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Eastern green mamba

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Eastern green mamba
Mamba Dendroaspis angusticeps.jpg
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Dendroaspis
Species:
D. angusticeps
Binomial name
Dendroaspis angusticeps
(A. Smith, 1849)[1]
D-angusticeps-range.png
Eastern green mamba geographic range
Synonyms[3]

The eastern green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps) is a highly venomous snake species of the mamba genus Dendroaspis native to the coastal regions of southern East Africa. It was first described by a Scottish surgeon and zoologist Andrew Smith in 1849; the species has a slender build with bright green upperparts and yellow-green underparts. The adult female averages around 2.0 metres (6.6 ft) in length, and male is slightly smaller.

A shy and elusive species, the eastern green mamba is rarely seen; this elusiveness is usually attributed to the species' green colouration which blends with its environment, and its arboreal lifestyle. However, the species has also been observed to use "sit-and-wait" or ambush predation like many vipers, unlike the active foraging style typical of other elapids; the eastern green mamba preys on birds, eggs, bats, and rodents such as mice, rats, and gerbils.

The eastern green mamba's venom consists of both neurotoxins and cardiotoxins; the toxicity of individual specimens can vary greatly based on several factors including geographical region, age, seasonal variation, diet, and so on. Symptoms of envenomation by this species include swelling of the bite site, dizziness and nausea, accompanied by difficulty breathing and swallowing, irregular heartbeat and convulsions progressing to respiratory paralysis. Bites that produce severe envenomation can be rapidly fatal.

Taxonomy[edit]

The eastern green mamba was first described as Naja angusticeps by a Scottish surgeon and zoologist, Andrew Smith in 1849, who reported it from Natal and points east;[4] the specific name angusticeps is derived from the Latin word angustus, "narrow",[5] and ceps, abbreviated form of caput "head" when used in a compound word.[6]

In 1896, Belgian-British zoologist George Albert Boulenger combined the species Dendroaspis angusticeps as a whole with the black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis),[7] a lumping diagnosis that remained in force until 1946 when South African herpetologist Vivian FitzSimons again split them into separate species.[8] A 2016 genetic analysis showed the eastern green and black mambas are each others' closest relatives, and are more distantly related to Jameson's mamba (Dendroaspis jamesoni).[9]

In addition to being called the eastern green mamba, this species is also commonly known as the common green mamba, East African green mamba, white-mouthed mamba, or just simply the green mamba.[10]

Description[edit]

An eastern green mamba

The eastern green mamba is a large, with a slightly compressed, and very slender bodied snake with a medium to moderately long tapering tail. Adult males average around 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) in total length, while females average 2.0 metres (6.6 ft) in total length. This species rarely exceeds lengths of 2.5 metres (8.2 ft). In general, the total length is 4-4.3 times the length of the tail.[11][12][13] The head is narrow, elongate, and coffin-shaped, with a distinct canthus which is slightly distinct from the neck; when threatened or otherwise aroused in some way, this species is capable of flattening its neck area, though no real hood is formed. The eastern green mamba has relatively long front fangs which are located at the proscenium end of the maxillary bone at the very front of the maxilla; these fangs can rotate on their axis with the prefrontal bone, giving this species more control over the movements of its fangs than in the case of other elapids. The maxillary bone has no other solid teeth; however, a pair of long, recurved, fang-like solid teeth, followed by a distinct interspace and numerous small teeth, are on the front of the lower jaw; the eyes are medium in size and the pupils round, in common with other elapids.[10][14]

Dorsal scales are oblique, smooth and narrow. Coloration in this species is bright green dorsally and pale yellow-green ventrally. Juveniles are blue-green, and develop the brighter green adult coloration in successive sheddings of the skin; the border of the pupil may have a narrow bright ochre to golden yellow edge, and the posterior border of the iris may become bright green. The inside of the mouth may be white or bluish white.[11][12]

Scalation[edit]

See also: Snake scale § Nomenclature of scales

The number and pattern of scales on a snake's body are a key element of identification to species level;[15] the head, body, and tail scalation of the eastern green mamba are as follows:[12]

Distribution and habitat[edit]

