1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
Washington Channel
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The Washington Channel is a channel that parallels the Potomac River in Washington, D. C. It is located between the Southwest Waterfront on the east side and East Potomac Park on the west side, the channel is two miles long, receives outflow from the Tidal Basin at its north end, and empties into the Anacostia River at Hains Point at its south end. The channels depth ranges from 8.8 feet to 23 feet, the Washington Channels east bank is lined with restaurants, inns, and marinas including Washington Marina, Gangplank Marina, and Capital Yacht Club. The Maine Avenue Fish Market is situated at the end of the channel. The Womens Titanic Memorial, Fort Lesley J. McNair, the National Defense University, as of August 2010, the USS Sequoia—a former United States presidential yacht—is docked at a pier in the Washington Channel. The bill was passed by the House on July 20,2010, nortons bill is part of a larger plan to redevelop the Southwest Waterfront, some goals of which are to extend docks and increase maritime activity just a short eyeshot from the U. S. Capitol building. The Coast Guard, the Navy, and the Army Corps of Engineers have agreed that this transfer will not affect navigation interests or adversely affect navigation safety
3.
Potomac River
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The Potomac River /pəˈtoʊmək/ is located along the mid-Atlantic Ocean coast of the United States and flows into the Chesapeake Bay. The river is approximately 405 miles long, with an area of about 14,700 square miles. In terms of area, this makes the Potomac River the fourth largest river along the Atlantic coast of the United States, over 5 million people live within the Potomac watershed. The river forms part of the borders between Maryland and Washington, D. C. on the left descending bank and West Virginia and Virginia on the right descending bank. The majority of the lower Potomac River is part of the State of Maryland, exceptions include a small tidal portion within the District of Columbia, and the border with Virginia being delineated from point to point. Except for a portion of its headwaters in West Virginia. The South Branch Potomac River lies completely within the state of West Virginia except for its headwaters, the Potomac River runs 405 miles from the Fairfax Stone in West Virginia on the Allegheny Plateau to Point Lookout, Maryland, and drains 14,679 square miles. The length of the river from the junction of its North and South Branches to Point Lookout is 302 miles, the average flow is 10,800 ft³/s. The largest flow recorded on the Potomac at Washington, D. C. was in March 1936 when it reached 425,000 ft³/s. The lowest flow recorded at the same location was 600 ft³/s in September,1966. The source of the North Branch is at the Fairfax Stone located at the junction of Grant, Tucker, the source of the South Branch is located near Hightown in northern Highland County, Virginia. The rivers two branches converge just east of Green Spring in Hampshire County, West Virginia, to form the Potomac. Once the Potomac drops from the Piedmont to the Coastal Plain at Little Falls, tides further influence the river as it passes through Washington, D. C. salinity in the Potomac River Estuary increases thereafter with distance downstream. The estuary also widens, reaching 11 statute miles wide at its mouth, Potomac is a European spelling of Patowmeck, the Algonquian name of a Native American village, perhaps meaning something brought. Native Americans had different names for different parts of the river, calling the river above Great Falls Cohongarooton, meaning honking geese and Patawomke below the fall, meaning river of swans. The spelling of the name has many forms over the years from Patawomeke to Patawomeck, Patowmack. The rivers name was decided upon as Potomac by the Board on Geographic Names in 1931. The river itself is at least two years old, likely extending back ten to twenty million years before present when the Atlantic Ocean lowered and exposed coastal sediments along the fall line
4.
Southwest, Washington, D.C.
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Southwest is the southwestern quadrant of Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States, and is located south of the National Mall and west of South Capitol Street. It is the smallest quadrant of the city, Southwest is small enough that it is frequently referred to as a neighborhood in and of itself. However, it contains five separate neighborhoods. The Southwest Waterfront, also called Near Southwest, is between I-395 and Fort Lesley J. McNair, Southwest Waterfront is a primarily residential neighborhood. It also is home to several Washington DC marinas, including the Washington Marina, The Capitol Yacht Club, the Gangplank Marina, buzzard Point, a largely undeveloped industrial area between South Capitol Street and Fort McNair. Buzzard Point was the home of the U. S. Coast Guard, the headquarters moved to the former St. Elizabeths Hospital campus elsewhere in DC in 2013. The Bellevue neighborhood occupies all of the Southwest land between South Capitol Street and the Anacostia and Potomac rivers, included is the small Hadley Hospital. The Blue, Orange, and Silver lines of the Washington Metro have the stations in the Southwest Federal Center, Smithsonian, LEnfant Plaza. The Yellow line also stops at LEnfant Plaza, Bolling and Bellevue have no Metrorail service, although the DC Council has considered some versions of the Anacostia streetcar that would extend to Bolling. S. Prior to 1847, much of the Virginia portion of the District of Columbia, after the Civil War, the Southwest Waterfront became a neighborhood for the poorer classes of Washingtonians. Each half was centered on religious establishments, St. Dominics Catholic Church and Talmud Torah Congregation on the west, and Friendship Baptist Church on the east. Waterfront developed into a quite contradictory area, it had a commercial district with grocery stores, shops. However, most of the neighborhood was a poor shantytown of tenements, shacks. These places, some of them in the shadow of the Capitol Building, were frequent subjects of photographs highlighting the stark contrast, in the 1950s, city planners working with the U. S. The seizure of the area, including well maintained properties, was upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Berman v. Parker. Justice William Douglas emphasized the squalor and segregation the area suffered, only a few buildings were left intact, notably the Maine Avenue fish market, the Wheat Row townhouses, the Thomas Law House, and the St. Dominics and Friendship churches. The Southeast/Southwest Freeway was constructed where F Street, SW, had once been, the rebuilt Southwest featured a large concentration of office and residential buildings in the brutalist style that was then popular. It was during this time that most of the Southwest Federal Center was built, the Arena Stage was built a block west of the Mall, and a number of hotels and restaurants were built on the riverfront to attract tourists
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
7.
Jefferson Memorial
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The Jefferson Memorial is a presidential memorial in Washington, D. C. S. Construction of the began in 1939 and was completed in 1943. The bronze statue of Jefferson was added in 1947, the Jefferson Memorial is managed by the National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior under its National Mall and Memorial Parks division. In 2007, it was ranked fourth on the List of Americas Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects and it became apparent that the site was well suited for another high-profile memorial since it sat directly south of the White House. The completion of the Tidal Basin Inlet Bridge in 1908 helped to facilitate the usage of East and West Potomac Parks. In 1918, large liquid-chlorine dispensers were installed under the bridge to treat the water, a design competition was held for a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt in 1925. The winning design was submitted by John Russell Pope and consisted of a memorial situated next to a circular basin. The plan was never funded by Congress and was not built, later the same year, Congressman John J. Boylan jumped off FDRs starting point and urged Congress to create the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Commission. Boylan was appointed the Commissions first chairman and Congress eventually appropriated $3 million for a memorial to Jefferson, the Commission chose John Russell Pope as the architect in 1935. Pope was also the architect of the National Archives Building and original building of the National Gallery of Art and he prepared four different plans for the project, each on a different site. The Commission preferred the site on the Tidal Basin mainly because it was the most prominent site, Pope designed a very large pantheon-like structure, to sit on a square platform, and to be flanked by two smaller, rectangular, colonnaded buildings. Construction began on December 15,1938, and the cornerstone was laid on November 15,1939, by this point Pope had died and his surviving partners, Daniel P. Higgins and Otto R. Eggers, took over construction of the memorial. The design was modified at the request of the Commission of Fine Arts to a conservative design. The Commission of Fine Arts never actually approved any design for the Memorial, in addition, many Washingtonians opposed the site because it was not aligned with LEnfants original plan. Finally, many well established elm and cherry trees had to be removed for construction, in 1939, the Memorial Commission hosted a competition to select a sculptor for the planned statue in the center of the Memorial. They received 101 entries and chose six finalists, of the six, Rudulph Evans was chosen as the main sculptor and Adolph A. Weinman was chosen to sculpt the pediment relief situated above the entrance. Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. designed the memorial landscape, the Olmstead planting plan installed at the time of construction featured a simple design within a circular driveway, primarily evergreen trees with limited flowering trees and shrubs. The design was perceived as too thin, so white pines were added, many changes to Olmsteds plans occurred in the 1970s, while 1993 and 2000 restorations have attempted to restore integrity to Olmsteds altered design
8.
14th Street Bridges
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The 14th Street Bridges are five bridges near each other that cross the Potomac River, connecting Arlington, Virginia, and Washington, D. C. A major gateway for automotive and rail traffic, the complex is named for 14th Street. The complex contains three four-lane automobile bridges—one northbound, one southbound, and one bi-directional — that carry Interstate 395, the original bridge ran to the junction of 14th Street and Maryland Avenue, with access to either for cars. Each of the five bridge spans has its own name. From east to west, the bridges are, The 1903 Long Bridge carries CSX, Amtrak, the name seems to have been derived from its planned size and not as a memorial to any particular individual. At that time, the Rochambeau Bridge name was moved to the previously unnamed center bridge, the southbound span, opened in 1962, is named the George Mason Memorial Bridge. A footpath is on the side of the bridge for pedestrians. The first bridge at the site was the Long Bridge, a toll bridge opened on May 20,1809. British forces leaving the Battle of Bladensburg during the War of 1812 set fire to the end of the Long Bridge on August 25,1814. The bridge was rebuilt by 1816, the western portion was carried away by an ice freshet on February 23,1831, and Congress decided to purchase the franchise of the Washington Bridge Company on July 14,1832. A ferry carried traffic across the river until October 30,1835, another freshet struck on February 10,1840, closing the bridge until 1843. A rail line over the Potomac had been envisioned at least since 1835, in 1855, the Alexandria and Washington Railway was chartered to connect the B&O to other railroads in Alexandria, by then part of Virginia. A city ordinance passed July 27,1855, authorized the A&W to build tracks from the B&Os Washington terminal to the Long Bridge. By December, tracks had been completed from the south along First Street, past the United States Capitol. This line never opened due to opposition and the inability to lay tracks on the bridge. But the A&W did complete its Virginia line, from the southern end to downtown Alexandria. To reach Washington and the B&O, freight and passengers had to use a connection over the bridge. The bridge was washed out by a flood in February 1857
9.
