1.
Jonathan Safran Foer
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Jonathan Safran Foer is an American novelist. He is best known for his novels Everything Is Illuminated, Extremely Loud & Incredibly Close and his most recent novel, Here I Am, was published in 2016. He teaches creative writing at New York University, Foer was born in Washington, D. C. Foer is the son in this Jewish family, his older brother, Franklin, is a former editor of The New Republic and his younger brother. Foer attended Georgetown Day School and in 1994 traveled to Israel with other North American Jewish teenagers in a program sponsored by Bronfman youth fellowships, Foer later recalled that she was the first person to ever make me think I should try to write in any sort of serious way. And my life changed after that. Oates served as the advisor to Foers senior thesis, an examination of the life of his maternal grandfather, for his thesis, Foer received Princetons Senior Creative Writing Thesis Prize. After graduating from Princeton, Foer attended briefly the Mount Sinai School of Medicine before dropping out to pursue his writing career, Foer graduated from Princeton in 1999 with a degree in philosophy, and traveled to Ukraine to expand his thesis. His Princeton thesis grew into a novel, Everything Is Illuminated, the book earned him a National Jewish Book Award and a Guardian First Book Award. Foer shared the PEN/Robert W. Bingham Prize with fellow authors Will Heinrich, in 2005, Liev Schreiber wrote and directed a film adaptation of the novel, which starred Elijah Wood. Foers second novel Extremely Loud & Incredibly Close, was published in 2005, in it, Foer used 9/11 as a backdrop for the story of 9-year-old Oskar Schell, who learns how to deal with the death of his father in the World Trade Center. The novel used writing techniques known as visual writing and it follows multiple but interconnected storylines, is peppered with photographs of doorknobs and other such oddities, and ends with a 14-page flipbook. Foers use of these resulted in both praise and excoriation from critics. Warner Bros. and Paramount turned the novel into a film, produced by Scott Rudin, in 2005, Foer wrote the libretto for an opera titled Seven Attempted Escapes From Silence, which premiered at the Berlin State Opera on September 14,2005. In 2006, he recorded the narration for the documentary If This is Kosher, an exposé of the kosher certification process that advocates Jewish vegetarianism. In spring 2008, Foer taught writing for the first time as a professor of fiction at Yale University. He is currently a writer-in-residence in the creative writing program at New York University. Foer published his novel, Tree of Codes, in November 2010
2.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
3.
Library of Congress Classification
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The Library of Congress Classification is a system of library classification developed by the Library of Congress. It is used by most research and academic libraries in the U. S. the Classification is also distinct from Library of Congress Subject Headings, the system of labels such as Boarding schools and Boarding schools—Fiction that describe contents systematically. The classification was invented by Herbert Putnam in 1897, just before he assumed the librarianship of Congress, with advice from Charles Ammi Cutter, it was influenced by his Cutter Expansive Classification, the Dewey Decimal System, and the Putnam Classification System. It was designed specifically for the purposes and collection of the Library of Congress to replace the fixed location system developed by Thomas Jefferson, by the time Putnam departed from his post in 1939, all the classes except K and parts of B were well developed. LCC has been criticized for lacking a theoretical basis, many of the classification decisions were driven by the practical needs of that library rather than epistemological considerations. Although it divides subjects into broad categories, it is essentially enumerative in nature and that is, it provides a guide to the books actually in one librarys collections, not a classification of the world. In 2007 the Wall Street Journal reported that in the countries it surveyed most public libraries, the National Library of Medicine classification system uses the initial letters W and QS–QZ, which are not used by LCC. Some libraries use NLM in conjunction with LCC, eschewing LCCs R for Medicine, others use LCCs QP–QR schedules and include Medicine R. Subclass AC – Collections. Collected works Subclass AE – Encyclopedias Subclass AG – Dictionaries and other reference works Subclass AI – Indexes Subclass AM – Museums. Collectors and collecting Subclass AN – Newspapers Subclass AP – Periodicals Subclass AS – Academies, directories Subclass AZ – History of scholarship and learning. The humanities Subclass B – Philosophy Subclass BC – Logic Subclass BD – Speculative philosophy Subclass BF – Psychology Subclass BH – Aesthetics Subclass BJ – Ethics Subclass BL – Religions, rationalism Subclass BM – Judaism Subclass BP – Islam. Seals Subclass CE – Technical Chronology, calendar Subclass CJ – Numismatics Subclass CN – Inscriptions. Former Soviet Republics – Poland Subclass DL – Northern Europe, maps Subclass GA – Mathematical geography. Cartography Subclass GB – Physical geography Subclass GC – Oceanography Subclass GE – Environmental Sciences Subclass GF – Human ecology, anthropogeography Subclass GN – Anthropology Subclass GR – Folklore Subclass GT – Manners and customs Subclass GV – Recreation. Leisure Subclass H – Social sciences Subclass HA – Statistics Subclass HB – Economic theory, demography Subclass HC – Economic history and conditions Subclass HD – Industries. Labor Subclass HE – Transportation and communications Subclass HF – Commerce Subclass HG – Finance Subclass HJ – Public finance Subclass HM – Sociology Subclass HN – Social history, Social reform Subclass HQ – The family. Marriage, Women and Sexuality Subclass HS – Societies, secret, benevolent, races Subclass HV – Social pathology. Municipal government Subclass JV – Colonies and colonization, International migration Subclass JX – International law, see JZ and KZ Subclass JZ – International relations Subclass K – Law in general
4.
2009 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 2009. April 21 – UNESCO launches the World Digital Library, may 1 – Carol Ann Duffy is appointed Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, the first woman appointed to the position, she is also the first Scot and the first openly gay occupant of the post. May 5 – Posthumous publication of J. R. R. Tolkiens narrative poem The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún in alliterative verse based on the 13th century Poetic Edda and probably written in the 1930s. August 10 – Standard orthography for writing in the Silesian language is adopted in Cieszyn, october 8 – Romanian-born German novelist Herta Müller wins the 2009 Nobel Prize in Literature. November 10 – Linden MacIntyre wins the 2009 Scotiabank Giller Prize for his novel The Bishops Man, australian publishers Allen & Unwin announce the suspension of their annual Iremonger Award, on the grounds that no manuscript of sufficient merit has been submitted. Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm-Zentrum library opens at Humboldt University of Berlin, hajime Asano and Seiji Kikuchi – Mayo Chiki. Reif Larsen – The Selected Works of T. S. Spivet Peter Lerangis – The Sword Thief D. J, machale – The Soldiers of Halla Joshua Mowll et al. Michael Crichton – Pirate Latitudes Andrew Hussie – Homestuck J. C. Hutchins – 7th Son, Book One, Descent Robert Jordan, edna Staebler Award for Creative Non-Fiction, Russell Wangersky, Burning Down the House Governor Generals Awards, Multiple categories, see 2009 Governor Generals Awards
5.
Nonprofit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
6.
Sustainable agriculture
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Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways based on an understanding of ecosystem services, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. Wes Jackson is credited with the first publication of the expression in his 1980 book New Roots for Agriculture, the term became popularly used in the late 1980s. Sustainable agriculture can be understood as an approach to agriculture. Practices that can cause damage to soil include excessive tilling of the soil. Long-term experiments have provided some of the best data on how various practices affect soil properties essential to sustainability, the most important factors for an individual site are sun, air, soil, nutrients, and water. Of the five, water and soil quality and quantity are most amenable to human intervention through time, although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability of water. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they some of these nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, land suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes either unusable or suffers from reduced yields, sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as natural gas, or mineral ores. The last option was proposed in the 1970s, but is recently becoming feasible. Sustainable options for replacing other nutrient inputs are more limited, crops that require high levels of soil nutrients can be cultivated in a more sustainable manner if certain fertilizer management practices are adhered to. Nationwide food producers require vast amounts of land and soil to produce food at an accelerated rate and this diminishes the nutrients in the soil and decimates the idea of sustainable agriculture, which is best built through local, regional agricultural methods. In some areas sufficient rainfall is available for growth. For irrigation systems to be sustainable, they require proper management, otherwise, the water source effectively becomes a non-renewable resource. However, this progress has come at a price, in many areas, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, the water is being used faster than it can be replenished. Several steps must be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems even in years with average rainfall. Indicators for sustainable water resource development are, Internal renewable water resources and this is the average annual flow of rivers and groundwater generated from endogenous precipitation, after ensuring that there is no double counting. It represents the amount of water resource produced within the boundaries of a country. This value, which is expressed as an average on a basis, is invariant in time
7.