This species is native to more coastal regions of southern Africa and east Africa; the eastern green mamba's range extends from Kenya south through Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, eastern Zimbabwe, eastern Zambia into South Africa as far as southern Natal and northern Pondoland. It can also be found in Zanzibar.[10][11] In South Africa, its range is restricted to low altitude forests along the KwaZulu-Natal coastline, extending as far south as the extreme northeastern part of the Eastern Cape;[16] the South African population, together with one locality in southern Mozambique, is considered as an isolated unit.[17]

The eastern green mamba is primarily arboreal (living in trees), only rarely descending to the ground. An elusive snake due to its coloration, it is usually well camouflaged in trees or bushes, it is believed by some herpetologists that this species is limited to tropical rainforests in coastal lowlands,[18] however, according to other experts, this species can also be found in coastal bush, and dune and montane forest.[19] Unlike its close relative the black mamba (D. polylepis), this species is rarely found in open terrain and prefers relatively dense, well-shaded vegetation. In addition to wild forest habitats, this species is also commonly found in thickets and farm trees (such as citrus, mango, coconut, and cashew). In coastal east Africa they are known to enter houses and may even shelter in thatched roof dwellings. Specimens of this species have been found at elevations up to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) above sea level.[13]

Conservation status[edit]

The conservation status of Dendroaspis angusticeps has not been assessed by the IUCN; the eastern green mamba is, however, a fairly common species of snake throughout its range, and populations are believed to be stable. Large concentrations of two to three individuals per hectare have been documented in coastal Kenya and southern Tanzania, and in one instance a group of five eastern green mambas were seen in a single tree. Although populations of this species are stable, habitat destruction and deforestation may pose a possible threat to this species.[13]

Behaviour[edit]

A green mamba at a German serpentarium

The eastern green mamba is a diurnal, arboreal, and secretive species of snake, and it tends to spend most of its time above the ground in relatively dense brush, where it is well camouflaged;[13] this species is not commonly found on land unless motivated by thirst, prey, or the need to bask in the sun (thermoregulation).[20] It is an alert, nervous, excellent climber and extremely agile snake, it sleeps at night in a tree coiled up in leafy clumps rather than seeking a tree hollow (although sometimes found in them).[10] In a study of the movement patterns of two adult specimens of this species over a 27-day period, the researcher found that their activity range areas to be very low, comparable to other predators who ambush prey rather than actively hunt them; this is in contrast to most elapid species, including other mambas, who tend to actively hunt or forage for prey. The study's preliminary evidence sheds some light on this species' method of hunting prey and suggests that it may be an ambush predator due to the sit-and-wait behavior displayed. However, this evidence does not preclude active foraging by this species. A specimen systematically hunting a sleeping bat was observed by William York.[21] There is no evidence that the eastern green mamba migrates; in fact, this species is thought to be relatively sedentary, it can remain in the same location for days at a time, apparently moving most commonly to find food or mates. On average, individuals of this species move only about 5.4 metres (18 ft) per day.[18][21] Unlike its much larger cousin the black mamba, this mamba is shyer and not as aggressive or fearsome, it will avoid confrontation with humans or any other potential predators when possible, and will rather rely on its camouflage, or flee, than alert a potential threat of its presence. They are fast snakes, capable of moving 7 mph, they do not always strike, but under continuous harassment and provocation and especially if cornered, they may suddenly strike repeatedly in quick succession, often leading to severe envenomation.[20]

Reproduction[edit]