East Potomac Park Golf Course
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East Potomac Park Golf Course is a golf course located in East Potomac Park in Washington, D. C. in the United States. The course includes an 18-hole course, two 9-hole courses, and a golf course. It is the busiest of the three golf courses. The original nine-hole course opened in 1921, and the golf course in 1930. Additional holes opened in stages between 1921 and 1925, leaving the course with 36 holes in all, services at East Potomac Park Golf Course include a pro shop, snack bar, putting greens, three practice holes, and a two-tiered, 100-stall driving range. The course is flat and easy, although drainage can be poor. The views of the many monuments and memorials from the course at East Potomac are considered some of the best in the city. A municipal golf course in East Potomac Park was first proposed in February 1911, the Washington Chamber of Commerce made a formal request of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers in March 1913 to build a course, and the Corps gave its approval a month later. But these plans were put on due to World War I. Temporary barracks for soldiers were built on the land, and the space used for victory gardens. But with the end of the war in sight, the Corps revived plans to build a golf course, by March 1919, construction on a nine-hole course was well under way. The course opened on March 15,1921, president Warren G. Harding was one of the first golfers to play the course. Between 1921 and 1922, a course was opened. Another nine holes opened on May 30,1925, like all but one golf course in Washington, D. C. from 1900 to 1955, East Potomac Park Golf Course was racially segregated, and barred African Americans from using the course. In 1941, several black golfers attempted to play at East Potomac Park Golf Course, African American golfers petitioned United States Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes for permission to play at the course, which Ickes granted. In July, three black golfers played the course, but were jeered and threatened with assault, but with Ickes unable to provide such high levels of protection all the time, African American golfers rarely attempted to play there until the citys golf courses were desegregated in 1955. High schools around the D. C. area practice at, add 4 Holes to Park Course. Bednar, Michael J. LEnfants Legacy, Public Open Spaces in Washington, roadside Attractions, Cool Cafés, Souvenir Stands, Route 66 Relics, and Other Road Trip Fun
10.
Miniature golf
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Miniature golf, also known as minigolf, or putt-putt, is an offshoot of the sport of golf focusing solely on the putting aspect of its parent game. When miniature golf retains many of these characteristics but without the use of any props or obstacles, the term Minigolf was formerly a registered trademark of a Swedish company that built its own patented type of minigolf courses. Resort towns such as Myrtle Beach, SC, Branson, MO, Pigeon Forge, TN and Wisconsin Dells, geometrically-shaped minigolf courses made of artificial materials began to emerge during the early 20th century. The earliest documented mention of such a course is in the 8 June 1912 edition of The Illustrated London News, which introduces a minigolf course called Gofstacle. Thomas McCulloch Fairbairn, a fanatic, revolutionized the game in 1922 with his formulation of a suitable artificial green—a mixture of cottonseed hulls, sand, oil. With this discovery, miniature golf became accessible everywhere, by the late 1920s there were over 150 rooftop courses in New York City alone and this American minigolf boom of early 20th century came to an end during the economic depression in the late 1930s. Nearly all minigolf courses in the United States were closed and demolished before the end of the 1930s. A rare surviving example from this period is the Parkside Whispering Pines Miniature Golf Course located near Rochester, New York, the first miniature golf course in Canada was at the Maples Inn in Pointe-Claire, Quebec. The Mapes was constructed as a home in the 1890s but was renovated into a club in 1902, opened to the public in 1914. The popular nightspot burned in 1985, one of the first documented minigolf courses in mainland Europe was built in 1926 by Fr. Mr. Schröder had been inspired by his visit to the United States, in 1930 Edwin O. Norrman and Eskil Norman returned to Sweden from the United States, where they had stayed for several years and witnessed the golden days of the American minigolf boom. In 1931 they founded a company Norman och Norrmans Miniatyrgolf, during the following years they spread this new leisure activity across Sweden, by installing minigolf courses in public parks and other suitable locations. Swedish minigolf courses typically had a wooden frame surrounding the playing area made of tennis field sand. The Swedish Minigolf Federation was founded in 1937, being the oldest minigolf sport organization in the world, National Swedish championships in minigolf have been played yearly since 1939. In other countries minigolf sport federations were not founded until the late 1950s, in 1954, the minigolf course in Ascona opened, the oldest course worldwide following the norms of Paul Bongni. The earliest documented minigolf competitions were played in the United States, the first National Tom Thumb Open minigolf tournament was arranged in 1930, with a total cash purse $10,000. Qualification play-offs were played in all of the 48 states, after the Depression ten years later, minigolf died out as a competition sport in America, and has begun to recover only during the most recent decades. The American minigolf sport boom of the 1930s inspired many European countries, in 1938 Joseph and Robert Taylor from Binghamton, New York started building and operating their own miniature golf courses
11.
Baseball
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Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of nine players each, who take turns batting and fielding. A run is scored when a player advances around the bases, Players on the batting team take turns hitting against the pitcher of the fielding team, which tries to prevent runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways. A player on the team who reaches a base safely can later attempt to advance to subsequent bases during teammates turns batting. The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the team records three outs. One turn batting for both teams, beginning with the team, constitutes an inning. A game is composed of nine innings, and the team with the number of runs at the end of the game wins. Baseball has no clock, although almost all games end in the ninth inning. Baseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century and this game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. By the late 19th century, baseball was widely recognized as the sport of the United States. Baseball is now popular in North America and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, in the United States and Canada, professional Major League Baseball teams are divided into the National League and American League, each with three divisions, East, West, and Central. The major league champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series, the top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League. The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision, a French manuscript from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a game, possibly la soule, with similarities to baseball. Other old French games such as thèque, la balle au bâton, consensus once held that todays baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular in Great Britain and Ireland. Baseball Before We Knew It, A Search for the Roots of the Game, by David Block, suggests that the game originated in England, recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of other. It has long believed that cricket also descended from such games. The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, David Block discovered that the first recorded game of Bass-Ball took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player. William Bray, an English lawyer, recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford and this early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants
12.
Softball
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Softball is a variant of baseball played with a larger ball on a smaller field. It was invented in 1887 in Chicago as an indoor game and it was at various times called indoor baseball, mush ball, playground, softball, kitten ball, and because it was also played by women, ladies baseball. The name softball was given to the game in 1926 because the used to be soft. A tournament held in 1933 at the Chicago Worlds Fair spurred interest in the game, the Amateur Softball Association of America governs the game in the United States and sponsors annual sectional and World Series championships. Womens fastpitch softball became a Summer Olympic sport in 1996, but it were dropped from the 2012 Games, there are three types of softball. In fastpitch softball, the pitch is fast, there are nine players on the field at one time, modified softball restricts the windmill windup of the pitcher, although the pitcher is allowed to throw as hard as possible with the restricted back swing. Softball rules vary somewhat from those of baseball, despite the name, the ball used in softball is not very soft. It is about 12 in in circumference, which is 3 in larger than a baseball, Softball recreational leagues for children often use an 11-inch ball. In fast pitch softball the entire infield is sand, whereas the infield in baseball is grass except at the bases which are sand, the earliest known softball game was played in Chicago, Illinois on Thanksgiving Day,1887. It took place at the Farragut Boat Club at a gathering to hear the outcome of the Yale University, when the score was announced and bets were settled, a Yale alumnus threw a boxing glove at a Harvard supporter. The other person grabbed a took a swing at it, george Hancock called out Play ball. And the game began, with the boxing glove tightened into a ball and this first contest ended with a score of 41–40. The ball, being soft, was fielded barehanded, george Hancock is credited as the games inventor for his development of ball and an undersized bat in the next week. The Farragut Club soon set rules for the game, which spread quickly to outsiders, envisioned as a way for baseball players to maintain their skills during the winter, the sport was called Indoor Baseball. Under the name of Indoor-Outdoor, the game moved outside in the year. In 1895 Lewis Rober, Sr. of Minneapolis organized outdoor games as exercise for firefighters, Rober may not have been familiar with the Farragut Club rules. Fire Station No.19 in Minneapolis, Robers post from 1896 to 1906, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in part for its association with the sports development, the first softball league outside the United States was organized in Toronto in 1897. The name softball dates back to 1926, the name was coined by Walter Hakanson of the YMCA at a meeting of the National Recreation Congress
13.
Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England
14.
Rugby football
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Rugby is a type of football developed at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, one of many versions of football played at English public schools in the 19th century. The two main types of rugby are rugby league and rugby union, although rugby league initially used rugby union rules, they are now wholly separate sports. Following the 1895 split in rugby football, the two rugby league and rugby union differed in administration only. Soon the rules of rugby league were modified, resulting in two different forms of rugby. After 100 years, in 1995 rugby union joined rugby league, the Greeks and Romans are known to have played many ball games, some of which involved the use of the feet. These games appear to have resembled rugby football, the Roman politician Cicero describes the case of a man who was killed whilst having a shave when a ball was kicked into a barbers shop. Roman ball games already knew the air-filled ball, the follis, episkyros is recognised as an early form of football by FIFA. In 1871, English clubs met to form the Rugby Football Union, in 1892, after charges of professionalism were made against some clubs for paying players for missing work, the Northern Rugby Football Union, usually called the Northern Union, was formed. The existing rugby union authorities responded by issuing sanctions against the clubs, players, after the schism, the separate clubs were named rugby league and rugby union. Rugby union is both a professional and amateur game, and is dominated by the first tier unions, Argentina, Australia, England, France, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. Rugby Union is administered by World Rugby, whose headquarters are located in Dublin and it is the national sport in New Zealand, Wales, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Madagascar, and is the most popular form of rugby globally. The Olympic Games have admitted the seven-a-side version of the game, known as Rugby sevens, there was a possibility sevens would be a demonstration sport at the 2012 London Olympics but many sports including sevens were dropped. In Canada and the United States, rugby union evolved into gridiron football, during the late 1800s, the two forms of the game were very similar, but numerous rule changes have differentiated the gridiron-based game from its rugby counterpart. Rugby league is also both a professional and amateur game, administered on a level by the Rugby League International Federation. International Rugby League is dominated by Australia, England and New Zealand, in Papua New Guinea it is the national sport. Other nations from the South Pacific and Europe also play in the Pacific Cup, distinctive features common to both rugby codes include the oval ball and throwing the ball forward is not allowed, so that players can gain ground only by running with the ball or by kicking it. As the sport of rugby league moved further away from its counterpart, rule changes were implemented with the aim of making a faster-paced. League players may not contest possession after making a tackle, play is continued with a play-the-ball, in league, if the team in possession fails to score before a set of six tackles, it surrenders possession
