a member upon the discovery of the newly founded Thai Autonomous Region in Yunnan - apparently feeling threatened by potential Chinese communist subversion on its land. Other regional countries like Burma and Indonesia were far more minded with domestic internal stability rather than concern of communist threat, malaya also chose to not participate formally, though it was kept updated with key developments due to its close relationship with the United Kingdom. S. Cambodia, however rejected the protection in 1956, the majority of SEATO members were not located in Southeast Asia. To Australia and New Zealand, SEATO was seen as a more satisfying organization than ANZUS – a collective defense organization with the U. S. Great Britain and France joined partly due to having long maintained colonies in the region, Pakistan, however, was simply interested in joining over the appeal of potential support for its long struggle against India. Last but not least, the U. S. upon perceiving Southeast Asia to be a frontier for Cold War geopolitics saw the establishment of SEATO as essential to its Cold War containment policy. All in all, the membership reflected a mid-1950s combination of anti-communist Western nations, the United Kingdom, France and the United States, the latter of which joined after the U. S. Senate ratified the treaty by an 82–1 vote, represented the strongest Western powers. Canada also considered joining, but decided against it in order to concentrate on its NATO responsibilities, secretaries-General of SEATO, After its creation, SEATO quickly became insignificant militarily, as most of its member nations contributed very little to the alliance. While SEATO military forces held joint military training, they were never employed because of internal disagreements, SEATO was unable to intervene in conflicts in Laos because France and Britain rejected use of military action. As a result, the U. S. provided unilateral support for Laos after 1962, though sought by the U. S. involvement of SEATO in the Vietnam War was denied because of lack of British and French cooperation. Both the United States and Australia cited the alliance as justification for involvement in Vietnam, American membership in SEATO provided the United States with a rationale for a large-scale U. S. military intervention in Southeast Asia. Other countries, such as Great Britain and key nations in Asia, in 1962, as part of its commitment to SEATO, the Royal Australian Air Force deployed CAC Sabres of its No.79 Squadron to Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand
34.
Kaptai Dam
–
Kaptai Dam is on the Karnaphuli River at Kaptai,65 kilometres upstream from Chittagong in Rangamati District, Bangladesh. It is an embankment dam with a reservoir water storage capacity of 6,477 million cubic metres. The primary purpose of the dam and reservoir was to generate hydroelectric power, the generators in the 230 megawatts Karnafuli Hydroelectric Power Station were commissioned between 1962 and 1988. It is the hydroelectric power station in Bangladesh. A brief reconnaissance occurred in 1906 when the Karnafuli Hydropower Station was first contemplated, a second study was carried out in 1923. In 1946, E. A. Moore recommended the project at Barkal about 65 kilometres upstream of present dam site at Kaptai. In 1950, the Marz Rendal Vatten Consulting Engineers suggested a site at Chilardak, in 1951, the government engineers proposed Chitmoram,11 kilometres downstream of the present site. Under the guidance of chief engineer Khwaja Azimuddin, the construction site was chosen in 1951. Utah International Inc. was selected as construction contractor, construction of the dam started in 1957. Starting in 1957, the phase of the construction was completed in 1962. By this time the dam, spillway, penstock and two 40 MW Kaplan turbine generators were built in the power station, in August 1982 a 50 MW generator was commissioned. In October 1988 the fourth and fifth generating units, both 50 MW Kaplan-type turbines, were installed which raised the total capacity to 230 MW. The total cost of Unit 1, Unit 2 and a part of Unit 3 was Rs.503 million, the project was financed by the East Pakistan Government, United States and the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund. The earthen dam is 670 metres long and 45.7 metres wide with a 16-gate spillway on the left side, the construction of the dam submerged 655 square kilometres area. This included 220 square kilometres of land,40 percent of the cultivable land in the area. The dam flooded the original Rangamati town and other structures, inhabitants of the storage reservoir area who lost their homes and farmland due to flooding were not compensated. More than 40,000 Chakma tribals emigrated to India, the scarcity of land is considered a main cause of the continuing conflict in the area. The building of the dam and reservoir also caused destruction of wilderness and loss of wildlife and wildlife habitats, Dams Caused Environmental Refugees of Ethnic Minorities Profile Embankment Dams Jum Cultivation and Environmental Degradation in CHT
35.
Eastern Refinery Limited
–
Eastern Refinery Limited or ERL is the sole country-owned oil refinery in Bangladesh. ERL sometimes becomes the fall back system available, to avoid products crisis in the face of disruption of products’ import. ERL as a company in the Public Sector contributes substantially to the national exchequer in the form of dividend, taxes. From November,1985, Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation became the 100% share holder of the company, ERL processes Arabian Light Crude and Murban Crude, imported respectively from KSA and Abu Dhabi and produces 15 petroleum products. ERL also processes natural gas condensate to the tune of 100,000 MT/Yr as crude mix, ERLs operational and other activities are as follows, Receives crude oil imported by BPC in ERLs own storage tanks. Produces petroleum products by processing crude oil and transfer these to other subsidiaries of BPc through pipe lines, Receives imported motor gasoline and diesel in ERLs storage tanks and after necessary blending, transfers these as MS & HSD to marketing companies. Operates Asphaltic Bitumen Plant and delivers the produced Bitumen to marketing companies, procures equipment, spares, chemical etc. in order to maintain continuous and smooth operation of the refinery. Prepares and executes development projects essential for improvement of refinery operations, eastern Refinery is basically a fuel refinery. Besides strict quality control of its products, it provides outsider with the various petroleum. Testings are done by methods set by ASTM, UOP & IP, Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation Official site Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation official website
36.