Natalie Portman
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Natalie Portman is an actress with dual American and Israeli citizenship. Her first role was in the 1994 action thriller Léon, The Professional and she was later cast as Padmé Amidala in the Star Wars prequel trilogy. Born in Jerusalem to an Israeli father and American mother, Portman grew up in the eastern United States from the age of three. She studied dancing and acting in New York, and starred in Star Wars, in 1999, Portman enrolled at Harvard University to study psychology, alongside her work as an actress, she completed a bachelors degree in 2003. During her studies she starred in a second Star Wars film and she played leading roles in the historical dramas Goyas Ghosts and The Other Boleyn Girl, and also appeared in Thor and its 2013 sequel. In 2010, Portman starred in the thriller film Black Swan. Her performance received critical acclaim and she earned her first Academy Award for Best Actress, her second Golden Globe Award, the SAG Award, the BAFTA Award. In 2016, she portrayed First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy in the biographical drama Jackie and she was nominated for an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award and won the BFCA for Best Actress. In May 2008, Portman served as the youngest member of the 61st Annual Cannes Film Festival jury, the same year she directed a segment of the collective film New York, I Love You. Her first feature film as a director, A Tale of Love, Portman was born on June 9,1981 in Jerusalem. Her original given name was Neta-Lee, a Hebrew name and she is the only child of Shelley, an American homemaker who works as Portmans agent, and Avner Hershlag, an Israeli fertility specialist and gynecologist. Her maternal grandparents, Bernice and Arthur Stevens, were from Jewish families who moved to the United States from Austria and Russia, Natalies paternal grandparents, Mania and Zvi Yehuda Hershlag, were Jewish immigrants to Israel. Zvi, born in Poland in 1914, moved to what was then Mandatory Palestine in 1938 and eventually became an economics professor, One of Natalies paternal great-grandmothers was born in Romania and was a spy for British Intelligence during World War II. Portmans parents met at a Jewish student center at Ohio State University and they corresponded after her father returned to Israel and were married when her mother visited a few years later. In 1984, when Portman was three years old, the moved to the United States, where her father received his medical training. Portman, a citizen of the United States and Israel, has said that although she really love the States. Thats where I feel at home, Portman and her family first lived in Washington, D. C. but relocated to Connecticut in 1988 and then moved to Jericho, New York, on Long Island, in 1990. While living in the Washington, D. C. area, Portman attended Charles E. Smith Jewish Day School in Rockville, Maryland
8.
Los Angeles Times
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The Los Angeles Times, commonly referred to as the Times or LA Times, is a paid daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California, since 1881. It was the largest metropolitan newspaper in circulation in the United States in 2008, the Times is owned by tronc. The Times was first published on December 4,1881, as the Los Angeles Daily Times under the direction of Nathan Cole Jr. and it was first printed at the Mirror printing plant, owned by Jesse Yarnell and T. J. Unable to pay the bill, Cole and Gardiner turned the paper over to the Mirror Company. Mathes had joined the firm, and it was at his insistence that the Times continued publication, in July 1882, Harrison Gray Otis moved from Santa Barbara to become the papers editor. Otis made the Times a financial success, in an era where newspapers were driven by party politics, the Times was directed at Republican readers. As was typical of newspapers of the time, the Times would sit on stories for several days, historian Kevin Starr wrote that Otis was a businessman capable of manipulating the entire apparatus of politics and public opinion for his own enrichment. Otiss editorial policy was based on civic boosterism, extolling the virtues of Los Angeles, the efforts of the Times to fight local unions led to the October 1,1910 bombing of its headquarters, killing twenty-one people. Two union leaders, James and Joseph McNamara, were charged, the American Federation of Labor hired noted trial attorney Clarence Darrow to represent the brothers, who eventually pleaded guilty. Upon Otiss death in 1917, his son-in-law, Harry Chandler, Harry Chandler was succeeded in 1944 by his son, Norman Chandler, who ran the paper during the rapid growth of post-war Los Angeles. Family members are buried at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery near Paramount Studios, the site also includes a memorial to the Times Building bombing victims. The fourth generation of family publishers, Otis Chandler, held that position from 1960 to 1980, Otis Chandler sought legitimacy and recognition for his familys paper, often forgotten in the power centers of the Northeastern United States due to its geographic and cultural distance. He sought to remake the paper in the model of the nations most respected newspapers, notably The New York Times, believing that the newsroom was the heartbeat of the business, Otis Chandler increased the size and pay of the reporting staff and expanded its national and international reporting. In 1962, the paper joined with the Washington Post to form the Los Angeles Times-Washington Post News Service to syndicate articles from both papers for news organizations. During the 1960s, the paper won four Pulitzer Prizes, more than its previous nine decades combined, eventually the coupon-clipping branches realized that they could make more money investing in something other than newspapers. Under their pressure the companies went public, or split apart, thats the pattern followed over more than a century by the Los Angeles Times under the Chandler family. The papers early history and subsequent transformation was chronicled in an unauthorized history Thinking Big and it has also been the whole or partial subject of nearly thirty dissertations in communications or social science in the past four decades. In 2000, the Tribune Company acquired the Times, placing the paper in co-ownership with then-WB -affiliated KTLA, which Tribune acquired in 1985
9.
The New Yorker
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The New Yorker is an American magazine of reportage, commentary, criticism, essays, fiction, satire, cartoons, and poetry. It is published by Condé Nast, started as a weekly in 1925, the magazine is now published 47 times annually, with five of these issues covering two-week spans. Although its reviews and events listings often focus on the life of New York City. The New Yorker debuted on February 21,1925 and it was founded by Harold Ross and his wife, Jane Grant, a New York Times reporter. Ross wanted to create a humor magazine that would be different from perceivably corny humor publications such as Judge. Ross partnered with entrepreneur Raoul H. Fleischmann to establish the F-R Publishing Company, the magazines first offices were at 25 West 45th Street in Manhattan. Ross edited the magazine until his death in 1951, during the early, occasionally precarious years of its existence, the magazine prided itself on its cosmopolitan sophistication. Ross famously declared in a 1925 prospectus for the magazine, It has announced that it is not edited for the old lady in Dubuque, although the magazine never lost its touches of humor, it soon established itself as a pre-eminent forum for serious fiction literature and journalism. Shortly after the end of World War II, John Herseys essay Hiroshima filled an entire issue, D. Salinger, Irwin Shaw, James Thurber, John Updike, Eudora Welty, Stephen King, and E. B. White. Publication of Shirley Jacksons The Lottery drew more mail than any story in the magazines history. In its early decades, the magazine published two or even three short stories a week, but in recent years the pace has remained steady at one story per issue. Kurt Vonnegut said that The New Yorker has been an instrument for getting a large audience to appreciate modern literature. Vonneguts 1974 interview with Joe David Bellamy and John Casey contained a discussion of The New Yorkers influence, No other art requires the audience to be a performer. You have to count on the readers being a good performer and those writers you mentioned and myself are teaching an audience how to play this kind of music in their heads. Its a learning process, and The New Yorker has been a good institution of the sort needed. They have an audience, and they come out every week, and people finally catch on to Barthelme, for instance. The non-fiction feature articles cover an array of topics. Recent subjects have included eccentric evangelist Creflo Dollar, the different ways in which humans perceive the passage of time, the magazine is notable for its editorial traditions
10.