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American football
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The offense must advance at least ten yards in four downs, or plays, or else they turn over the football to the opposing team, if they succeed, they are given a new set of four downs. Points are primarily scored by advancing the ball into the teams end zone for a touchdown or kicking the ball through the opponents goalposts for a field goal. The team with the most points at the end of a game wins, American football evolved in the United States, originating from the sports of association football and rugby football. The first game of American football was played on November 6,1869, during the latter half of the 1870s, colleges playing association football switched to the Rugby Union code, which allowed carrying the ball. American football as a whole is the most popular sport in the United States, Professional football and college football are the most popular forms of the game, with the other major levels being high school and youth football. As of 2012, nearly 1.1 million high school athletes and 70,000 college athletes play the sport in the United States annually, almost all of them men, in the United States, American football is referred to as football. The term football was established in the rulebook for the 1876 college football season. The terms gridiron or American football are favored in English-speaking countries where other codes of football are popular, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, American football evolved from the sports of association football and rugby football. What is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6,1869 between Rutgers and Princeton, two college teams, the game was played between two teams of 25 players each and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried. It could, however, be kicked or batted with the feet, hands, head or sides, Rutgers won the game 6 goals to 4. Collegiate play continued for years in which matches were played using the rules of the host school. Representatives of Yale, Columbia, Princeton and Rutgers met on October 19,1873 to create a set of rules for all schools to adhere to. Teams were set at 20 players each, and fields of 400 by 250 feet were specified, Harvard abstained from the conference, as they favored a rugby-style game that allowed running with the ball. An 1875 Harvard-Yale game played under rugby-style rules was observed by two impressed Princeton athletes and these players introduced the sport to Princeton, a feat the Professional Football Researchers Association compared to selling refrigerators to Eskimos. Princeton, Harvard, Yale and Columbia then agreed to play using a form of rugby union rules with a modified scoring system. These schools formed the Intercollegiate Football Association, although Yale did not join until 1879, the introduction of the snap resulted in unexpected consequences. Prior to the snap, the strategy had been to punt if a scrum resulted in bad field position, however, a group of Princeton players realized that, as the snap was uncontested, they now could hold the ball indefinitely to prevent their opponent from scoring. In 1881, both teams in a game between Yale-Princeton used this strategy to maintain their undefeated records, each team held the ball, gaining no ground, for an entire half, resulting in a 0-0 tie
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Fisherman
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A fisherman or fisher is someone who captures fish and other animals from a body of water, or gathers shellfish. Worldwide, there are about 38 million commercial and subsistence fishermen, the term can also be applied to recreational fishermen and may be used to describe both men and women. Fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period, fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period. During the time of the Ancient Egyptians, fishermen provided the majority of food for Egyptians, fishing had become a major means of survival as well as a business venture. Fishing and the fisherman have also influenced Ancient Egyptian religion, mullets were worshiped as a sign of the flood season. Bastet was often manifested in the form of a catfish, in ancient Egyptian literature, the method that Amun used to create the world is associated with the tilapias method of mouth-brooding. According to the FAO, there were about 39 million fishers in countries producing more than 200,000 tonnes in 2012, the total fishery production of 66 million tonnes equated to an average productivity of 3.5 tonnes per person. Most of this took place in Asian countries, where four-fifths of world fishers. Most fishermen are men involved in offshore and deep-sea fisheries, women fish in some regions inshore from small boats or collect shellfish and seaweed. In many artisanal fishing communities, women are responsible for making and repairing nets, recreational fishing is fishing for pleasure or competition. It can be contrasted with fishing, which is fishing for economic profit, or subsistence fishing. The most common form of fishing is done with a rod, reel, line, hooks. Lures are frequently used in place of bait, some people make handmade lures, including plastic lures and artificial flies. The practice of catching or attempting to catch fish with a hook is called angling, when angling, it is sometimes expected or required that the fish be caught and released. Big-game fishing is fishing from boats to catch large species such as tuna, sharks. Noodling and trout tickling are also recreational activities, for some communities, fishing provides not only a source of food and work but also community and cultural identity. The fishing industry is hazardous for fishermen, between 1992 and 1999, US commercial fishing vessels averaged 78 deaths per year. The main contributors to fatalities are, inadequate preparation for emergencies poor vessel maintenance, many fishermen, while accepting that fishing is dangerous, staunchly defend their independence
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Inline skates
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Inline skates are a type of roller skate used for inline skating. Unlike quad skates, which have two front and two wheels, inline skates typically have two to five wheels arranged in a single line. Some, especially those for recreation, have a stop or brake block attached to rear of the frame. The modern style of inline skates was developed as a substitute for ice skates, life magazine published a photo of American skater Eric Heiden, training for the 1980 Olympics, using such skates on a Wisconsin road. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Rollerblade, Inc, inline skates, skates designed to work like ice skates during periods of warm weather, were invented by Louis Legrange of France in 1849. Legrange designed the skates for an opera where a character was to appear to be skating on ice, the skates were problematic and unsuccessful as the wearer could not turn nor could they stop. At some point between 1895 and 1899 the UK engineering company D. Napier & Son made Ritter road skates, which had two comparatively large wheels, front and back, on each skate. They were briefly described in the April 1950 issue of Popular Mechanics, inline skates appear in the 1962 Russian film Koroleva benzokolonki at 9m23s. In Canada in 1972, Mountain Dew attempted to sell Mettoys product the Skeeler, the first commercially available inline skate for this form of Rollerskating is in 1987 by Rollerblade. In 1996, Jason Lewis completed the first solo crossing of the USA on inline skates, part of Expedition 360, en route he was hit by a car in Colorado, breaking both legs. After nine months he completed the journey from Fort Lauderdale to San Francisco, in 2012, Kacie Fischer became the first woman, and the fastest person, to inline skate across the United States, she skated from California to Florida in 47 days. A skate is composed of a boot, worn on the foot, to the boot is attached a frame, which holds the wheels in place. Bearings allow the wheels to rotate freely around an axle, finally, the rubber brake typically attaches to the frame of the right foot. There are different types of inline skates for different types of skating such as skating, speed skating, inline hockey. Those differ in the boots, frames and wheels that are used, for most skating a high boot is used, which provides more ankle support and is easier to skate in, particularly for beginners. Speed skaters often use a carbon fiber boot which provides support with a lower cut allowing more ankle flexion. For recreational skating a soft boot is used for greater comfort, the boot may also contain shock absorbent padding for comfort. Downhill skaters often use boots that are heat-molded to the shape of the foot, most aggressive skates use a hard boot or a hard/soft boot for increased support
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Ohio Drive (Washington, D.C.)
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Ohio Drive is a street in Southwest Washington, D. C. located in East and West Potomac Parks and bordering the Tidal Basin, Washington Channel, and the Potomac River. It is a central organizing feature of East Potomac Park, providing the only vehicular route to. Unlike most roadways named after states in the District of Columbia, Ohio Drive is not an avenue, however, the segment from Independence Avenue to the Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway is an important commuter route. Ohio Drive SW is a property to the East and West Potomac Parks National Historic District. Ohio Drive starts at the Lincoln Memorial and continues south on the west side of West Potomac Park. It crosses a channel connecting the Potomac River to the Tidal Basin via the Tidal Basin Inlet Bridge, and continues under the 14th Street Bridge. The street enters and continues along the west side of East Potomac Park almost to the point of the island. Ohio Drive passes under 14th Street and CSX railroad tracks before ending at East Basin Drive, construction on what was then known as Riverside Drive SW began in 1912 and was completed in 1916. A portion of it was finished by June 1913. The road was nicknamed The Speedway from the horse and buggy racing that used to occur on the road. Riverside Drive in West Potomac Park was lit at night using the Twin Twentys lamppost and these wrought iron light standards, approved by the United States Commission of Fine Arts, have twin globes connected to a main pole by a decorative U-shaped bracket. The main pole is octagonal in cross-sextion and 15 feet high, with the bracket and globes, the lampposts total height is 21 feet. As constructed, the road was one lane wide and consisted of macadam, a number of important and historic structures are located on Ohio Dive SW. The West Potomac Park Polo Grounds, located between Independence Avenue SW and Ohio Drive SW, were out in 1908. Paved over in 1942 to provide parking for the temporary United States Department of War offices on the National Mall, a Women Appointed to Voluntary Emergency Services dormitory was constructed on the remaining parking lot in 1944. The dormitory was demolished in 1965, and the area at last completely restored to athletic fields, in 1926, the John Ericsson National Memorial was erected on Riverside Drive SW near the Lincoln Memorial. This statue commemorates the contributions of John Ericsson, a Swedish immigrant, President Calvin Coolidge and Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten, Crown Prince of Sweden, attended the dedication ceremonies. Riverside Drive was renamed Ohio Drive by 1950, cherry trees are also a defining feature of Ohio Drive
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DC Circulator
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The DC Circulator is a bus system in Washington, D. C. The service began in 2005, and passengers increased as the routes grew from two to five, but ridership peaked in 2011, and has decreased since then. The top month was July 2011, with 546,000 riders, the subsidy per rider is unusually high, in 2014, it ranged from $2.78 in July to $3.50 in December. The concept of a downtown bus was included in a 1997 report by the National Capital Planning Commission. The report called for a simple, inexpensive, and easily navigable surface transit system that complements Metrobus, Washington Convention Center to the Southwest Waterfront. The two lines served the National Mall and the Southwest Waterfront were discontinued in 2011 due to low ridership. The National Mall route was reinstated on June 15,2015, the route is operated in collaboration with the National Park Service. On April 18,2007, a driver of a bus was off-duty and had left the bus to attend to other business, while he was out of the bus, the bus rolled back and crashed into a Georgetown University building. The DC Circulator has six lines operating at 10-minute intervals, the east-west line connects Georgetown with Union Station and operates primarily along Wisconsin Avenue, K Street, and Massachusetts Avenue. Eastbound, the bus starts on Wisconsin Avenue at Whitehaven Street in Georgetown, westbound, the route starts in the bus level of the Union Station parking garage. This line operates between Woodley Park, Adams Morgan, and McPherson Square via the 14th Street Corridor, Service operates from 7,00 a. m. to midnight Sunday through Thursday and 7,00 a. m. to 3,30 a. m. Part of this route replaced the discontinued WMATA98 line and this line operates from Dupont Circle primarily via M Street through Georgetown and travels over the Key Bridge to Rosslyn. This services operates from 7,00 a. m. to midnight Sunday through Thursday and this route replaced the former Georgetown Metro Connection blue bus. This line connects Union Station and Navy Yard through Capitol Hill, operates weekdays between 6,00 a. m. and 7,00 p. m. from October 1 through March 31. Summer service operates weekdays between 6,00 a. m. and 9,00 p. m. and this route replaced the discontinued Metrobus N22 line. This line operates from the Potomac Avenue Metro Station and Skyland Town Center east of the Anacostia River via Barracks Row on Capitol Hill, Service operates weekdays between 6,00 a. m. and 7,00 p. m. from October 1 through March 31. Summer service operates weekdays between 6,00 a. m. and 9,00 p. m. and Saturday 7,00 a. m. to 9,00 p. m. Jr. memorials. Service operates weekdays between 7,00 a. m. and 7,00 p. m. and weekends from 9,00 a. m. to 7,00 p. m. from October 1 through March 31
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Metrobus (Washington, D.C.)