The eastern green mamba is solitary, except during breeding season, when they are most active and males engage in combat. Gravid females tend to be sedentary, but males will actively search out and court females during the long rainy season, which is between the months of April and June. Males have been observed engaging in agonistic behaviour and may fight each other over potential mating opportunities, or possibly to establish a dominance hierarchy. Typically, a male initiates a fight by moving on top of the other’s body and tongue-flicking, after which the two snakes “intertwine their necks and bodies, and push against each other” in an attempt to pin each other's head repeatedly to the ground. Male-male combat can last for several hours, but combat between males of this species don't ever include biting and the nature of the combat is never as aggressive and/or vicious as commonly seen among the eastern green mamba's much larger cousin, the black mamba. Males locate females by following a scent trail; the male courts the female by aligning his body along the female’s while rapidly tongue-flicking. Depending on whether the female is receptive to mating, she will lift her tail and cloacal juxtaposition will follow shortly. Courtship and mating take place in the trees, after which the female lays anywhere between 4-17 eggs (average of 10 to 15 eggs are laid), which occurs in the summer months of October and November;[18] the eggs are small and elongated, usually measuring 47–58x25–28 millimetres.[11][12] The eggs are usually laid in a hollow tree, among decaying vegetation, or leaf litter; the incubation period is 10 to 12 weeks. When the young emerge from the eggs, they are approximately 30 to 40 centimetres (12 to 16 in)[13] or around an average of 44 centimetres (17 in) in length[18] Individuals of this species usually reach adult coloration at a length of 75 centimetres (30 in)[11][12] Hatchlings tend to grow 50 to 80 centimetres (20 to 31 in) in length in the first year of life; as the hatchlings age, their growth rates decrease but they never completely stop growing.[18]

Lifespan[edit]

The longest living eastern green mamba was a captive specimen which lived for 18.8 years.[22] Another captive specimen lived for 14 years.[19] However, while it may be possible for wild specimens to live that long, they are thought to have shorter lifespans in general due to the threats of predation, habitat loss, disease, and other biological and environmental factors.

Diet[edit]

This mamba preys primarily on birds and their eggs as well as small mammals including bats, it is believed that this species eats arboreal lizards as well.[11][12] The preliminary evidence suggests that this species displays a sit-and-wait strategy of foraging. However, this evidence does not preclude active foraging by this species. One witness observed a specimen systematically hunt sleeping bats (J. Ashe, pers. comm. 1991).[21] They have also been known to raid the nests of young birds.[23] Sit-and-wait tactics may be successful with highly mobile prey, such as adult birds or rodents. Documented prey include the sombre greenbul, which occur in dense portions of natural and cultivated vegetation along Kenya's coastline. Ionides and Pitman (1965) reported a large Bushveld gerbil in the stomach of a green mamba in Tanzania. Although the Bushveld gerbil does not occur in Kenya, green mambas prey on any of the seven species of gerbil that inhabit various portions of its range.[21]

Predators[edit]

The eastern green mamba has a few natural predators. Humans, mongooses, snake eagles, and genets commonly prey on this species of mamba. Hornbills and other snakes tend to prey on juvenile green mambas.[21]

Venom[edit]

The eastern green mamba has a very rapid-acting venom.