Peter Singer
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Peter Albert David Singer, AC is an Australian moral philosopher. He is the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, and he specializes in applied ethics and approaches ethical issues from a secular, utilitarian perspective. For most of his career, he was a preference utilitarian, on two occasions, Singer served as chair of the philosophy department at Monash University, where he founded its Centre for Human Bioethics. In 1996 he stood unsuccessfully as a Greens candidate for the Australian Senate, Singer is a cofounder of Animals Australia and the founder of The Life You Can Save. Singers parents were Austrian Jews who immigrated to Australia from Vienna in 1938 and they settled in Melbourne, where Singer was born. Singers grandfather, David Oppenheim, published papers with Sigmund Freud before a falling out between the two in Venice. Singers father imported tea and coffee, while his mother practiced medicine and he attended Preshil and later Scotch College. After leaving school, Singer studied law, history, and philosophy at the University of Melbourne, subsequently, he received an MA degree for a thesis entitled Why should I be moral. At the same university in 1969, Singer names Hare and Australian philosopher H. J. McCloskey as his two most important mentors. After spending two years as a Radcliffe lecturer at University College, Oxford, he was a professor at New York University for 16 months. He returned to Melbourne in 1977, where he spent most of his career, aside from appointments as visiting faculty abroad, until his move to Princeton in 1999. In June 2011 it was announced he would join the professoriate of New College of the Humanities, according to philosopher Helga Kuhse, Singer is almost certainly the best-known and most widely read of all contemporary philosophers. Michael Specter wrote that Singer is among the most influential of contemporary philosophers, since 1968 he has been married to Renata Singer, they have three children, Ruth, Marion, and Esther. Renata Singer is a novelist and author and she also has collaborated on publications with her husband, Singers Practical Ethics analyzes why and how living beings interests should be weighed. His principle of equal consideration of interests does not dictate equal treatment of all those with interests, all have an interest in avoiding pain, for instance, but relatively few have an interest in cultivating their abilities. Not only does his principle justify different treatment for different interests, for example, this approach would privilege a starving persons interest in food over the same interest of someone who is only slightly hungry. The fundamental interest that entitles a being to equal consideration is the capacity for suffering and/or enjoyment or happiness, Singer holds that a beings interests should always be weighed according to that beings concrete properties. He favors a journey model of life, which measures the wrongness of taking a life by the degree to which doing so frustrates a life journeys goals, the journey model is tolerant of some frustrated desire and explains why persons who have embarked on their journeys are not replaceable
11.
Veganism
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Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of either the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan, distinctions are sometimes made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term ethical vegan is often applied to those who not only follow a diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives. Donald Watson coined the term vegan in 1944 when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England, at first he used it to mean non-dairy vegetarian, but from 1951 the society defined it as the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals. Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s, more vegan stores opened, and vegan options became increasingly available in supermarkets and restaurants in many countries. Well-planned vegan diets can reduce the risk of some types of chronic disease and they are regarded as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. The German Society for Nutrition cautions against vegan diets for children, because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12, researchers agree that vegans should eat B12-fortified foods or take a supplement. The origin of the English term vegetarian is unknown, the earliest known use is attributed to the actress Fanny Kemble, writing around 1839 in Georgia in the United States. The practice can be traced to Indus valley civilization in 3300 -1300 BCE Ancient India, the earliest known vegan was the Arab poet Al-Maʿarri. Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th-century England and the United States, a minority of vegetarians avoided animal food entirely. Lambe called animal food an habitual irritation, and argued that ilk eating and flesh eating are but branches of a common system, and they must stand or fall together. Sylvester Grahams meatless Graham diet—mostly fruit, vegetables, water, several vegan communities were established around this time. In 1843 members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food, led by Sophia Chichester, Alcott House also helped to establish the British Vegetarian Society, which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent. Belongs to the more moderate division. The first known vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldons No Animal Food, the consumption of milk and eggs became a battleground over the following decades. There were regular discussions about it in the Vegetarian Messenger, it appears from the pages that many opponents of veganism came from within the vegetarian community. This lent support to the position, although Gandhi himself drank goats milk
12.
Vegetarianism
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Vegetarianism /vɛdʒɪˈtɛəriənɪzəm/ is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat, and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons, many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs, as well as animal rights advocacy, other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or personal preference. A vegan diet excludes all animal products, including eggs and dairy, some vegans also avoid other animal products such as beeswax, leather or silk clothing, and goose-fat shoe polish. Often, prior to purchase or consumption, vegetarians will scrutinize products for animal-derived ingredients, vegetarians feelings vary with regard to these ingredients. Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods but may include fish or poultry, or sometimes other meats and those with diets containing fish or poultry may define meat only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism. A pescetarian diet has been described as fish but no other meat, the term vegetarian has been in use since 1839 to refer to what was previously described as a vegetable diet. The word is believed to be a compound of vegetable. The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester, the earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House, a school on the north side of Ham Common, London, opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves. The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from Indus Valley Civilization as early as the 7th century BCE, in the Indian culture, the diet was closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes vegetarianism, chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, through couplets 251 to 260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism. Among the Hellenes, Egyptians and others, it had medical or ritual purification purposes and those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt, one animal is not to be fed to another. —Edicts of Ashoka, Fifth Pillar Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did on other continents, except India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons and it re-emerged during the Renaissance, becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, in 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the century as a result of nutritional, ethical
13.
Animal-free agriculture
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Animal-free agriculture consists of farming methods that do not use animals or animal products. Animal-free growers do not keep domesticated animals and do not use products such as farmed animal manures or animal parts. Emphasis is placed on using green manures instead, animal-free farming may use organic or non-organic farming techniques. However, most detailed discussions of animal-free agriculture currently focus on animal-free organic variants, forest gardening Livestocks Long Shadow Vegan organic gardening Vegan permaculture
14.
Fruitarianism
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Fruitarianism is a diet that consists entirely or primarily of fruits in the botanical sense, and possibly nuts and seeds, without animal products. Fruitarianism is a subset of dietary veganism, fruitarianism may be adopted for different reasons, including ethical, religious, environmental, cultural, economic, and health reasons. There are many varieties of the diet, some people whose diet consists of 75% or more fruit consider themselves fruitarians. Some fruitarians will eat only what falls naturally from a plant and these foods consist primarily of culinary fruits, nuts, and seeds. According to author Adam Gollner, some fruitarians eat only fallen fruit, others believe they should eat only plants that spread seeds when the plant is eaten. Others eat seeds and some cooked foods, some fruitarians use the botanical definitions of fruits and consume pulses, such as beans, peas, or other legumes. Other fruitarians diets include raw fruits, dried fruits, nuts, honey and olive oil, or fruits, nuts, beans and they believe that a return to an Eden-like paradise will require simple living and a holistic approach to health and diet. Some fruitarians wish, like Jains, to avoid killing anything, including plants, some fruitarians say that eating some types of fruit does the parent plant a favor and that fleshy fruit has evolved to be eaten by animals, to achieve seed dispersal. For some fruitarians, the motivation comes from a fixation on a utopian past, their hope being to return to a past that predates an agrarian society, another common motivation is the desire to eliminate perceived toxicity within the body. For others, the appeal of a fruitarian diet comes from the challenge that the nature of this diet provides. Walker said, I dont want to make too much of this yet, but it is quite a surprise. In 1971, a study by B. J. Meyer was published in the South African Medical Journal describing how lipid profiles. In a further trial in the study, body weights of overweight subjects showed a tendency to level off at the ideal weight. According to nutritionists, adults must be not to follow a fruit-only diet for too long. A fruitarian diet is unsuitable for children, and several children have died due to having fruitarian diets imposed on them. Fruitarianism is even more restrictive than veganism or raw veganism, maintaining this diet over a long period can result in dangerous deficiencies, a risk that many fruitarians try to ward off through nutritional testing and vitamin injections. The Health Promotion Program at Columbia University reports that a diet can cause deficiencies in calcium, protein, iron, zinc, vitamin D, most B vitamins. When the body does not take in enough protein, it out on amino acids
15.