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Metrobus is a bus service operated by the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority. Its fleet consists of 1,480 buses covering an area of 1,500 square miles in Washington, there are more than 300 bus routes serving 12,216 stops, including 2,398 bus shelters. In fiscal year 2009 Metrobus provided more than 133 million trips, on a typical weekday, it provides more than 424,000 trips. Metro stopped issuing and accepting paper bus transfers as of January 4,2009, bus, up to two children, per paying adult, under 5 years of age ride for free. Children at least 5 years of age pay adult fare, Express routes, J7, J9, P17, P19, W13, W19, 11Y, 17A, 17B, 17G, 17H, 17K, 17L, 17M, 18E, 18G, 18H, 18P and 29W. All Metrobuses have SmarTrip card readers which automatically deduct the correct fare from a riders SmarTrip card, formerly, Metrobus issued paper transfers which gave the rider free transfers to any regular bus for two hours. This section discusses the transfer policy to and from Metrobus and other bus operators. The routes can be Metrobus routes or routes of other regional operators, note that as of January 4,2009, transfer credit is issued on a SmarTrip card, riders using cash payment cannot obtain a paper transfer and must pay full fare upon boarding the bus. On June 27,2010, the window was reduced from 3 hours to 2 hours. NOTES, Local Buses, Metrobus local routes, Ride-On, The Bus, DC Circulator, Fairfax Connector, Connect-A-Ride, Fairfax CUE, DASH and Arlington Transit. Express Buses, Metrobus express routes, PRTC OmniRide, PRTC MetroDirect, Ride-On route 70, Metro has currently awarded a five-year contract with NABI for the procurement of up to 654 new buses. The first batch of 85 NABI diesel-electric hybrid 42-foot buses is already on order, the new buses will replace some of Metro’s older Orion V buses, which were delivered in 1997 and 2000. Going forward, the contract gives Metro the option to order up to 498 additional 42-foot buses, red/Silver painted buses will be used on local routes and Blue/Silver buses will be used on Express routes. These buses will have either Local or MetroExtra on the top of each side of the bus for easy identification, the numbering represents its region of operation. To differ the regions numbering system, most Maryland letters is prefix to the route number, WMATA is adding a total of 533 hybrid buses to replace its diesel bus fleet. Each new New Flyer Xcelsior XDE40 bus costs $571,737 and is expected to break less frequently as well as offer greater fuel economy. With the latest purchase of 152 hybrid buses for $89.3 million from New Flyer of America, note, In 2015, the rest of the NABI BRT order was converted to the New Flyer Xcelsior order, due to New Flyer discontinuing production of its NABI-branded buses. Note, Also, the numbering for the 2017 New Flyer XN40 buses is to be determined, 1976-1978 Flxible New Looks #8000-86611988 Gillig Corporation|Gillig Phantoms #5080-5099 1959-1974 GMC Fishbowls #1000-6718
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Washington Metro
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The Washington Metro, known colloquially as Metro and branded Metrorail, is the heavy rail rapid transit system serving the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area in the United States. It is administered by the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, which also operates Metrobus service under the Metro name, besides the District, Metro serves several jurisdictions in Maryland and Virginia. In Maryland, Metro provides service to Montgomery and Prince Georges counties, in Virginia, to Arlington and Fairfax counties and the independent city of Alexandria. Combined with its ridership in the independent Virginia cities of Falls Church and Fairfax, the system is currently being expanded into Loudoun County, Virginia. It operates mostly as a subway in the District itself, while most of the tracks are at surface level or elevated. Opened in 1976, the network now includes six lines,91 stations, Metro is the second-busiest rapid transit system in the United States in number of passenger trips, after the New York City Subway. There were 215.3 million trips on Metro in fiscal year 2015, in June 2008, Metro set a monthly ridership record with 19,729,641 trips, or 798,456 per weekday. Fares vary based on the distance traveled, the time of day, Riders enter and exit the system using a proximity card called SmarTrip. Metro also has the distinction of having the longest, single-tier escalator in the Western Hemisphere in the Wheaton station, during the 1960s plans were laid for a massive freeway system in Washington. But the plan met fierce opposition, and was altered to include a Capital Beltway system plus rail line radials, the Beltway received full funding, funding for the ambitious Inner Loop Freeway system was partially reallocated toward construction of the Metro system. In 1960 the federal government created the National Capital Transportation Agency to develop a rail system. In 1966, a bill creating WMATA was passed by the government, the District of Columbia, Virginia. WMATA approved plans for a 98-mile regional system in 1968, the first portion of the system opened March 27,1976, with 4.6 miles available on the Red Line with five stations from Rhode Island Avenue to Farragut North, all in the District of Columbia. Underground stations were built with arches of concrete, highlighted by soft. The name Metro was suggested by Massimo Vignelli, who designed the subway maps for the New York City Subway, the 103-mile, 83-station system was completed with the opening of the Green Line segment to Branch Avenue on January 13,2001. This did not mean the end of the growth of the system, the first in-fill station, NoMa – Gallaudet University on the Red Line between Union Station and Rhode Island Ave-Brentwood, opened November 20,2004. Construction began in March 2009 for an extension to Dulles Airport to be built in two phases, the first phase, five stations connecting East Falls Church to Tysons Corner and Wiehle Avenue in Reston, opened on July 26,2014. Metro construction required billions of dollars, originally provided by Congress under the authority of the National Capital Transportation Act of 1969
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Smithsonian station
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Smithsonian is a side platformed Washington Metro station at the National Mall in Washington, D. C. The station was opened on July 1,1977, and is operated by the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority and it is a stop on the Blue, Orange and Silver Lines. The station is named for its proximity to the Smithsonian Institutions museums and is close to the Washington Monument, the station is also near several federal office buildings, including those of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Energy. The station opened on July 1,1977 and its opening coincided with the completion of 11. Orange Line service to the station began upon the opening on November 20,1978. Silver Line service at Smithsonian station began on July 26,2014, near this station, Metro had its first fatalities, which occurred on January 13,1982 when a train derailed. On the same day, Air Florida Flight 90 crashed into the 14th Street Bridge, the two events closed the federal government in the Washington Metropolitan Area. Metro stopped closing Smithsonian station on July 4 beginning in 2009
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United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
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Corps of Topographical Engineers
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It included such officers as George Meade, John C. It was merged with the United States Army Corps of Engineers on 31 March 1863, in the mid-19th century, Corps of Engineers officers ran Lighthouse Districts in tandem with U. S. Naval officers. In 1841, Congress created the Lake Survey, the Survey, based in Detroit, Mich. was charged with conducting a hydrographical survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes and preparing and publishing nautical charts and other navigation aids. The Lake Survey published its first charts in 1852, William Goetzmann has written, From the year 1838 down to the Civil War, there existed a small but highly significant branch of the Army called the Corps of Topographical Engineers. The Engineers were concerned with recording all of the phenomena as accurately as possible. As Army officers they represented the direct concern of the government the settling of the West. In short, they functioned as a department of works for the West - and indeed for the whole nation, since the operations of the Corps extended to every state. The work of the Corps in the West had still broader significance, the Topographical Engineers were sophisticated men of their time who worked closely with the foremost scholars in American and European centers of learning. Scientists and artists of all nationalities accompanied their expeditions as partners and co-workers, the Army Topographer considered himself by schooling and profession as one of a company of savants. By virtue of his West Point training and status he was an engineer, something above the field officer. As a Topographical Engineer he on occasion might address the American Association for the Advancement of Science and he probably subscribed to Sillimans American Journal of Science and he was a pillar of the Smithsonian Institution. In all, there were six major expeditions into the Louisiana Purchase, a second expedition in 1804 included astronomer and naturalist John Dunbar and prominent Philadelphia chemist William Hunter. This expedition attempted to follow the Red River to its source in Texas, then controlled by Spain, the group of 24 traveled 615 miles up the Red River before being turned back by Spanish authorities. In 1805–1806, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike was ordered by General James Wilkinson, Governor of the Upper Louisiana Territory, in 1806–1807, President Jefferson ordered Lieutenant Pike, on another expedition, to find the headwaters of the Arkansas River and Red River. This is better known as the Pike Expedition, Spanish forces arrested Pike and confiscated his papers, but assigned a translator and cartographer to translate Pikes documents. In 1817 Major Stephen H. Long explored the upper Mississippi River, selecting sites for Fort Smith on the Arkansas River and Fort St. Anthony at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi. In 1819, President James Monroe and Secretary of War John C. Calhoun ordered General Henry Atkinson to lead what became known as the Yellowstone Expedition, one objective was to eliminate British influence among the Native American tribes in the region. Nearly 1,000 soldiers were transported by five steamboats up the Missouri River to the Mandan villages at the mouth of the Yellowstone and this was the first known use of steam propulsion in the west
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Mudflat
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Mudflats or mud flats, also known as tidal flats, are coastal wetlands that form when mud is deposited by tides or rivers. They are found in sheltered areas such as bays, bayous, lagoons, mudflats may be viewed geologically as exposed layers of bay mud, resulting from deposition of estuarine silts, clays and marine animal detritus. Most of the sediment within a mudflat is within the intertidal zone, in the past tidal flats were considered unhealthy, economically unimportant areas and were often dredged and developed into agricultural land. Several especially shallow mudflat areas, such as the Wadden Sea, are now popular among those practising the sport of mudflat hiking. On the Baltic Sea coast of Germany in places, mudflats are exposed not by tidal action and these wind-affected mudflats are called windwatts in German. Tidal flats, along with salt marshes and mangrove forests, are important ecosystems. They are often of importance to migratory birds, as well as certain species of crabs, mollusks. In the United Kingdom mudflats have been classified as a Biodiversity Action Plan priority habitat, the maintenance of mudflats is important in preventing coastal erosion. However, mudflats worldwide are under threat from predicted sea level rises, land claims for development, dredging due to shipping purposes, in some parts of the world, such as East and South-East Asia, mudflats have been reclaimed for aquaculture, agriculture, and industrial development. For example, around the Yellow Sea region of East Asia, mudflat sediment deposits are focused into the intertidal zone which is composed of a barren zone, marsh and salt pan. Within these areas are various ratios of sand and mud that make up the sedimentary layers, the associated growth of coastal sediment deposits can be attributed to rates of subsidence along with rates of deposition and changes in sea level. Barren zones extend from the lowest portion of the zone to the marsh areas. Beginning in close proximity to the bars, sand dominated layers are prominent. Common bedding types include laminated sand, ripple bedding, and bay mud, bioturbation also has a strong presence in barren zones. Marshes contain an abundance of plants while the sediment layers consist of thin sand. Mudcracks are a common as well as wavy bedding planes, marshes are also the origins of coal/peat layers because of the abundant decaying plant life. Salt pans can be distinguished in that they contain thinly laminated layers of clayey silt, the main source of the silt comes from rivers. Dried up mud along with wind erosion forms silt dunes, when flooding, rain or tides come in, the dried sediment is then re-distributed
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Tide
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Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide—two nearly equal high and low tides each day, other locations experience a diurnal tide—only one high and low tide each day. A mixed tide—two uneven tides a day, or one high, Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors. To make accurate records, tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time, gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are compared to the level usually called mean sea level. Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field varies in time. For example, the part of the Earth is affected by tides. Tide changes proceed via the following stages, Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone, the water rises to its highest level, reaching high tide. Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone, the water stops falling, reaching low tide. Oscillating currents produced by tides are known as tidal streams, the moment that the tidal current ceases is called slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses direction and is said to be turning, slack water usually occurs near high water and low water. But there are locations where the moments of slack tide differ significantly from those of high, Tides are commonly semi-diurnal, or diurnal. The two high waters on a day are typically not the same height, these are the higher high water. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the low water and the lower low water. The daily inequality is not consistent and is small when the Moon is over the equator. From the highest level to the lowest, Highest Astronomical Tide – The highest tide which can be predicted to occur, note that meteorological conditions may add extra height to the HAT. Mean High Water Springs – The average of the two high tides on the days of spring tides, mean High Water Neaps – The average of the two high tides on the days of neap tides. Mean Sea Level – This is the sea level
27.
Old Naval Observatory
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Old Naval Observatory is a historic site in Northwest, Washington, D. C. The Washington meridian of 1850 passes through the Observatory, the observatory operated from 1844 to 1893 when it was closed in favor of a new U. S. Naval Observatory facility on Massachusetts Avenue. The building and grounds were retained by the U. S. Navy and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965. The facility housed the Navys Bureau of Medicine and Surgery until 2012, the grounds and observatory are closed to the public. The entire Navy Hill is being transferred to the United States Department of State due to Base Realignment and Closure, and the Navy will be moving out. The Central Intelligence Agencys forerunner, the Office of Strategic Services was a tenant on the Hill during World War II, in 2014, the Department of State began expanding into the Navy Hill. DC-341, Old Naval Observatory, Twenty-Third & E Streets Northwest, Washington, District of Columbia, DC,2 photos,2 data pages,1 photo caption page
28.