Chittagong
–
Chittagong /tʃɪtəɡɒŋ/ is a major coastal seaport city and financial centre in southeastern Bangladesh. The city has a population of more than 2.5 million while the area has a population of 4,009,423 at the 2011 Census. It is the capital of a district and division. The city is located on the banks of the Karnaphuli River between the Chittagong Hill Tracts and the Bay of Bengal, much of Chittagong Division is located within the ecological Indo-Burma zone on the boundary of the India Plate and Burma Plate. This makes Chittagong the crossroads of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, the port city has been known by various names in history, including Chatigaon, Chatigam, Chattagrama, Islamabad, Chattala, Chaityabhumi and Porto Grande De Bengala. The natural harbour of Chittagong is an ancient gateway to the region of Bengal and it was noted as one of the largest Eastern ports by the Roman geographer Ptolemy in the 1st century. As part of the seafaring tradition of the Bengali people, coastal Chittagong was settled and ruled by Indian. Arab traders saw well-developed currency, banking and shipping in Chittagong during the 9th century, early cosmopolitan Muslims established dominance over the port as an entrepot of maritime trade, while Arakan, Bengal and Tripura competed for control of the wider hinterland. Muslim conquest took place in the 14th century, Chittagong became the principal port of the Bengal Sultanate. It was used by several leading medieval global explorers, including Ibn Battuta, later, Mrauk U, with assistance from Portuguese trading posts, gained control of the area. The Mughal conquest of Chittagong reestablished Bengali control and ushered an era of stability, the city was renamed as Islamabad. This diverse history is reflected in the rural Chittagonian dialect of Bengali, ceded to the British East India Company in 1760, Chittagong became the chief port of Eastern Bengal and Assam under the British Raj, as well as a hub of railways. A notable anti-colonial uprising took place in 1930 and it was an important base for Allied Forces during the Burma Campaign in World War II. Rapid industrialization followed the war, as Chittagong became part of East Pakistan, during Bangladesh’s liberation war in 1971, Chittagong was site of the country’s declaration of independence. Modern Chittagong is an important economic hub in South Asia and it is home to the Chittagong Stock Exchange and many of Bangladeshs oldest and largest companies. The Port of Chittagong is the largest international seaport on the Bay of Bengal and it is the largest base of the Bangladesh Navy. However, despite having a high and growing urban per capita GDP in South Asia and being one of the fastest growing cities in the world, it has a poverty rate of 11. 3%, as of 2010. Chittagong is reputed as a clean city, but still confronts substantial logistical
37.
Louis Kahn
–
Louis Isadore Kahn was an American architect, based in Philadelphia. After working in various capacities for several firms in Philadelphia, he founded his own atelier in 1935, while continuing his private practice, he served as a design critic and professor of architecture at Yale School of Architecture from 1947 to 1957. From 1957 until his death, he was a professor of architecture at the School of Design at the University of Pennsylvania. Kahn created a style that was monumental and monolithic, his buildings for the most part do not hide their weight, their materials. Louis Kahns works are considered as monumental beyond modernism, famous for his meticulously built works, his provocative proposals that remained unbuilt, and his teaching, Kahn was one of the most influential architects of the twentieth century. He was awarded the AIA Gold Medal and the RIBA Gold Medal, at the time of his death he was considered by some as Americas foremost living architect. Louis Kahn, whose name was Itze-Leib Schmuilowsky, was born into a poor Jewish family in Pärnu, formerly in Russian Empire. He spent his childhood in Kuressaare on the island of Saaremaa. At the age of three, he saw coals in the stove and was captivated by the light of the coal and he put the coal in his apron, which caught on fire and seared his face. He carried these scars for the rest of his life, in 1906, his family emigrated to the United States, as they feared that his father would be recalled into the military during the Russo-Japanese War. His birth year may have been recorded in the process of immigration. According to his sons 2003 documentary film, the family could not afford pencils and they made their own charcoal sticks from burnt twigs so that Louis could earn a little money from drawings. Later he earned money by playing piano to accompany silent movies in theaters and he became a naturalized citizen on May 15,1914. His father changed their name to Kahn in 1915, Kahn trained at the University of Pennsylvania in a rigorous Beaux-Arts tradition, with its emphasis on drawing. After completing his Bachelor of Architecture in 1924, Kahn worked as draftsman in the office of the city architect. He worked on the designs for the 1926 Sesquicentennial Exposition, in 1928, Kahn made a European tour. He was interested particularly in the walled city of Carcassonne, France. In 1932, Kahn and Dominique Berninger founded the Architectural Research Group, whose members were interested in the populist social agenda, among the more important of Kahns early collaborations was one with George Howe
38.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
39.