Juice fasting
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Juice fasts may last anywhere from a few days to several weeks. Participants may use juice fasting as an alternative medicine, participants may believe juice fasting will cure chronic pain, cancer, depression, arthritis, severe infections that resisted antibiotics, autoimmune diseases, and many other diseases. One reason for juice fasting is to assist with other methods of gallstone passage, others choose juice fasting because they believe they can focus on healing specific organs and systems. Some practitioners fast bi-annually in week-long periods to attempt to purify the body in synchronization with what they believe to be cycles of nature. Fasts may even involve retreats and travel, such as with popular week-long spa-resort style trips to Thailand. Because pure juice contains little to no fiber, juice fasters may use enemas or herbal or saltwater laxatives during the time of fasting to efficiently expel waste from the intestines, another method to achieve this effect involves mixing psyllium husks in with the juice. Because psyllium is not absorbed by the body, but greatly increases in volume upon water absorption, to avoid excess sugar and maintain a high nutrient value juices should contain a healthy proportion of 80% vegetables to 20% fruits. The maximum shelf life of a juice is 72 hours and consuming it within that period is highly encouraged, in a reduced-calorie study, participants juice-fasted for one week without limitation of physical activity. The study demonstrated a reduction in total free cholesterol. However it was noted that within a week of ending the fast cholesterol had returned to prefast levels. Fasters should take care to maintain their intake of vitamins and nutrients during fasting, juice mixes containing grapefruit juice may also adversely interact with certain prescription drugs. Because of the low content of most fruits and vegetables. Salt deficiency causes headaches and weakness, then light-headedness, then nausea, scientists, dietitians, and doctors regard detox diets as less effective than water-fasting, and hence a waste of money. Catherine Collins, Chief Dietician of St Georges Hospital Medical School in London, England, the idea that an avalanche of vitamins, minerals, and laxatives taken over a 2 to 7 day period can have a long-lasting benefit for the body is also a marketing myth. Alternative cancer treatments Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead Fruitarianism Juicing
16.
Raw veganism
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Raw veganism is a diet that combines the concepts of veganism and raw foodism. It excludes all food and products of animal origin, as well as food cooked at a temperature above 48 °C. A raw vegan diet includes raw vegetables and fruits, nuts and nut pastes, grain and legume sprouts, seeds, plant oils, sea vegetables, herbs, mushrooms, there are many different versions of the diet, including fruitarianism, juicearianism, and sproutarianism. In addition to the ethics of eating meat, dairy, eggs and honey, raw vegans may be motivated by health, spiritual, financial, or environmental reasons, in terms of health, some raw vegans hold the belief that cooking foods destroys the complex balance of micronutrients. They may also believe that, in the process, dangerous chemicals are produced by the heat interaction with fat, protein. Forest gardening is a raw vegan lifestyle with a number of motives. For example, it can be viewed as a way to recreate the Garden of Eden, developed by raw vegan Robert Hart, forest gardening is a food production system based on woodland ecosystems, incorporating fruit and nut trees, shrubs, herbs, vines and perennial vegetables. The three main products from a forest garden are fruit, nuts and green leafy vegetables, forest gardens are probably the worlds oldest and most resilient agroecosystem. The gourmet approach to raw veganism typically use dehydrators to cook food like crackers, there are many raw vegan cookbooks on the market and recipes online. Obtaining such an amount of calories from carbohydrates from raw foods requires consuming large quantities of sweet and ripe fruit, such as bananas and dates. 24 bananas, or 48 dates, or 5.3 litres of orange juice, most LFRV also consume a large low-fat salad daily to ensure the required protein, mineral and vitamin daily intake is covered. The low-fat raw vegan lifestyle has been tried by several athletes, raw vegans must ensure that their intake of vitamin B12 is adequate, since it does not occur in raw plant foods. The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach, among others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B12 or take a B12 supplement. Tempeh, seaweed, spirulina, mushroom, organic produce, soil, vitamin D deficiency is possible due to the absence of dairy products, which are normally fortified with vitamin D, but preventable with the usage of supplements and time spent outdoors. Medical studies on raw food diets have shown some positive and negative health outcomes
17.
Vegan nutrition
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Vegan nutrition refers to the nutritional aspects of vegan diets – diets which include no animal products. They also state that a lifestyle change incorporating a vegan whole foods diet could not only prevent various degenerative diseases, such as coronary artery disease, but reverse them. A number of films, such as Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead, Planeat and Forks over Knives. Although there is consensus amongst doctors advocating plant-based diets, Joel Fuhrman and Michael Greger have disagreed with Campbell and Esselstyn on the use of nuts. Some athletes, such as Brendan Brazier, follow a vegan diet, because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12, researchers agree that vegans should eat foods fortified with B12 or take a daily supplement. Special attention may be necessary to ensure that an all-plant diet will provide adequate amounts of vitamin B12, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, iron, zinc, and iodine. These nutrients are available in plant foods, with the exception of vitamin B12, Vitamin B12 deficiency is potentially extremely serious, leading to megaloblastic anemia, nerve degeneration and irreversible neurological damage. Evidence shows that vegans who are not taking vitamin B12 supplements do not consume sufficient servings of B12 and this is because, unless fortified, plant foods do not contain reliable amounts of active vitamin B12. The US National Institutes of Health recommends B12 intake in a range from 0.4 micrograms a day for infants, to 2.4 micrograms for adults, and up to 2.8 micrograms for nursing mothers. The European Food Safety Authority set the Adequate Intake at 1.5 micrograms for infants,4 micrograms for children and adults, some of the fortified foods require only a single serving to provide the recommended B12 amounts. Proteins are composed of amino acids and essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by the human body, a 1994 study found a varied intake of such sources can be adequate. Protein levels of vegan diets typically meet or exceed the recommended levels, eating soy and legume products regularly, will help ensure adequate protein levels. Vegan diets can be low in omega-3 fatty acids, major vegan sources of O3FA include algae, hempseeds and hempseed oil, walnuts, flaxseeds and flaxseed oil, olive oil, canola oil, avocado and chia seeds. However, diets lacking generous amounts of sea vegetables generally lack a direct source of long-chain O3FA such as eicosapentaenoic acid, short-term supplemental ALA has been shown to increase EPA levels but not DHA levels, suggesting poor conversion of the intermediary EPA to DHA. DHA supplements derived from DHA-rich microalgae are available, and the body can also convert DHA to EPA. While there is evidence of adverse health or cognitive effects due to DHA deficiency in adult vegetarians or vegans, fetal. The most concentrated sources of fatty acids are seeds, such as flax, chia, camelina, canola, and hemp, as well as walnuts. Many studies have examined possible correlation between veganism, calcium intake, and bone health, overall, the entire group of vegans had a higher risk of fractures
18.
Vegan organic gardening
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Vegan organic gardening and farming is the organic cultivation and production of food crops and other crops with a minimal amount of exploitation or harm to any animal. Forest gardening is a fully plant-based organic food production system based on woodland ecosystems, incorporating fruit and nut trees, shrubs, herbs, vines, making use of companion planting, these can be intermixed to grow in a succession of layers, to replicate a woodland habitat. Forest gardening can be viewed as a way to recreate the Garden of Eden, the three main products from a forest garden are fruit, nuts and green leafy vegetables. Robert Hart adapted forest gardening for temperate zones during the early 1960s, robert Hart began with a conventional smallholding at Wenlock Edge in Shropshire. However, following his adoption of a raw vegan diet for health and personal reasons and he created a model forest garden from a small orchard on his farm and intended naming his gardening method ecological horticulture or ecocultivation. Hart later dropped these terms once he became aware that agroforestry, Vegan permaculture avoids the use of domesticated animals. It is essentially the same as permaculture except for the addition of a core value. Zalan Glen, a raw vegan, proposes that vegaculture should emerge from permaculture in the same way veganism split from vegetarianism in the 1940s, Vegan permaculture recognizes the importance of free-living animals, not domesticated animals, to create a balanced ecosystem. The veganic gardening method is a system developed by Rosa Dalziell OBrien, Kenneth Dalziel OBrien. The OBrien systems principal argument is that animal manures are harmful to soil health rather than that their use involves exploitation of, the system employs very specific techniques including the addition of straw and other vegetable wastes to the soil in order to maintain soil fertility. Gardeners following the system use soil-covering mulches, and employ non-compacting surface cultivation techniques using any short-handled, wide-bladed and they kneel when surface cultivating, placing a board under their knees to spread out the pressure, and prevent soil compaction. To make use of this principle, aided by a process of the top growth of weeds. Use of animal manure is prohibited, the German agricultural researcher Maria Thun developed vegan equivalents to the traditional, animal based biodynamic preparations. As a reaction to the BSE scandal in Europe she started researching plant based preparations, in particular in Italy, there is a movement of vegan biodynamic farming, represented by farmers such as Sebastiano Cossia Castiglioni and Cristina Menicocci. There are many other currently used and under development. Soil fertility is maintained by the use of manures, cover crops, green wastes, composted vegetable matter. Some vegan gardeners may supplement this with human urine from vegans and humanure from vegans, Vegan Organic Network publishing,2006, ISBN 0-9552225-0-8. Available in the US from Chelsea Green Publishing, ISBN 978-1-933392-49-3, growing Our Own, A Guide to Vegan Gardening by Kathleen Jannaway
19.