Buzzard Point
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Buzzard Point is an urbanized area located on the peninsula formed by the confluence of the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers in the southwest quadrant of Washington, D. C. George Washington had envisioned the use of some of Greenleafs lots at the Point by the military, in 1791, he and Pierre Charles LEnfant chose the site for the emplacement of a redoubt of some sort. They acquired approximately 28 acres by a deed of trust in that year, apparently, LEnfant intended for a fortification to be placed there, according to his city plan, setting it aside as Military District No. 5, because, as one wrote, the peninsula where the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers met was an obvious. This site, sported a one-gun battery mounted behind earth breastworks, possibly as early as 1791 but, at any rate, within a few years, The U. S. Arsenal at Greenleaf Point grew from 28 to more than 89 acres, by 1803, the Fort was first referred to as an Arsenal and Congress provided money for the construction of additional buildings. During the American Civil War, experiments on new weaponry were carried out both at the nearby Washington Navy Yard and at the Washington Arsenal as the Army installation had come to be called. Breechloaders, the Spencer carbine, and the Gatling gun were among the tested on the peninsula. In 1908, the tip of the peninsula bore the name of Arsenal Point because of its use at the time. Washington Arsenal was renamed Fort Lesley J. McNair in 1948. From its earliest times the Point was largely ignored by the population of the District, much as in a larger sense all of Southwest Washington remained somewhat separated. ”The marshy James Creek, flowing alongside the Arsenal served only as a source of disease. An 1875 survey of Buzzard Point found only 36 residences, eight “shanties” and six businesses, census figures show the population peaking at 323 in 1894 and then falling gradually,231 in 1900,185 in 1920,19 in 1940. The area always claimed an almost perfect balance between black and white residents, generally living side-by-side and all of the working class. “Farmer” was the most common profession up to about 1920, when “driver” replaced it. ”It is bordered on either side by true market gardens in the highest state of cultivation. ”The neighborhood understandably had a feel, and was seldom visited by outsiders, “A stranger is a very strange thing on Buzzard Point. ”Deterioration had clearly set in by the 1910s as fields were abandoned. As the population declined District planners looked for other uses for this neglected and this concerted effort destroyed what little was left of the old rural area without bringing in more than the railroad lines, the magnificent 1933 PEPCO power plant, and an oil/gas storage facility. Through the mid- and late-twentieth century these two facilities and adjoining smaller ones mostly closed as new development loomed from the nearby Navy Yard area. Some boat yards and marinas maintained themselves on National Park Service-owned land along the Anacostia River, the United States Geological Surveys most recent topographic maps identify the tip of the peninsula that contains Fort McNair as Greenleaf Point. The USGS maps also identify a point to the northeast of Greenleaf Point as Buzzard Point
29.
Constitution Avenue
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Constitution Avenue is a major east-west street in the northwest and northeast quadrants of the city of Washington, D. C. in the United States. It was originally known as B Street, and its section was greatly lengthened and widened between 1925 and 1933. It received its current name on February 26,1931, Constitution Avenues western half defines the northern border of the National Mall and extends from the United States Capitol to the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge. Its eastern half runs through the neighborhoods of Capitol Hill and Kingman Park before it terminates at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, a large number of federal departmental headquarters, memorials, and museums line Constitution Avenues western segment. In Pierre Charles LEnfants original plan for the city in 1791, B Street NW began at 6th Street NW and its eastern segment, which was unimpeded by any water obstacles, ran straight to the Eastern Branch river. Along its entire length, B Street was 60 feet wide, LEnfant proposed turning Tiber Creek into a canal. His plan included cutting a new canal south across the side of the United States Capitol grounds. The Washington Canal Company was incorporated in 1802, and after several false starts substantial work began in 1810, the Washington City Canal began operation in 1815. The canal suffered from problems and economic competition almost immediately. Traffic on the canal was adversely affected by forces, which the builders had not accounted for. At low tide, portions of the canal were almost dry, after the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad built Washington Branch into the city in 1835, competition from railroads left the canal economically unviable. Although the Washington City Canal remained in use after the coming of the railroad, by 1855 it had filled with silt and it remained in this condition throughout the 1860s. In 1871, Congress abolished the elected mayor and bicameral legislature of the District of Columbia, territorial government only lasted until 1874, but during this period the D. C. Board of Public Works enclosed the canal and turned it into a sewer, B Street NW from 15th Street to Virginia Avenue NW was constructed on top of it. Work began in October 1871 and was complete in December 1873 and this reclaimed land — which today includes West Potomac Park, East Potomac Park, the Tidal Basin — was largely complete by 1890, and designated Potomac Park by Congress in 1897. B Street NW extended through the newly created West Potomac Park between Virginia Avenue NW and 23rd Street NW, however, since this area was considered parkland, the street narrowed to just 40-foot in width. But Congress appropriated no money for the design or construction due to the onset of World War I, but after President Warren G. Congress approved funding for design work on June 12,1922, and authorized construction of the Arlington Memorial Bridge on February 24,1925. The 1925 legislation specified that B Street NW be treated as an approach to Arlington Memorial Bridge
30.
Chain Bridge (Potomac River)
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The Chain Bridge is a viaduct which crosses the Potomac River at Little Falls in Washington, D. C. It carries close to 22,000 cars a day and it connects Washington with affluent sections of Arlington and Fairfax counties in Virginia. On the Washington side, the bridge connects with Canal Road, left turns onto the Clara Barton Parkway from the Chain Bridge are prohibited, but the reverse is permitted. On the Virginia side, the bridge connects with State Route 123, the Chain Bridge has three lanes and can be safely accessed by pedestrians and cyclists. The pedestrian sidewalk provides access to the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal towpath via a ramp, the first bridge at the location was opened on July 3,1797. It was a covered bridge, and rotted and collapsed in 1804. The second bridge, of type, burned six months after it was built. The third bridge was four years later in 1808, and is where the bridge received its name. It was a suspension bridge, using 1¼ inch bars. It was designed by Judge James E. Finley, and was 136 feet long by 15 feet wide and it was destroyed by flood in 1810 or 1812. The fourth bridge was also a suspension bridge, and though damaged by floods in 1815. The fifth bridge was built in 1840, and made of chain and it was replaced by a crossbeam truss structure that resembled a long garden arbor or pergola, but retained its historical name. During the American Civil War, the Chain Bridge was a place for the Union Army to access the countryside encampments from Fairfax County. The bridge is the site of the first Union Army Balloon Corps balloon crossing, lowe and a band of handlers who had to precariously traverse the outsides of the fully trellised bridge. In a nine-hour ordeal, the balloon Union was fully inflated in Washington and walked out to the battlefield at Lewinsville, the truss bridge was swept away in an 1870 flood, and a lightweight iron truss replacement was erected in 1872-1874. Traffic restrictions were placed on the bridge in the 1920s, the eighth and present version of the bridge is a continuous steel girder structure, completed in 1939 on piers dating from the 1870s. Where Are The Chains On Chain Bridge, history of the Chain Bridge, from the Johns Hopkins University Press Chain Bridge
31.
Johnstown Flood
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The Johnstown Flood occurred on May 31,1889, after the catastrophic failure of the South Fork Dam on the Little Conemaugh River 14 miles upstream of the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The dam broke after several days of heavy rainfall, releasing 14.55 million cubic meters of water from the reservoir known as Lake Conemaugh. With a volumetric flow rate that temporarily equaled that of the Mississippi River, the American Red Cross, led by Clara Barton and with 50 volunteers, undertook a major disaster relief effort. Support for victims came from all over the United States and 18 foreign countries, after the flood, survivors suffered a series of legal defeats in their attempts to recover damages from the dams owners. Public indignation at that failure prompted the development in American law changing a fault-based regime to strict liability, the village of Johnstown was founded in 1800 by the Swiss immigrant Joseph Johns where the Stony Creek and Little Conemaugh rivers joined to form the Conemaugh River. It began to prosper with the building of the Pennsylvania Main Line Canal in 1836 and the construction in the 1850s of the Pennsylvania Railroad, by 1889, Johnstowns industries had attracted numerous Welsh and German immigrants. With a population of 30,000, it was an industrial community known for the quality of its steel. The high, steep hills of the narrow Conemaugh Valley and the Allegheny Mountains range to the east kept development close to the riverfront areas, the valley had large amounts of runoff from rain and snowfall. The area surrounding Johnstown is prone to flooding due to its location on the rivers, adding to these factors, slag from the iron furnaces of the steel mills was dumped along the river to create more land for building. Developers artificial narrowing of the riverbed to maximize early industries left the city even more flood-prone, the Conemaugh River immediately downstream of Johnstown is hemmed in by steep mountainsides for about 10 miles. High above the city, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania built the South Fork Dam between 1838 and 1853, as part of a canal system, the Main Line of Public Works. Johnstown was the terminus of the Western Division Canal, supplied with water by Lake Conemaugh. As railroads superseded canal barge transport, the Commonwealth abandoned the canal, the dam and lake were part of the purchase, and the railroad sold them to private interests. Many were connected through business and social links to Carnegie Steel, development included lowering the dam to make its top wide enough to hold a road, and putting a fish screen in the spillway. These alterations are thought to have increased the vulnerability of the dam, the members built cottages and a clubhouse to create the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, an exclusive and private mountain retreat. Membership grew to more than 50 wealthy Pittsburgh steel, coal. Lake Conemaugh at the site was 450 feet in elevation above Johnstown. The lake was about 2 miles long, about 1 mile wide, the dam was 72 feet high and 931 feet long
32.