John Foster Dulles
–
John Foster Dulles served as U. S. Secretary of State under Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era and he negotiated numerous treaties and alliances that reflected this point of view. Born in Washington, D. C. he was one of five children and his paternal grandfather, John Welsh Dulles, had been a Presbyterian missionary in India. His maternal grandfather, John W. Foster doted on Dulles and his brother Allen, the brothers attended public schools in Watertown, New York. Dulles attended Princeton University and graduated as a member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1908, at Princeton, Dulles competed on the American Whig-Cliosophic Society debate team. He then attended the George Washington University Law School in Washington, both his grandfather Foster and his uncle Robert Lansing, the husband of Eleanor Foster, had held the position of Secretary of State. On June 26,1912, Dulles married Janet Pomeroy Avery and their older son John W. F. Dulles was a professor of history and specialist in Brazil at the University of Texas at Austin. Their daughter Lillias Dulles Hinshaw became a Presbyterian minister and their son Avery Dulles converted to Roman Catholicism, entered the Jesuit order, and became the first American theologian to be appointed a Cardinal. Upon graduating from law school and passing the bar examination, Dulles joined the New York City law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell, after the start of World War I, Dulles tried to join the United States Army, but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Instead, Dulles received an Army commission as Major on the War Industries Board, Dulles later returned to Sullivan & Cromwell and became a partner with an international practice. In 1915, Dulles uncle, Robert Lansing, then the U. S, in Panama, Dulles offered waiver of the US tax on the annual Canal fee, so long as Panama declared war on Germany. Dulles made an impression as a junior diplomat by clearly and forcefully arguing against imposing crushing reparations on Germany. Afterwards, he served as a member of the War Reparations Committee at Wilsons request, as a partner in Sullivan & Cromwell, Dulles expanded upon his late grandfather Fosters expertise, specializing in international finance. Under that compromise, the money was invested and the profits sent as reparations to Britain and France, in the 1920s Dulles was involved in setting up a billion dollars worth of these loans. Dulles, a religious man, attended numerous international conferences of churchmen during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1924, he was the counsel in the church trial of Rev. Harry Emerson Fosdick. The case settled when Fosdick, a liberal Baptist, resigned his pulpit in the Presbyterian Church congregation, after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, Dulles previous practice brokering and documenting international loans ended. After 1931 Germany stopped making some of its scheduled payments, in 1934 Germany unilaterally stopped payments on private debts of the sort that Dulles was handling
40.
Baghdad Pact
–
The Central Treaty Organization, originally known as the Baghdad Pact or the Middle East Treaty Organization was formed in 1955 by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. U. S. pressure and promises of military and economic aid were key in the leading to the agreement. Others said the reason was for technical reasons of budgeting procedures. In 1958, the United States joined the committee of the alliance. It is generally viewed as one of the least successful of the Cold War alliances, the organizations headquarters were located in Baghdad in 1955–1958 and in Ankara in 1958–1979. Cyprus was also an important location for CENTO due to its positioning within the Middle East, modeled after the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, CENTO committed the nations to mutual cooperation and protection, as well as non-intervention in each others affairs. Its goal was to contain the Soviet Union by having a line of strong states along the USSRs southwestern frontier, similarly, it was known as the Northern Tier to prevent Soviet expansion into the Middle East. The United Kingdom had access to facilities in Pakistan and Iraq at various times while the treaty was in effect, on July 14,1958, the Iraqi monarchy was overthrown in a military coup. The new government was led by General Abdul Karim Qasim who withdrew Iraq from the Baghdad Pact, opened diplomatic relations with Soviet Union, the organization dropped the name Baghdad Pact in favor of CENTO at that time. The Middle East and South Asia became extremely volatile areas during the 1960s with the ongoing Arab–Israeli Conflict, CENTO was unwilling to get deeply involved in either dispute. In 1965 and 1971, Pakistan tried unsuccessfully to get assistance in its wars with India through CENTO, CENTO did little to prevent the expansion of Soviet influence to non-member states in the area. By 1970, the USSR had deployed over 20,000 troops to Egypt, and had established bases in Syria, Somalia. The Iranian revolution spelled the end of the organization in 1979, but in reality, it essentially had been finished since 1974, when Turkey invaded Cyprus. This led the United Kingdom to withdraw forces that had been earmarked to the alliance, with the fall of the Iranian monarchy, whatever remaining rationale for the organization was lost. Future U. S. and British defense agreements with regional countries—such as Pakistan, Egypt,1954 February, Turkey signed a Pact of Mutual Cooperation with Pakistan. 24 February 1955, A military agreement was signed between Iraq and Turkey, and the term Baghdad Pact started to be used, Iran, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom join the Baghdad Pact. 1959 March, The new republican regime of Iraq withdrew the country from the alliance,19 August 1959, METO renamed CENTO. 1965, Pakistan tried to get help from its allies in its war against India, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 211 on September 20 and the United States and the United Kingdom supported the UN decision by cutting off arms supplies to both belligerents
41.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
42.
Elizabeth II
–
Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
.svg)
Bangladesh
.jpg)
.svg)
.svg)