Environmental vegetarianism
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Environmental vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism or veganism based on the indications that animal-based industries are environmentally destructive or unsustainable. The primary environmental concerns with animal products are pollution—including greenhouse gas emissions —deforestation, and the use of such as fossil fuels, water. Four-fifths of agricultural emissions arise from the livestock sector, estimates on greenhouse gas emissions attributable to animal products range from 18% to 51% of total global emissions. A study in Climate Change concluded if, average diets among UK adults conformed to WHO recommendations, their associated GHG emissions would be reduced by 17 %. The FAO report estimates that the sector contributes about 18 percent of global GHG emissions expressed as 100-year CO2 equivalents. Some sources disagree with some of the used in arriving at the FAO estimate of 18 percent. For example, the FAO report estimates that 37 percent of anthropogenic methane emissions are attributable to the livestock sector. Because of the GWP multiplier used, such a difference between estimates will have an effect on an estimate of GHG CO2 equivalents contributed by the livestock sector. Livestock sources account for about 3.1 percent of US anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as CO2 equivalents and this estimate is based on methodologies agreed to by the Conference of Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Unlike fossil fuels, it is difficult to look for alternatives, a substantial reduction of impacts would only be possible with a substantial worldwide diet change, away from animal products. According to Cornell University scientists, The heavy dependence on fossil energy suggests that the US food system, however, they also write, The meat-based food system requires more energy, land, and water resources than the lactoovovegetarian diet. In this limited sense, the diet is more sustainable than the average American meat-based diet. One of these Cornell scientists has advised that the US could feed 800 million people with grain that livestock eat, according to a 2002 paper, The industrial agriculture system consumes fossil fuel, water, and topsoil at unsustainable rates. It contributes to numerous forms of degradation, including air and water pollution, soil depletion, diminishing biodiversity. One personal act that can have a impact on these issues is reducing meat consumption. To produce 1 pound of beef requires about 2,400 gallons of water and 7 pounds of grain. The water required for a diet is twice as much needed for a 2. Another agricultural effect is on land degradation, cattle are a known cause for soil erosion through trampling of the ground and overgrazing
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History of vegetarianism
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Vegetarianism has its roots in the civilizations of ancient India and ancient Greece. Vegetarianism is the theory and practice of voluntary non-consumption of the flesh of any animal, the earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant number of people concern ancient India and the ancient Greek civilizations in southern Italy and Greece. In both instances the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence toward animals, and was promoted by religious groups, following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism nearly disappeared from Europe. Vegetarianism was to reemerge somewhat in Europe during the Renaissance, the figures for the percentage of the Western world which is vegetarian varies between 0. 5% & 4% per Mintel data in September 2006. In the ancient Vedic period, eating some kinds of meat was allowed by their laws, the Manusmriti law book states, There is no sin in eating meat. When the famous Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian visited the Magadha region of India in the early 5th century AD and they do not breed pigs or poultry or sell any animal food. Vegetarianism was mandatory for the yogis, both for the practitioners of Hatha Yoga and for the disciples of the Vaishnava schools of Bhakti Yoga, a bhakta offers all his food to Vishnu or Krishna as prasad before eating it and only vegetarian food can be accepted as prasad. Jain and Buddhist sources show that the principle of nonviolence toward animals was a rule in both religions as early as the 6th century BC. The Jain concept, which is strict, may be even much older. Parshva, the earliest Jain leader whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure and he is said to have preached nonviolence no less radically than it was practiced in the Jain community in the times of Mahavira. Not everyone who refused to participate in any killing or injuring of animals also abstained from the consumption of meat, hence the question of Buddhist vegetarianism in the earliest stages of that religions development is controversial. There are two schools of thought, one says that the Buddha and his followers ate meat offered to them by hosts or alms-givers if they had no reason to suspect that the animal had been slaughtered specifically for their sake. The other one says that the Buddha and his community of monks were strict vegetarians, the first opinion is supported by several passages in the Pali version of the Tripitaka, the opposite one by some Mahayana texts. All those sources were put into writing several centuries after the death of the Buddha and they may reflect the conflicting positions of different wings or currents within the Buddhist community in its early stage. The Mahaparinibbana Sutta, which narrates the end of the Buddhas life, states that he died after eating sukara-maddava, the Buddhist emperor Ashoka was a vegetarian. and a determined promoter of nonviolence to animals. He promulgated detailed laws aimed at the protection of species, abolished animal sacrifice at his court. Ashoka has asserted protection to fauna, from his edicts we could understand, i. e. - Beloved-of-the-Gods, here no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice. Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry, but now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always
21.
Vegetarian cuisine
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Vegetarian cuisine is based on food that meets vegetarian standards by not including meat and animal tissue products. For lacto-ovo vegetarianism, eggs and dairy products such as milk, for lacto vegetarianism, the earliest known type of vegetarianism, dairy products such as milk and cheese are permitted. The strictest forms of vegetarianism are veganism and fruitarianism, which all animal products, including dairy, honey. Vegetarian foods can be classified several different types, Traditional foods that have always been vegetarian include cereals, grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes. Soy products including tofu and tempeh which are common protein sources, textured vegetable protein, made from defatted soy flour, often included in chili and burger recipes in place of ground meat. Meat analogues, which mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of meat and are used in recipes that traditionally contained meat. Eggs and dairy product analogues in vegan cuisine, vegetables, derived products such as vegetable sauces like chili sauce and vegetable oils. Fruit, derived products such as jam and marmalade, legumes, beans, chickpeas, lentils, peas, peanuts, derived products such as peanut butter. Tree nuts and seeds, derived products such as nut butter, herbs, spices and wild greens such as dandelion, sorrel or nettle. Other foods such as seaweed, derived products such as agar, beverages such as beer, coffee, hot chocolate, lemonade, tea or wine. Such dishes include, from breakfasts to dinnertime desserts, Traditionally, Brahmin cuisines in most part of India, Gujarati cuisine from the state of Gujarat in western India is predominantly vegetarian. Many bean, pasta, potato, rice, and bulgur/couscous dishes, stews, soups, cereals and oatmeals, granola bars, etc. Indian cuisine in Asia is replete with vegetarian dishes, many of which can be traced to religious traditions, Gujarati cuisine of India is predominantly vegetarian among other Indian cuisines, Gujarati thali is very famous among Indians. Chapati and other wheat/maida based breads like naan, roti parathas are often stuffed with vegetarian items to make it a satisfying meal, many Indian dishes also qualify as vegan, though many others use honey or dairy. In Indonesia, vegetarianism is well served and represented, as there are plenty selection of vegetarian dishes, dishes such as gado-gado, karedok, ketoprak, pecel, urap, rujak and asinan are vegetarian. However, for dishes that use peanut sauce, such as gado-gado, karedok or ketoprak, served solely, gudeg can be considered a vegetarian food, since it consists of unripe jackfruit and coconut milk. Fermented soy products, such as tempeh, tofu and oncom are prevalent as meat substitutes, most of Indonesians do not practice strict vegetarianism and only consume vegetables or vegetarian dishes for their taste, preference, economic and health reasons. Nevertheless, there are numbers of Indonesian Buddhists who practice vegetarianism for religious reason
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Vegetarian Diet Pyramid
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Vegetarian Diet Pyramid is a nutrition guide that represents a traditional healthy vegetarian diet. Variations of this traditional healthy vegetarian diet exist throughout the world, particularly in parts of North America, Europe, South America, given these carefully defined parameters, the phrase Traditional Vegetarian Diet is used here to represent the healthy traditional ovo-lacto vegetarian diets of these regions and peoples. This Vegetarian Diet Pyramid suggests the types and frequencies of foods that should be enjoyed for health, the pyramid is divided into daily, weekly, and monthly frequencies, but does not recommend serving sizes. The pyramid also has recommendations for daily physical activity and hydration, loma Linda University School of Public Health, Department of Nutrition developed The Vegetarian Food Pyramid in 1997 for presentation at the 3rd International Congress on Vegetarian Nutrition. The 5 major plant-based food groups form the lower portion of the pyramid. Optional food groups form the top portion of the pyramid. This version of the pyramid includes a table with recommended number of daily servings per daily calorie intake, according to the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, healthful diets contain the amounts of essential nutrients and energy needed to prevent nutritional deficiencies and excesses. Meat contains complete proteins, but vegetarian protein sources are incomplete proteins and this method of combining a balance of incomplete vegetarian proteins to create a complete protein profile is known as complementary protein building. The healthfulness of this pattern has been corroborated by epidemiological and experimental nutrition, Diet in Hinduism von Haehling, S. The American Heart Associations Scientific Sessions 2006, the Mayo Clinic Vegan Food Pyramid
23.