United States Army Corps of Engineers
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The United States Army Corps of Engineers, also sometimes shortened to CoE is a U. S. Although generally associated with dams, canals and flood protection in the United States, the Corps of Engineers provides outdoor recreation opportunities to the public, and provides 24% of U. S. hydropower capacity. The corps mission is to Deliver vital public and military engineering services, partnering in peace and war to strengthen our Nations security, energize the economy and their most visible missions include, Planning, designing, building, and operating locks and dams. Other civil engineering projects include flood control, beach nourishment, design and construction of flood protection systems through various federal mandates. Design and construction management of military facilities for the Army, Air Force, Army Reserve and Air Force Reserve and other Defense and Federal agencies. The history of United States Army Corps of Engineers can be traced back to 16 June 1775, colonel Richard Gridley became General George Washingtons first chief engineer, however, it was not until 1779 that Congress created a separate Corps of Engineers. One of its first tasks was to build fortifications near Boston at Bunker Hill, the first Corps of Engineers was mostly composed of French subjects who had been hired by General Washington from the service of Louis XVI. that the said Corps. Shall be stationed at West Point in the State of New York, until 1866, the superintendent of the United States Military Academy was always an officer of engineer. During the first half of the 19th century, West Point was the major and, for a while, the General Survey Act of 1824 authorized the use of Army engineers to survey road and canal routes. Separately authorized on 4 July 1838, the U. S and it was merged with the Corps of Engineers on 31 March 1863, at which point the Corps of Engineers also assumed the Lakes Survey District mission for the Great Lakes. In 1841, Congress created the Lake Survey, the survey, based in Detroit, Mich. was charged with conducting a hydrographical survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes and preparing and publishing nautical charts and other navigation aids. The Lake Survey published its first charts in 1852, in the mid-19th century, Corps of Engineers officers ran Lighthouse Districts in tandem with U. S. Naval officers. The Army Corps of Engineers played a significant role in the American Civil War, many of the men who would serve in the top leadership in this institution were West Point graduates who rose to military fame and power during the Civil War. Some of these men were Union Generals George McClellan, Henry Halleck, George Meade, and Confederate generals Robert E. Lee, Joseph Johnston, the versatility of officers in the Army Corps of Engineers contributed to the success of numerous missions throughout the Civil War. They were responsible for building pontoon and railroad bridges, forts and batteries, the destruction of supply lines. The Army Corps of Engineers served as a function in making the war effort logistically feasible. This method of building trenches was known as the zigzag pattern, from the beginning, many politicians wanted the Corps of Engineers to contribute to both military construction and works of a civil nature. During World War II the mission grew to more than 27,000 military, included were aircraft, tank assembly, and ammunition plants, camps for 5.3 million soldiers, depots, ports, and hospitals, as well as the Manhattan Project, and the Pentagon
33.
West Potomac Park
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West Potomac Park is a U. S. national park in Washington, D. C. adjacent to the National Mall. It includes the parkland that extends south of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, West Potomac Park is administered by the National Park Service. Almost none of the National Mall west of the Washington Monument grounds, after terrible flooding inundated much of downtown Washington, D. C. In the process, the nearby Babcock Lakes, a series of ponds, were filled in. This reclaimed land — which included West Potomac Park, East Potomac Park, the Tidal Basin — was largely complete by 1890, and designated Potomac Park by Congress in 1897. The famous sakura of Washington line the Tidal Basin and are the main attraction at the National Cherry Blossom Festival in early spring, when the cherry blossoms bloom. Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore, upon returning to Washington from a visit to Japan, initiated the idea of trees in Washington, approaching the Superintendent of Public Building. Her idea was rejected, over the next 24 years, Scidmore approached every new superintendent, Fairchild planted these trees on a hillside on his own property in Chevy Chase, Maryland, testing their hardiness in the Washington area. In 1907, pleased with the success of the trees, Fairchild, friends of family also became interested, and on September 26, arrangements were completed with the Chevy Chase Land Company to order 300 Oriental cherry trees for the Chevy Chase area. In 1908, Fairchild gave cherry saplings to boys from school in the District to plant in schoolyards on Arbor Day. In closing his Arbor Day speech, Fairchild expressed a vision that the Speedway be transformed into a Field of Cherries, in attendance was Eliza Scidmore, whom afterwards he referred to as a great authority on Japan. In 1909, Scidmore decided to try to raise the required to purchase the cherry trees. Two days later, the First Lady responded, The White House, of course, they could not reflect in the water, but the effect would be very lovely of the long avenue. Let me know what you think about this, when told Washington was to have Japanese cherry trees planted along the Speedway, he asked whether the First Lady would accept a donation of an additional 2,000 trees. Midzuno thought it was an idea and suggested the trees be given in the name of the capital city of Tokyo. Takamine and Midzuno met with the Helen Taft, who accepted the offer, the trees were planted along the Potomac River from the present site of the Lincoln Memorial south toward East Potomac Park. After planting, it was discovered that the trees were not correctly named, and were not of the Fugnezo variety, but instead of the Shirofugen cultivar. Some months later, on August 30, the Japanese embassy informed the U. S. Department of State that Tokyo intended to donate 2,000 cherry trees to the United States to be planted along the Potomac River
34.
Tidal Basin
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The Tidal Basin is a partially man-made reservoir between the Potomac River and the Washington Channel in Washington, D. C. It is part of West Potomac Park and is a point of the National Cherry Blossom Festival held each spring. The Jefferson Memorial, the Martin Luther King, Jr, National Memorial, the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, and the George Mason Memorial are situated adjacent to the Tidal Basin. The basin covers an area of about 107 acres and is 10 feet deep, peter Conover Hains, an engineering officer in the U. S. Army, oversaw the design and construction. The basin was initially named Twining Lake, in honor of Major William Johnson Twining, a 1917 Army Corps of Engineers map of Washington already shows the basin with the name Twining Lake. The Tidal Basin which exists today was not laid out until after World War II and it was built in 1949 by the construction firm of Alexander and Repass, which was unusual at that time because Alexander was of African descent and Repass was of European descent. The basin is designed to release 250 million US gallons of water captured at high tide twice a day, the inlet gates, located on the Potomac side of the basin, allow water to enter the basin during high tide. During this time, the gates, on the Washington Channel side, close to store incoming water and block the flow of water. As the tide begins to ebb, the outflow of water from the basin forces the inlet gates to close. This same force is applied to the gates, which open into the channel. Silt build up is swept away by the force of water running from the Tidal Basin through the channel. The gates are maintained as navigable by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, the bridge was designed by Paul Cret, begun in 1941, completed 1943 and altered with dedication in 1954. It is of concrete and steel on pilings, all granite faced, as part of the restoration and redesign of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, completed in 2012, water is pumped from the Tidal Basin to fill the pool. The Tidal Basin was the scene of a drunken incident involving the Chairman of the U. S. House of Representatives Committee on Ways and Means. Mills was intoxicated and his face was cut from a scuffle with Foxe, when police approached the car, Foxe leapt from the car and jumped into the nearby Tidal Basin. Despite the scandal, Mills was re-elected to Congress in November 1974 with 60% of the vote, soon after this second embarrassment Mills was forced to step down from his chairmanship of the Ways and Means Committee. Mills eventually acknowledged his alcoholism, sought treatment at the West Palm Beach Institute and he did not seek re-election in 1976. From mid-March until October, paddle-boats are available for rent, the activity is very popular during the Cherry Blossom Festival, which takes place in April
35.
Populus
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Populus is a genus of 25–35 species of deciduous flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. English names variously applied to different species include poplar /ˈpɒp. lər/, aspen, in the September 2006 issue of Science Magazine, the Joint Genome Institute announced that the western balsam poplar was the first tree whose full DNA code had been determined by DNA sequencing. The genus has a genetic diversity, and can grow from 15–50 m tall. The shoots are stout, with the terminal bud present, leaf size is very variable even on a single tree, typically with small leaves on side shoots, and very large leaves on strong-growing lead shoots. The leaves often turn bright gold to yellow before they fall during autumn, the flowers are mostly dioecious and appear in early spring before the leaves. They are borne in long, drooping, sessile or pedunculate catkins produced from buds formed in the axils of the leaves of the previous year. The flowers are each seated in a disk which is borne on the base of a scale which is itself attached to the rachis of the catkin. The scales are obovate, lobed, and fringed, membranous, hairy or smooth, the female flower also has no calyx or corolla, and comprises a single-celled ovary seated in a cup-shaped disk. The style is short, with two to four stigmata, variously lobed, and numerous ovules, pollination is by wind, with the female catkins lengthening considerably between pollination and maturity. Poplars of the section are often wetlands or riparian trees. The aspens are among the most important boreal broadleaf trees, Poplars and aspens are important food plants for the larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera species. Pleurotus populinus, the oyster mushroom, is found exclusively on dead wood of Populus trees in North America. The genus Populus has traditionally divided into six sections on the basis of leaf and flower characters. Recent genetic studies have supported this, confirming some previously suspected reticulate evolution due to past hybridisation and introgression events between the groups. Some species had differing relationships indicated by their nuclear DNA and chloroplast DNA sequences and they have the advantage of growing to a very large size at a rapid pace. Almost all poplars take root readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on the ground, trees with fastigiate branching are particularly popular, and are widely grown across Europe and southwest Asia. Common poplar varieties are, G48 w22 The trees are grown from kalam or cuttings, harvested annually in January and February, most commonly used to make plywood, Yamuna Nagar in Haryana state has a large plywood industry reliant upon poplar. It is graded according to known as over, under
36.
Willow
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Most species are known as willow, but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called osier, and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow. Some willows are low-growing or creeping shrubs, for example, the dwarf willow rarely exceeds 6 cm in height, though it spreads widely across the ground. Willows all have abundant watery bark sap, which is charged with salicylic acid, soft, usually pliant, tough wood, slender branches. The roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and tenacity to life, the leaves are typically elongated, but may also be round to oval, frequently with serrated edges. Most species are deciduous, semievergreen willows with coriaceous leaves are rare, e. g. Salix micans, all the buds are lateral, no absolutely terminal bud is ever formed. The buds are covered by a single scale, usually, the bud scale is fused into a cap-like shape, but in some species it wraps around and the edges overlap. The leaves are simple, feather-veined, and typically linear-lanceolate, usually they are serrate, rounded at base, acute or acuminate. The leaf petioles are short, the often very conspicuous, resembling tiny, round leaves. On some species, however, they are small, inconspicuous, in color, the leaves show a great variety of greens, ranging from yellowish to bluish. Willows are dioecious, with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on separate plants and this scale is square, entire, and very hairy. The anthers are rose-colored in the bud, but orange or purple after the flower opens, they are two-celled, the filaments are threadlike, usually pale brown, and often bald. The ovary is one-celled, the style two-lobed, and the ovules numerous, almost all willows take root very readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on the ground. The few exceptions include the willow and peachleaf willow. One famous example of such growth from cuttings involves the poet Alexander Pope and this twig was planted and thrived, and legend has it that all of Englands weeping willows are descended from this first one. Willows are often planted on the borders of streams so their interlacing roots may protect the bank against the action of the water, frequently, the roots are much larger than the stem which grows from them. Willows are very cross-compatible, and numerous hybrids occur, both naturally and in cultivation, a well-known ornamental example is the weeping willow, which is a hybrid of Peking willow from China and white willow from Europe. The hybrid cultivar Boydii has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, Willows are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, such as the mourning cloak butterfly. Ants, such as ants, are common on willows inhabited by aphids, coming to collect aphid honeydew
37.
Streetcars in Washington, D.C.