The eastern green mamba is a highly venomous snake; the venom consists of both pre-synaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins (dendrotoxins), cardiotoxins, calcicludine, and fasciculins. The average venom yield per bite is 80 mg according to Engelmann and Obst (1981),[24] while Minton (1974) gives it a range of 60–95 mg (dry weight);[10] the subcutaneous LD50 is 1.3 mg/kg.[13] The LD50 in mice through the IV route is 0.45 mg/kg.[25] Like all other mamba species, the toxicity of individual specimens within the same species can vary greatly based on several factors including geographical region, age, seasonal variation, diet, and so on. Local swelling is variable and sometimes absent after mamba bites. However, patients bitten by the eastern green mamba develop swelling of the entire bitten limb and also show mild haemostatic disturbances (Warrell DA; MacKay et al. 1966). The rare cases of local tissue damage usually resulted from bites on the fingers or the use of a tight tourniquet;[26] this species has caused bites to humans and many of the bites attributed to this species have often resulted in fatalities. The mortality rate of untreated bites is unknown but is thought to be quite high.[10] Symptoms of envenomation by this species include swelling of the bite site, dizziness, and nausea, accompanied by difficulty breathing and swallowing, irregular heartbeat, convulsions, rapid progression to respiratory paralysis. Bites that produce severe envenomation can be rapidly fatal. Case reports of rapidly fatal outcomes, in as little as 30 minutes, have been recorded for this species.[13]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Dendroaspis angusticeps". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 30 October 2012.
  2. ^ Smith, A. 1849. Illustrations of the zoology of South Africa. Reptilia. Smith, Elder & Co. London
  3. ^ "Dendroaspis angusticeps (SMITH, 1849)". The Reptile Database. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
  4. ^ Smith, Andrew (1849). Illustrations of the zoology of South Africa, Reptilia. 4. London: Smith, Elder and Co. p. 70.
  5. ^ "Definition of "angustus"". Numen – The Latin Lexicon. http://latinlexicon.org/index.php. Retrieved 26 April 2014. External link in |publisher= (help)
  6. ^ Hall, Whitmore (1861). The principal roots and derivatives of the Latin language, with a display of their incorporation into English. London: Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts. p. 153.
  7. ^ Boulenger, George Albert (1896). Catalogue of the snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Printed by order of the Trustees British Museum (Natural History). Department of Zoology. p. 437.
  8. ^ Haagner, G. V.; Morgan, D. R. (1993). "The maintenance and propagation of the Black mamba Dendroaspis polylepis at the Manyeleti Reptile Centre, Eastern Transvaal". International Zoo Yearbook. 32 (1): 191–196. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.1993.tb03534.x.
  9. ^ Figueroa, A.; McKelvy, A. D.; Grismer, L. L.; Bell, C. D.; Lailvaux, S. P. (2016). A species-level phylogeny of extant snakes with description of a new colubrid subfamily and genus. PLoS ONE. 11. pp. e0161070. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1161070F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161070. ISBN 978-0-643-10674-1. PMC 5014348. PMID 27603205.
  10. ^ a b c d e f "Dendroaspis angusticeps". WCH Clinical Toxinology Resource. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
  11. ^ a b c d e f FitzSimons, Vivian F. M. (1970). A Field Guide to the Snakes of Southern Africa (Second ed.). HarperCollins. pp. 169–170. ISBN 978-0-00-212146-0.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Marais, J (2004). A Complete Guide to Snakes of Southern Africa. Cape Town: Random House Struik Publishers. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-1-8-6872-932-6.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g Spawls, S., Branch, B. (1995). The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Blandford. pp. 49–51. ISBN 978-0-88359-029-4.
  14. ^ Ernst, Carl H.; Zug, George R. (1996). Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington D.C., USA: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. ISBN 978-1-56098-648-5.
  15. ^ Hutchinson, Mark; Williams, Ian (2018). "Key to the Snakes of South Australia" (PDF). South Australian Museum. Government of South Australia. Retrieved 8 February 2019.
  16. ^ Alexander G. and Marais J (2007). A guide to the reptiles of southern Africa. Cape Town: Struik Publishers, Cape Town.
  17. ^ Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander and de Villiers (2014). Atlas and Red List of the Reptiles of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. p. 397. ISBN 978-1-919976-96-9.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ a b c d e Haagner, GV; Morgan, DR (January 1989). "The captive propagation of the Eastern green mamba Dendroaspis angusticeps". International Zoo Yearbook. 28 (1): 195–199. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.1989.tb03280.x.
  19. ^ a b Branch, B. (1988). Branch's Field Guide Snakes Reptiles Southern Africa. Curtis Publishing, Ralph. ISBN 978-0-88359-023-2.
  20. ^ a b O'Shea, Mark (12 September 2005). Venomous Snakes of the World. New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12436-0.
  21. ^ a b c d e Angilletta, MJ. (1994). "Sedentary behaviors by Green Mambas Dendroaspis angusticeps" (PDF). Herpetological Natural History. 2 (2): 105–111. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
  22. ^ "AnAge entry for Dendroaspis angusticeps". AnAge:The Animal Ageing and Longevity Database. Human Ageing Genomic Resources. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
  23. ^ Phelps, T. (1989). Poisonous Snakes. London: Blandford. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-71-372114-0.
  24. ^ Engelmann, Wolf-Eberhard (1981). Snakes: Biology, Behavior, and Relationship to Man. Leipzig; English version NY, USA: Leipzig Publishing; English version published by Exeter Books (1982). p. 51. ISBN 978-0-89673-110-3.
  25. ^ Department of the Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (2013). Venomous Snakes of the World: A Manual for Use by U.S. Amphibious Forces. Skyhorse Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-62087-623-7.
  26. ^ "WHO - Guidelines for the Prevention and Clinical Management of Snakebite in Africa". WHO Regional Office for Africa. World Health Organization. Retrieved 21 December 2011.

External links[edit]

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