Vegetarian nutrition
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Vegetarian nutrition is the set of health-related challenges and advantages of vegetarian diets. When fortified, a diet can provide adequate protein, iron, zinc, vitamin B12. However, in non fortified vegetarian diets, and when not enough calories are consumed, evidence suggests that vegetarians have lower rates of coronary heart disease, obesity, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and osteoporosis. Vegetarian diets tend to be rich in carbohydrates, omega-6 fatty acids, dietary fibre, carotenoids, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E and they are generally low in saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein. The Oxford Vegetarian Study showed that the health of vegetarians compares favourably with that of meat-eaters, loma Linda University School of Public Health has conducted three cohort studies that identify the health benefits of a vegetarian diet. The University is a Seventh-day Adventist health science institution, the first study, funded by the US Public Health Service in 1958 and limited to Adventists in California, included many vegetarians. The next cohort of California Adventists, the Adventist Health Study-1, from 2002 to 2007 the Adventist Health Study-2 collected dietary data from 96,000 church members from the United States and Canada. Many scientific articles have published on the health and nutrition properties of a vegetarian diet from these cohort studies. Several clinical trials have documented that vegetarian eating patterns lower blood pressure, on average, vegetarians consume a lower proportion of calories from fat, fewer overall calories, and more fiber, potassium, and vitamin C than do non-vegetarians. Vegetarians generally have a body mass index. These characteristics and other factors associated with a vegetarian diet may contribute to the positive health outcomes that have been identified among vegetarians. A2010 study found that disease is not linked with unprocessed red meat. They also state that a lifestyle change incorporating a low fat vegetarian or vegan diet could not only prevent various degenerative diseases, such as coronary artery disease, studies of cancer have not shown clear differences in cancer rates between vegetarians and non-vegetarians. One large prospective study found that non-meat-eaters had only half the risk of meat eaters of requiring an emergency appendectomy, a 2012 study found that too much or too little red meat consumption is tied to anxiety and depression in women. However, another showed that vegetarian diets are associated with healthy mood states. Many tools are available to help maintain an adequate nutrient balance including several Vegetarian Diet Pyramids. The typical vegetarian gets adequate protein as long as caloric intake is adequate, Vegetarian diets tend to be lower in protein than non-vegetarian diets but typically meet or exceed daily protein intake recommendations, which is believed to be beneficial. Plant sources of protein include soy beans, other legumes, nuts and seeds, the protein-combining theory was brought to popular attention in Frances Moore Lappés 1971 bestseller Diet for a Small Planet
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Vegetarianism by country
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In many countries, food labeling laws make it easier for vegetarians to identify foods compatible with their diets. Reliable data is lacking due to a lack of polling and the definitions of vegetarianism and veganism used in the polls. Many poll results are contradicted by other poll results from the country despite similar publication dates. African-diets are relatively plant-based for economic reasons, but the prevalence of strict ethical vegetarianism in Africa is reported to be low, Indian immigrants to Africa, particularly in South Africa, brought vegetarianism with them which has been documented as far back as 1895 in Natal Province. Also, some African countries such as Egypt and Ethiopia have regular weekly, eating meat is seen as a sign of prosperity in China. Consumption of meat is rapidly increasing while a small but growing number of people in large cities are vegan. An estimated 4 to 5 percent of Chinese are vegetarian, native Chinese religion, generally falling under the label of Taoism, is a form of animism. Similar to Shintoism in Japan, though the killing and eating of animals is not forbidden, classical Chinese texts pointed to a period of abstinence from meat before undertaking matters of great importance or of religious significance. This Buddhism-influenced vegetarianism has been known and practiced by some since at least the 7th century, the early 20th century saw some intellectuals espousing vegetarianism as part of their program for reforming China culturally, not just politically. The anarchist thinker Li Shizeng, for instance, argued that tofu and soy products were healthier, liang Shuming, a philosopher and reform activist, adopted a basically vegetarian diet, but did not promote one for others. In recent years, it has seen a resurgence in the cities among the middle class. In 2007, UN FAO statistics indicated that Indians had the lowest rate of consumption in the world. India has more vegetarians than the rest of the put together. In India, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with lacto vegetarianism, most restaurants in India clearly distinguish and market themselves as being either non-vegetarian, vegetarian, or pure vegetarian. Vegetarian restaurants abound, and many options are usually available. Animal-based ingredients such as lard, gelatin, and meat stock are not used in the traditional cuisine, India has devised a system of marking edible products made from only vegetarian ingredients, with a green dot in a green square. A mark of a dot in a brown square conveys that some animal-based ingredients were used. Products like honey, milk, or its derivatives are often categorized under the green mark
25.
Secularity
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Secularity is the state of being separate from religion, or of not being exclusively allied with or against any particular religion. Historically, the secular was not related or linked to religion. The idea of a dichotomy between religion and the secular originated in the 18th century European Enlightenment, one can regard eating and bathing as examples of secular activities, because there may not be anything inherently religious about them. Nevertheless, some religious traditions see both eating and bathing as sacraments, therefore making them religious activities within those world views, saying a prayer derived from religious text or doctrine, worshipping through the context of a religion, and attending a religious school are examples of religious activities. The secular is experienced in diverse ways ranging from separation of religion and state to being anti-religion or even pro-religion, a related term, secularism, involves the principle that government institutions and their representatives should remain separate from religious institutions, their beliefs, and their dignitaries. Many businesses and corporations, and some operate on secular lines. This stands in contrast to theocracy, government with deity as its highest authority, Secular and secularity derive from the Latin word saeculum which meant of a generation, belonging to an age or denoted a period of about one hundred years. In the ancient world, saeculum was not defined in contrast to any sacred concerns and had a usage in Latin. It was in Christian Latin of medieval times, that saeculum was used for distinguishing this temporal age of the world from the realm of God. The Christian doctrine that God exists outside time led medieval Western culture to use secular to indicate separation from specifically religious affairs and involvement in temporal ones. This does not necessarily imply hostility to God or religion, though some use the term this way, routinization — institutionalizing through integration into the society. Differentiation — a redefined place such as when accepting its status as one religion in a plural religious field or morphing into a more generic, disengagement — the detachment of certain facets of social life from religion. Transformation — gradual change over time in a sense that Protestantism became for Christianity. Generalization — a particular kind of change in which it becomes less specific, more abstract, has moderation of controversial and divisive claims. Desacralization — culture and rationality guide people while leaving out religious beings, segmentation — the development of specialized religious institutions, which take their place beside other specialized social institutions. Secularism — the only form that leads to rejection of religion. Examples of secular used in this way include, Secular authority, which involves legal, police, and military authority, as distinct from clerical authority, or matters under church control. Secular clergy in the Roman Catholic Church, who, traditionally, do not live the lives of the regular clergy and are therefore, in a sense
26.