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For just under 100 years, between 1862 and 1962, streetcars in Washington, D. C. transported people across the city and region. The first streetcars in Washington, D. C, several of the Districts streetcar lines were extended into Maryland, and two Virginia lines crossed into the District. For a brief time, the city experimented with cable cars, but by the beginning of the 20th century, a bit later, the extensive mergers dubbed the Great Streetcar Consolidation gathered most local transit firms into two major companies. In 1933, all streetcars were brought under one company, Capital Transit, the streetcars began to scale back with the rising popularity of the automobile and pressure to switch to buses. After a strike in 1955, the company changed ownership and became DC Transit, the system was dismantled in the early 1960s and the last streetcar ran on January 28,1962. Today streetcars, car barns, trackage, stations and right-of-way of the system still exist in various states of usage, tracks are still visible on 3200 to 3400 blocks of O st NW and P st NW. Public transportation began in Washington, D. C. almost as soon as the city was founded, service ended soon after it began. The next attempt at public transit arrived in the spring of 1830, the company maintained stables on M Street, NW. These lines were extended down 11th Street SE to the waterfront. Vanderwerkens success attracted competitors, who added new lines, but by 1854, in 1860, these two merged under the control of Vanderwerken and continued to operate until they were run out of business by the next new technology, streetcars. The technology began to spread and on May 17,1862, the first Washington, D. C. streetcar company, the company ran the first streetcar in Washington D. C. from the Capitol to the State Department starting on July 29,1862. It expanded to full operations from the Navy Yard to Georgetown on October 2,1862, another line opened on November 15,1862. It was built along 7th Street NW from N Street NW to the Potomac River, a third line ran down 14th Street NW from Boundary Street NW to the Treasury Building. In 1863 the 7th Street line was extended north to Boundary Street NW, the Washington and Georgetowns monopoly didnt last long. On July 1,1864, a streetcar company, the Metropolitan Railroad, was incorporated. It opened lines from the Capitol to the War Department along H Street NW, in 1872, it built a line on 9th Street NW and purchased the Union Railroad. It used the Unions charter to expand into Georgetown, in 1873 it purchased the Boundary and Silver Spring Railway and used its charter to build north on what is now Georgia Avenue. In June 1874, it absorbed the Connecticut Avenue and Park Railway, by 1888, it had built additional lines down 4th Street NW/SW to P Street SW, and on East Capitol Street to 9th Street
38.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
39.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
40.
McMillan Plan
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The McMillan Plan is a comprehensive planning document for the development of the monumental core and the park system of Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States. It was written in 1902 by the Senate Park Commission, the commission is popularly known as the McMillan Commission after its chairman, Senator James McMillan of Michigan. The plan also proposed tearing down the railroad passenger station on the National Mall. Major new parkways would connect these parks as well as link the city to nearby attractions, never formally adopted by the United States government, the McMillan Plan was implemented piecemeal in the decades after its release. The location of the Lincoln Memorial, Ulysses S. Grant Memorial, Union Station, proposals to construct Arlington Memorial Bridge received a major boost from the plan as well. The plan presented at that meeting by Washington-based architect Paul J, McMillan Commission members included architect Daniel Burnham, landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and architect Charles F. McKim. Charles Moore, Senator McMillans chief aide, became secretary of the commission, sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens joined the commission as its last member in August 1901 at the suggestion of McKim. The commission members and Moore departed for Europe on June 13,1901, to tour the continents great manor homes, gardens, by the time the commission returned to the United States on August 1, Moore had become a de facto member of the commission. The commission sponsored an exhibit about their proposals at the Corcoran Gallery of Art on January 15,1902. President Theodore Roosevelt attended the exhibits opening, the exhibit was dominated by two vast models of the District of Columbia, one showing it as it existed in 1901 and the other showing the changes proposed by the Senate Park Commission. Seventy-one of the reports pages discussed proposals for the National Mall, while the remaining 100 pages discussed improvements for the system in. The proposals for the National Mall received the greatest attention from the commission, the proposals for the citys parks, beaches, and recreational facilities were treated in more general ways. The report proposed turning the National Mall into the core of the growing city, a cruciform design for the Mall was proposed. The United States Capitol building anchored the east end of the east–west axis, in the center was the Washington Monument. The recently completed West Potomac Park would be the anchor for the west end of the east–west axis. The recently created East Potomac Park would anchor the end of the north–south axis. The width of the Mall, determined after extensive on-site measurements, the north and south sides of the National Mall were to be lined with low public office buildings, museums, and cultural attractions. The plan also suggested constructing a low, Beaux-Arts bridge linking West Potomac Park with Arlington National Cemetery, around the base of the Washington Monument, new formal gardens and terraces would help to frame the base of the monument
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James McMillan (politician)
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James McMillan was a businessman and a Republican U. S. McMillan was born in Hamilton, Ontario to William and Grace McMillan and he attended Hamilton public schools before moving to Detroit, Michigan in 1855 to embark on a career in business. McMillans first position was as a clerk for Buhl, Ducharme & Co. a wholesale hardware firm, at the age of 20, he left to become the purchasing agent for the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway. In 1863, he helped, along with John Stoughton Newberry and this business grew very rapidly, and in ten years it was one of the largest in the United States. Its success led to the formation of the Detroit Car Wheel Co. the Baugh Steam Forge Co. the Detroit Iron Furnace Co. McMillan later built and became president of the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railway. He was largely interested in shipbuilding and lake transportation companies and he was one of the largest owners of the Detroit and Cleveland Steam Navigation Co. and the Detroit Transportation Co. and was a director of several banks in Detroit. For three years he was president of the Detroit Board of Park Commissioners and for four years a member of the Detroit Board of Estimates, in 1886 he joined with John S. Newberry in contributing $100,000 each for the establishment and maintenance of a hospital in Detroit. McMillan was the person to be elected Chairman of the Michigan Republican Party three non-consecutive times. He was an elector on the Republican ticket in 1884. He was elected as a Republican to the United States Senate in 1889 and was reelected in 1895 and 1901, serving from March 4,1889, until his death. He was a dominant figure in the party, leading the business interests especially in opposition to Progressive reformer Governor Hazen S. Pingree in 1897-1900, the McMillan Reservoir and the McMillan Sand Filtration Site in DC also bear his name. McMillan died in Manchester, Massachusetts and is interred in Elmwood Cemetery and he was survived by his wife Mary and their six children, William Charles, Grace Fisher, James Howard, Amy, Philip Hamilton and Francis Wetmore. Michigan Historical Review 28, 78-113 online Drutchas, Geoffrey G, the Man With a Capital Design. Senator James McMillan and the Flowering of the Spoils System, in Memory of Hon. James McMillan, Senator in the Congress of the United States from Michigan. Lansing, R. Smith Printing Co.1903, James M’Millan, United States Senator from Michigan. Memorial Addresses Delivered in the Senate and House of Representatives, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. The Political Graveyard Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, James McMillan late a senator from Michigan Memorial addresses delivered in the House of Representatives and Senate frontispiece 1903
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Plant nursery
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A nursery is a place where plants are propagated and grown to usable size. Some retail and wholesale nurseries sell by mail, nurseries may supply plants for gardens, for agriculture, for forestry and for conservation biology. Some nurseries specialize in one phase of the process, propagation, growing out, or retail sale, or in one type of plant, e. g. groundcovers, shade plants, or rock garden plants. Some produce bulk stock, whether seedlings or grafted, of particular varieties for purposes such as trees for orchards. Nurseries can grow plants in open fields, on container fields, in open fields nurseries grow ornamental trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials, especially the plants meant for the wholesale trade or for amenity plantings. On a containerfield nurseries grow small trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, nurseries also grow plants in greenhouses, a building of glass or in plastic tunnels, designed to protect young plants from harsh weather, while allowing access to light and ventilation. Modern greenhouses allow automated control of temperature, ventilation and light, some also have fold-back roofs to allow hardening-off of plants without the need for manual transfer to outdoor beds. Although some processes have been mechanised and automated, others have not, a UK nurseryman has estimated that manpower accounts for 70% of his production costs. Picking merely requires selection of a batch and manual quality control before dispatch, in other cases, a high loss rate during maturation is accepted for the reduction in detailed plant maintenance costs. Business is highly seasonal, concentrated in spring and autumn, there is no guarantee that there will be demand for the product - this will be affected by temperature, drought, cheaper foreign competition, fashion, among other things. Annuals are sold in trays, flats, peat pots, or plastic pots, perennials and woody plants are sold either in pots, bare-root or balled and burlapped and in a variety of sizes, from liners to mature trees. Balled and Burlap trees are dug either by hand or by a loader that has a tree spade attachment on the front of the machine. Although container grown plants are becoming more and more popular due to the versatility. Plants may be propagated by seeds, but often desirable cultivars are propagated asexually, the most common method is by cuttings. These can be taken from shoot tips or parts of stems with a node or from older stems, herbaceous perennials are also often propagated by root cuttings or division. For plants on a rootstock grafting or budding is used, older techniques like layering are sometimes used for crops which are difficult to propagate. With the objective of fitting planting stock more ably to withstand stresses after outplanting, buse and Day, for instance, studied the effect of conditioning of white spruce and black spruce transplants on their morphology, physiology, and subsequent performance after outplanting. Root pruning, wrenching, and fertilization with potassium at 375 kg/ha were the treatments applied
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Cherry blossom
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A cherry blossom is the flower of any of several trees of genus Prunus, particularly the Japanese cherry, Prunus serrulata, which is called sakura after the Japanese. Currently it is distributed, especially in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere including Japan, China, Korea, Europe, West Siberia, India, Canada. Along with the chrysanthemum, the blossom is considered the national flower of Japan. Many of the varieties that have cultivated for ornamental use do not produce fruit. Edible cherries generally come from cultivars of the related species Prunus avium, Cherry blossom are also closely related to other Prunus trees such as the almond, peach, plum and apricot and more distantly to apples, pears and roses. Hanami is the practice of picnicking under a blooming sakura or ume tree. The custom is said to have started during the Nara Period when it was ume blossoms that people admired in the beginning, but by the Heian Period, cherry blossoms came to attract more attention and hanami was synonymous with sakura. From then on, in both waka and haiku, flowers meant cherry blossoms, the custom was originally limited to the elite of the Imperial Court, but soon spread to samurai society and, by the Edo period, to the common people as well. Tokugawa Yoshimune planted areas of cherry trees to encourage this. Under the sakura trees, people had lunch and drank sake in cheerful feasts, the blossoming begins in Okinawa in January and typically reaches Kyoto and Tokyo at the end of March or the beginning of April. It proceeds into areas at the altitudes and northward, arriving in Hokkaidō a few weeks later. Japanese pay close attention to these forecasts and turn out in numbers at parks, shrines. Hanami festivals celebrate the beauty of the blossom and for many are a chance to relax. The custom of hanami dates back centuries in Japan. The eighth-century chronicle Nihon Shoki records hanami festivals being held as early as the third century AD, most Japanese schools and public buildings have cherry blossom trees outside of them. Since the fiscal and school year both begin in April, in parts of Honshū, the first day of work or school coincides with the cherry blossom season. The Japan Cherry Blossom Association developed a list of Japans Top 100 Cherry Blossom Spots with at least one location in every prefecture, the association of the cherry blossom with mono no aware dates back to 18th-century scholar Motoori Norinaga. There is at least one popular song, originally meant for the shakuhachi, titled Sakura
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National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
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Public toilet
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A public toilet is a room or small building containing one or more toilets which is available for use by the general public, or by customers or employees of certain businesses. Public toilets are commonly separated into male and female facilities, although some can be unisex, increasingly, public toilets are accessible to people with disabilities. Public toilets may either be used free of charge or the user may be charged a fee, in the latter case they are also called pay toilets and sometimes have of a coin-operated turnstile. Public toilets may be provided by the authority or by a commercial business. They may be unattended or be staffed by a janitor or attendant, in many cultures, it is customary to tip the attendant, especially if they provide a grooming service, such as at upscale nightclubs or restaurants. Portable toilets are provided at large outdoor events. In many Asian, African and Muslim countries, public toilets are of the squat type, Public toilets are known by many names in different varieties of English. One of the more formal circumlocutions is public convenience, as in the Guilford Place public conveniences, in American English, restroom usually denotes a toilet facility designed for use by the public. However, bathroom is also commonly used, comfort station sometimes refers to a visitor welcome center such as those found in national parks. In Canadian English, public facilities are always called washrooms, the word toilet generally denotes the fixture itself rather than the room. The word washroom is never used to mean utility room or mud room as it is in parts the United States. Bathroom is generally used to refer to the room in the home contains a bath or shower. In Britain, Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, and New Zealand, the terms in use are public toilet, public lavatory and more informally, public loo. A bathroom is a room containing a bath, a washroom is a room for washing hands, as public toilets were traditionally signed as Gentlemen or Ladies, the colloquial terms the Gents and the Ladies indicates the facility itself. The British Toilet Association, sponsor of the Loo of the Year Award, in Philippine English, comfort room, or C. R. is the most common term in use. In continental Europe, both toilet, a translation of the French les toilettes, and WC are common, mosques, madrassas and other places Muslims gather, have public sex-segregated wash rooms since Islam requires specific procedures for cleansing parts of the body before prayer. These rooms normally adjoin the toilets, which are subject to Muslim hygienical jurisprudence. Many public toilets are permanent small buildings visible to passersby on the street, others are underground, including older facilities in Britain and Canada
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Franklin Square (Washington, D.C.)