Animal rights
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They maintain that animals should no longer be viewed as property or used as food, clothing, research subjects, entertainment, or beasts of burden. Advocates approach the issue from a variety of perspectives, the abolitionist view is that animals have moral rights, which the pursuit of incremental reform may undermine by encouraging human beings to feel comfortable with using them. Gary Franciones abolitionist position promotes ethical veganism and he argues that animal rights groups that pursue welfare concerns, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, risk making the public feel comfortable about its use of animals. He calls such groups the new welfarists, PETA argues that Franciones criticism does little to help alleviate the suffering of individual animals and also trivializes the efforts of workers in the field who handle cruelty cases. It also creates divisiveness within the animal liberation movement instead of focusing on shared goals, sentiocentrism is the theory that sentient individuals are the subject of moral concern and therefore are deserving of rights. Protectionists seek incremental reform in how animals are treated, with a view to ending animal use entirely and this position is represented by the philosopher Peter Singer. Multiple cultural traditions around the world—such as Animism, Taoism, Hinduism, Buddhism, the animals most often considered in arguments for personhood are bonobos and chimpanzees. S. Congress with the enactment of the Animal Enterprise Protection Act, Aristotle argued that animals lacked reason, and placed humans at the top of the natural world, yet the respect for animals in ancient Greece was very high. Some animals were considered divine e. g. dolphins, the 21st-century debates about animals can be traced back to the ancient world, and the idea of a divine hierarchy. Dominion need not entail property rights, but it has been interpreted, by some, contemporary philosopher Bernard Rollin writes that dominion does not entail or allow abuse any more than does dominion a parent enjoys over a child. Rollin further states that the Biblical Sabbath requirement promulgated in the Ten Commandments required that animals be granted a day of rest along with humans, correlatively, the Bible forbids plowing with an ox and an ass together. According to the tradition, this prohibition stems from the hardship that an ass would suffer by being compelled to keep up with an ox. Similarly, one finds the prohibition against muzzling an ox when it treads out the grain and these ancient regulations, virtually forgotten, bespeak of an eloquent awareness of the status of animals as ends in themselves, a point also corroborated by Norm Phelps. The philosopher and mathematician, Pythagoras, urged respect for animals, believing that human and nonhuman souls were reincarnated from human to animal, and vice versa. Against this, Aristotle, student to the philosopher Plato, argued that animals had no interests of their own. Theophrastus, one of Aristotles pupils, argued that also had reasoning. Plutarch in his Life of Cato the Elder comments that while law and justice are strictly to men only, beneficence. This is intended as a correction and advance over the merely utilitarian treatment of animals, according to Richard D. Ryder, the first known animal protection legislation in Europe was passed in Ireland in 1635
27.
Animal welfare
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Animal welfare is the well-being of animals. The standards of animal welfare vary considerably between different contexts. These standards are under constant review and are debated, created and revised by animal groups, legislators. These concerns can include how animals are slaughtered for food, how they are used in research, how they are kept. Animal welfare was a concern of some ancient civilizations but began to take a place in Western public policy in 19th-century Great Britain. In the 21st century, it is a significant focus of interest in science, ethics, there are two forms of criticism of the concept of animal welfare, coming from diametrically opposite positions. One view, dating back centuries, asserts that animals are not consciously aware, however, some still maintain that consciousness is a philosophical question that may never be scientifically resolved. The other view is based on the animal rights position that animals should not be regarded as property, accordingly, some animal rights proponents argue that the perception of better animal welfare facilitates continued and increased exploitation of animals. Some authorities therefore treat animal welfare and animal rights as two opposing positions, others see the increasing concern for animal welfare as incremental steps towards animal rights. There are many different approaches to describing and defining animal welfare, providing good animal welfare is sometimes defined by a list of positive conditions which should be provided to the animal. This approach is taken by the Five Freedoms and the three principles of Professor John Webster, in the past, many have seen farm animal welfare chiefly in terms of whether the animal is producing well. g. Others in the field, such as Professor Ian Duncan and Professor Marian Dawkins and this approach indicates the belief that animals should be considered as sentient beings. In any assessment of welfare, it is these feelings that should be assessed, Dawkins wrote, Let us not mince words, Animal welfare involves the subjective feelings of animals. Yew-Kwang Ng defines animal welfare in terms of economics, Welfare biology is the study of living things. Despite difficulties of ascertaining and measuring welfare and relevancy to normative issues and they have offered the following eight principles for developing and evaluating animal welfare policies. Decisions regarding animal care, use, and welfare shall be made by balancing scientific knowledge, Animals must be provided water, food, proper handling, health care, and an environment appropriate to their care and use, with thoughtful consideration for their species-typical biology and behavior. Animals should be cared for in ways that minimize fear, pain, stress, procedures related to animal housing, management, care, and use should be continuously evaluated, and when indicated, refined or replaced. Conservation and management of animal populations should be humane, socially responsible, Animals shall be treated with respect and dignity throughout their lives and, when necessary, provided a humane death
28.
Carnism
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Carnism is presented as a dominant belief system supported by a variety of defense mechanisms and mostly unchallenged assumptions. The term carnism was coined by social psychologist Melanie Joy in 2001 and popularized by her book Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, central to the ideology, according to the theory, is the acceptance of meat-eating as natural, normal, necessary, and nice. This classification is culturally relative, so that, for example, dogs are eaten by people in Korea but may be pets in the West, while cows are eaten in the West. Analyzing the history of vegetarianism and opposition to it from ancient Greece to the present day, in the 1970s traditional views on the moral standing of animals were challenged by animal rights advocates, including psychologist Richard Ryder, who in 1971 introduced the notion of speciesism. This is defined as the assignment of value and rights to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership. In 2001 psychologist and animal rights advocate Melanie Joy coined the term carnism for a form of speciesism that she argues underpins using animals for food, and particularly killing them for meat. Rather, we see it as a given, the thing to do, the way things have always been. We eat animals without thinking about what we are doing and why and this invisible belief system is what I call carnism. Sandra Mahlke argues that carnism is the crux of speciesism because the eating of meat motivates ideological justification for other forms of animal exploitation. There is cultural variability regarding which animals count as food, Dogs are eaten in China, and South Korea, but elsewhere are not viewed as food, either because they are loved or, as in the Middle East and parts of India, regarded as unclean. Cows are eaten in the West, but revered in much of India, Pigs are rejected by Muslims and Jews but widely regarded by other groups as edible. Jeff Mannes writes that carnism is rooted in a paradox between most peoples values and actions, they oppose harming animals, and yet eat them and he argues that this conflict leads to cognitive dissonance, which people attempt to attenuate through psychic numbing. The apparent conflict between caring about animals and embracing diets which require them to be harmed has been termed the meat paradox, there is experimental evidence supporting the idea that the meat paradox induces cognitive dissonance in Westerners. Avoiding consideration of the provenance of animal products is another strategy, Joy argues that this is why meat is rarely served with the animals head or other intact body parts. Joy introduced the idea of the Three Ns of Justification, writing that meat-eaters regard meat consumption as normal, natural, and necessary. The argument holds that people are conditioned to believe humans evolved to eat meat, that it is expected of them. These beliefs are said to be reinforced by institutions, including religion, family. Although scientists have shown that humans get more than enough protein in their diets without eating meat, the arguments were that humans are omnivores, that most people eat meat, that vegetarian diets are lacking in nutrients, and that meat tastes good
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Deep ecology
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Deep ecology argues that the natural world is a subtle balance of complex inter-relationships in which the existence of organisms is dependent on the existence of others within ecosystems. Human interference with or destruction of the natural world poses a threat not only to humans. The movement does not subscribe to anthropocentric environmentalism since deep ecology is grounded in a different set of philosophical assumptions. Deep ecology takes a holistic view of the world human beings live in. Three of the most influential ecological spokespersons of the 1960s were Rachel Carson, David Brower, some consider the publication of Rachel Carsons book Silent Spring as the beginning of the contemporary, long-range deep ecology movement. Carsons writings were especially influential because they showed how human well-being depends on the condition of whole biotic communities. She explained in terms how living beings are interrelated within ecosystems. She explained how pesticides used to control mosquitoes and other led to declines in some bird populations. “Silent Spring” helped show how complex food webs and networks of biotic relationships function, since humans are at the top of many food chains, exposure to chemicals becomes more concentrated as these move up the chains. The chemicals also can be stored in tissues and gradually accumulate over time. Carson showed the need for changes in human practices and ways of living. The 1960s was a decade of social activism in the United States, Canada, Western Europe. Some activism focused on war and peace and the issue of nuclear weapons, a well-known early environmental organization started with a focus on nuclear tests and their environmental hazards. Some people in British Columbia, Canada, were opposed to the test of a weapon by the US government on Amchitka Island. They hired a vessel and sailed towards the nuclear test site in protest. This action led to the founding of Greenpeace, which became identified with environmental issues as time went by. These great movements were catalyzed by the now iconic images of the whole Earth floating in space taken during the return of the Apollo space missions from their journey to the moon. Proponents of deep ecology believe that the world does not exist as a resource to be exploited by humans