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Franklin Square is a square in downtown Washington, D. C. Named after Benjamin Franklin, it is bounded by K Street NW to the north, 13th Street NW on the east, I Street NW on the south and it is served by the McPherson Square station of the Washington Metro, which is located just southwest of the park. The park is terraced, and slopes uphill from I Street to K Street. There are many trees, a significant quantity of grass, many benches. There is also a statue of Commodore John Barry on the west side of the park, preservation League, Franklin Square was originally the site of several natural springs. The 1791 L’Enfant Plan did not single out the now occupied by Franklin Park for any special use and it wasnt until 1832 that the government purchased the square. There is no proof that the park was named for Benjamin Franklin. The park remained largely unimproved until the 1870s, landscaping, benches, and paths were added at that time, and in the 1800s. The parks last major renovation came in 1935, when the Public Works Administration gave the city $75,000 to improve Franklin Square, the fountain, a flagstone plaza, a geometric system of concrete pathways, and new trees were planted. Although a major refurbishment of the paths, fountain, and plaza occurred in 1976 as part of the United States Bicentennial, the 4.79 acres that comprise Franklin Square are managed by the National Park Service. By 2012, the square was in significant need of repair, the pathways were broken, workers in nearby buildings had worn paths through the grass to cut across the square more efficiently, and large numbers of homeless individuals camped there. In March 2013, the D. C. government issued a request for proposals to redesign Franklin Square so that it could accommodate multiple recreational activities, the RFP requested that any redesign include flexible seating, food kiosks, public restrooms, and an enhanced landscape design. The city set aside $300,000 for the design work, across 13th Street on the east side of the square is the historic Franklin School, which was a model of advanced design in its day and the scene of Alexander Graham Bells first wireless message. On June 3,1880, Bell sent a message over a beam of light to a window in a building at 1325 L Street, until recently the school served as a homeless shelter. The remaining residents were evicted on September 26,2008, clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross maintained a residence adjacent to the park at 1326 I Street, where she held the first official meeting of the relief organization in May 1881. One Franklin Square, directly north of the square, is a new building. Nobel Laureate Charles Townes has said that he conceived the theory behind the principle while sitting on a bench in the square. The square figures prominently in Dan Browns 2009 thriller The Lost Symbol, in 1993 served as the filming location for several scenes from James Camerons film True Lies starring Arnold Schwarzenegger
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Cinder
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A cinder is a pyroclastic material. Cinders are similar to pumice, which has so many cavities and is such low-density that it can float on water, Cinder is typically brown, black, or red depending on its chemical content. A more modern name for cinder is scoria, contain numerous gas bubbles frozen into place as magma exploded into the air and then cooled quickly. Cinders have been used on surfaces and roads to provide additional traction in winter conditions. Cinders are also employed as inorganic mulch in xeriscaping, because of excellent drainage properties, in this context, they are referred to frequently with the name lava rock. This is why cinder is used in roads, Cinder block Cinder cone Cinder track Lapilli Scoria Tephra Ye Olde Cinder House
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Boy Scouts of America
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The BSA was founded in 1910 and, since then, more than 110 million Americans have been participants in BSA programs at some time. The BSA is part of the international Scout Movement and became a member organization of the World Organization of the Scout Movement in 1922. In order to further these activities, the BSA has four high-adventure bases, Northern Tier, Philmont Scout Ranch, Sea Base. The traditional Scouting divisions are Cub Scouting for boys ages 7 to 10½ years, Boy Scouting for boys ages 10½ to 18, Learning for Life is a non-traditional subsidiary that provides in-school and career education. Units are led entirely by volunteers appointed by the chartering organization, the progressive movement in the United States was at its height during the early 20th century. With the migration of families from farms to cities, there were concerns among some people that men were no longer learning patriotism and individualism. The YMCA was a promoter of reforms for young men with a focus on social welfare and programs of mental, physical, social. In 1907, Robert Baden-Powell, founded the Scouting movement in England using elements of Setons works among other influences, several Scout programs for boys started independently in the US. Many of these Scout programs in the US merged with the BSA.52 In 1909, Chicago publisher W. D. Boyce was visiting London, Boyce was lost on a foggy street when an unknown Scout came to his aid, guiding him to his destination. The boy then refused Boyces tip, explaining that he was a Boy Scout and was doing his daily good turn. Interested in the Boy Scouts, Boyce met with staff at the Boy Scouts Headquarters and, by some accounts, upon his return to the US, Boyce incorporated the Boy Scouts of America on February 8,1910. Edgar M. Robinson and Lee F. Hanmer became interested in the nascent BSA, Robinson enlisted Seton, Beard, Charles Eastman, and other prominent leaders in the early youth movements. Former president Theodore Roosevelt, who had complained of the decline in American manhood. The current mission statement of the BSA is to young people to make ethical and moral choices over their lifetimes by instilling in them the values of the Scout Oath. The BSA holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, on behalf of the BSA, Paul Sleman, Colin H. Livingstone, Ernest S. Martin, and James E. West successfully lobbied Congress for a charter for the BSA which President Woodrow Wilson signed on June 15,1916. The special recognition neither implies nor accords Congress any special control over the BSA, in the BSA, Scouting is considered to be one movement with four main programs, Cub Scouting is available to boys from first to fifth-grade or 7 to 11 years. Boy Scouting is the program of the BSA generally for boys ages 11 to 18
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Victory garden
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They were used along with Rationing Stamps and Cards to reduce pressure on the public food supply. This made victory gardens a part of life on the home front. World War II Victory Gardens became popular in Canada in 1917, under the Ministry of Agricultures campaign, A Vegetable Garden for Every Home, residents of cities, towns and villages utilized backyard spaces to plant vegetables for personal use and war effort. In the city of Toronto, ladies organizations brought expert gardeners into the schools to get school children, in addition to gardening, home owners were encouraged to keep hens in their yards for the purpose of collecting eggs. The result was large production of potatoes, beets, cabbage, in March 1917, Charles Lathrop Pack organized the US National War Garden Commission and launched the war garden campaign. Food production had fallen dramatically during World War I, especially in Europe, the campaign promoted the cultivation of available private and public lands, resulting in over five million gardens in the USA and foodstuff production exceeding $1.2 billion by the end of the war. President Woodrow Wilson said that Food will win the war, to support the home garden effort, a United States School Garden Army was launched through the Bureau of Education, and funded by the War Department at Wilsons direction. Australia launched a Dig for Victory campaign in 1942 as rationing, the situation began to ease in 1943, however, home gardens continued throughout the war. In Britain, digging for victory used much land such as ground, railway edges, ornamental gardens and lawns, sports fields. Sometimes a sports field was left as it was but used for sheep-grazing instead of being mown, county Herb Committees were established to collect medicinal herbs when German blockades created shortages, for instance in Digitalis purpurea which was used to regulate heartbeat. Victory gardens were planted in backyards and on apartment-building rooftops, with the vacant lot commandeered for the war effort. And put to use as a cornfield or a squash patch, during World War II, sections of lawn were publicly plowed for plots in Hyde Park, London to promote the movement. Amid regular rationing of food in Britain, the United States Department of Agriculture encouraged the planting of victory gardens during the course of World War II, around one third of the vegetables produced by the United States came from victory gardens. By May 1943, there were 18 million victory gardens in the United States -12 million in cities and 6 million on farms. Fruit and vegetables harvested in these home and community plots was estimated to be 9,000, 000–10,000,000 short tons in 1944, an amount equal to all commercial production of fresh vegetables. In New York City, the lawns around vacant Riverside were devoted to victory gardens, the slogan grow your own, can your own, was a slogan that started at the time of the war and referred to families growing and canning their own food in victory gardens. In 1946, with the war over, many British residents did not plant victory gardens, however, shortages remained in the United Kingdom, and rationing remained in place for at least some food items until 1954. Land at the centre of the Sutton Garden Suburb in Sutton, London was first put to use as a garden during World War II
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Golf course
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A golf course is the grounds where the game of golf is played. It comprises a series of holes, each consisting of a ground, a fairway, the rough and other hazards. A standard round of golf consists of 18 holes, most courses contain 18 holes, some share fairways or greens, and a subset has nine holes, played twice per round. Par-3 courses consist of nine or 18 holes all of which have a par of three strokes, many older courses are links, often coastal. Courses are private, public, and municipally owned, and typically feature a pro shop, many private courses are found at country clubs. Although a specialty within landscape design or landscape architecture, golf course architecture is considered a field of study. While golf courses often follow the landscape, some modification is unavoidable. This is increasingly the case as new courses are likely to be sited on less optimal land. Bunkers and sand traps are almost always artificial, although other hazards may be natural, the layout of a fairway follows certain traditional principles, such as the number of holes, their par values, and the number of holes of each par value per course. It is also preferable to arrange greens to be close to the tee box of the next hole, to minimize travel distance while playing a round. Combined with the need to all the fairways within what is frequently a compact square or rectangular plot of land. In complex areas, two holes may share the same tee box, fairway, or even green and it is also common for separate tee-off points to be positioned for men, women, and amateurs, each one respectively lying closer to the green. Eighteen-hole courses are traditionally broken down into a front 9 and a back 9. On older courses, the holes may be out in one long loop, beginning and ending at the clubhouse, and thus the front 9 is referred to on the scorecard as out. More recent courses tend to be designed with the front 9, a successful design is as visually pleasing as it is playable. Most golf courses have only par-3, -4, and -5 holes, typical distances for the various holes from standard tees are as follows. Terrain can also be a factor, so that a long downhill hole might be rated par 4 and this compensates for the generally longer distance pro players can put on tee and fairway shots as compared to the average bogey golfer. The game of golf is played in what is called a round and this consists of playing a set number of holes in an order predetermined by the course