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Ethics of eating meat
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Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of either the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan, distinctions are sometimes made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term ethical vegan is often applied to those who not only follow a diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives. Donald Watson coined the term vegan in 1944 when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England, at first he used it to mean non-dairy vegetarian, but from 1951 the society defined it as the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals. Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s, more vegan stores opened, and vegan options became increasingly available in supermarkets and restaurants in many countries. Well-planned vegan diets can reduce the risk of some types of chronic disease and they are regarded as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. The German Society for Nutrition cautions against vegan diets for children, because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12, researchers agree that vegans should eat B12-fortified foods or take a supplement. The origin of the English term vegetarian is unknown, the earliest known use is attributed to the actress Fanny Kemble, writing around 1839 in Georgia in the United States. The practice can be traced to Indus valley civilization in 3300 -1300 BCE Ancient India, the earliest known vegan was the Arab poet Al-Maʿarri. Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th-century England and the United States, a minority of vegetarians avoided animal food entirely. Lambe called animal food an habitual irritation, and argued that ilk eating and flesh eating are but branches of a common system, and they must stand or fall together. Sylvester Grahams meatless Graham diet—mostly fruit, vegetables, water, several vegan communities were established around this time. In 1843 members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food, led by Sophia Chichester, Alcott House also helped to establish the British Vegetarian Society, which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent. Belongs to the more moderate division. The first known vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldons No Animal Food, the consumption of milk and eggs became a battleground over the following decades. There were regular discussions about it in the Vegetarian Messenger, it appears from the pages that many opponents of veganism came from within the vegetarian community. This lent support to the position, although Gandhi himself drank goats milk
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Psychology of eating meat
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The psychology of eating meat is a complex area of study illustrating the confluence of morality, emotions, cognition, and personality characteristics. Research into the psychological and cultural factors of meat eating suggests correlations with masculinity, support for hierarchical values, research into the consumer psychology of meat is relevant both to meat industry marketing and to advocates of reduced meat consumption. Meat is an important and highly preferred human food, individuals attitudes towards meat are of interest to consumer psychologists, to the meat industry, and to advocates of reduced meat consumption. These attitudes can be affected by issues of price, health, taste, the perception of meat in relation to these issues affects meat consumption. Meat is traditionally a high-status food and it may be associated with cultural traditions and has strong positive associations in most of the world. However, it sometimes has a negative image among consumers, partly due to its associations with slaughter, death, holding these associations more strongly may decrease feelings of pleasure from eating meat and increase disgust, leading to lowered meat consumption. In the West, these effects have been found to be true among young women. Negative associations may only cause consumers to make meat less noticeable in their diets rather than reducing or eliminating it and it has been suggested that this is the result of a disconnect between individuals roles as consumers and as citizens. Implicit attitudes towards meat have been reported to significantly between omnivores and vegetarians, with omnivores holding much more positive views. Vegetarians may express either revulsion or nostalgia at the thought of eating meat, Consumer behavior towards meat may be modeled by distinguishing the effects of intrinsic factors and extrinsic factors. Taste and texture are self-reported to be important factors in food choice, Consumers describe meat as chewy, tender, and rich. In the United Kingdom, meat is considered to taste good. People experience the taste and texture of meat in significantly different ways, with variations across ages, genders, tenderness is perhaps the most important of all factors impacting meat eating quality, with others being flavor, juiciness, and succulence. Visual appearance is one of the primary cues consumers use to assess meat quality at the point of sale, color is one of the most important characteristics in this context. Different cultural traditions lead consumers to prefer different colors, some countries prefer relatively dark pork overall, some light, visible fat content and marbling are also important intrinsic quality cues. Consumers as a whole tend to prefer leaner beef and pork, marbling is important to some consumers but not others, and, as for fat content more generally, preference for marbling varies by region. Price is an important extrinsic factor which can affect consumer choices about meat, price concerns may induce consumers to choose among different meats, or avoid meat altogether. Health concerns are also relevant to consumer choices about meat, the perceived risk of food contamination can affect consumer attitudes towards meat, as after meat-related scares such as those associated with mad cow disease or bird flu
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Nonviolence
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Nonviolence is the personal practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth tirthankara of the Jain religion, was the torch-bearer of ahimsa and introduced the word to the world and he taught that to attain nirvana, one must abstain from violence. Nonviolence also has active or activist elements, in that believers accept the need for nonviolence as a means to political and social change. In modern times, nonviolent methods of action have been a tool for social protest. There are many examples of their use, fuller surveys may be found in the entries on civil resistance, nonviolent resistance and nonviolent revolution. The 1989 Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia that saw the overthrow of the Communist government is considered one of the most important of the largely nonviolent Revolutions of 1989. Most recently the nonviolent campaigns of Leymah Gbowee and the women of Liberia were able to achieve peace after a 14-year civil war and this story is captured in a 2008 documentary film Pray the Devil Back to Hell. In an essay, To Abolish War, evolutionary biologist Judith Hand advocated the use of nonviolent direct action to dismantle the global war machine. The term nonviolence is often linked with or used as a synonym for peace, and despite being frequently equated with passivity and pacifism, this is rejected by nonviolent advocates and activists. Nonviolence refers specifically to the absence of violence and is always the choice to do no harm or the least harm, sometimes nonviolence is passive, and other times it isnt. For example, if a house is burning down with mice or insects in it, there is at times confusion and contradiction written about nonviolence, harmlessness and passivity. A confused person may advocate nonviolence in a specific context while advocating violence in other contexts, for example, someone who passionately opposes abortion or meat eating may concurrently advocate violence to kill an abortionist or attack a slaughterhouse, which makes that person a violent person. On a national level, the strategy of nonviolent action seeks to undermine the power of rulers by encouraging people to withdraw their consent, the forms of nonviolence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs and political analysis. Commonly, both of these dimensions may be present within the thinking of particular movements or individuals, nicolas Walter noted the idea that nonviolence might work runs under the surface of Western political thought without ever quite disappearing. Walter noted Étienne de La Boéties Discourse on Voluntary Servitude and P. B, shelleys The Masque of Anarchy contain arguments for resisting tyranny without using violence. In 1838, William Lloyd Garrison helped found the New England Non-Resistance Society, in modern industrial democracies, nonviolent action has been used extensively by political sectors without mainstream political power such as labor, peace, environment and womens movements. Lesser known is the role that nonviolent action has played and continues to play in undermining the power of political regimes in the developing world. Also of primary significance is the notion that just means are the most likely to lead to just ends
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Speciesism
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Speciesism involves the assignment of different values, rights, or special consideration to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership. Their claim is that species membership has no moral significance, the term is not used consistently, but broadly embraces two ideas. It usually refers to human speciesism, the exclusion of all animals from the rights, freedoms. Activities such as these, that were standard human behaviors across the millennia, the term speciesism, and the argument that it is simply a prejudice, first appeared in 1970 in a privately printed pamphlet written by British psychologist Richard D. Ryder. Ryder was a member of a group of intellectuals in Oxford, England, one of the groups activities was distributing pamphlets about areas of concern, the pamphlet titled Speciesism was written to protest against animal experimentation. Ryder argued in the pamphlet that ince Darwin, scientists have agreed that there is no essential difference between humans and other animals, biologically-speaking. Why then do we make an almost total distinction morally, if all organisms are on one physical continuum, then we should also be on the same moral continuum. Ryder wrote, In as much as race and species are vague terms used in the classification of living creatures according, largely, to physical appearance. Discrimination on grounds of race, although most universally condoned two centuries ago, is now widely condemned, similarly, it may come to pass that enlightened minds may one day abhor speciesism as much as they now detest racism. The illogicality in both forms of prejudice is of an identical sort, the time has come to act upon this logic. Those who claim that speciesism is unfair to non-human species have often argued their case by invoking mammals, the term was popularized by the Australian philosopher Peter Singer in his book Animal Liberation. Singer had known Ryder from his own time as a philosophy student at Oxford. He credited Ryder with having coined the term and used it in the title of his books fifth chapter, sexists violate the principle of equality by favouring the interests of their own sex. Similarly, speciesists allow the interests of their own species to override the interests of members of other species. The pattern is identical in each case, Singer argued that, although there may be differences between humans and nonhumans, they share the capacity to suffer, and we must give equal consideration to that suffering. Any position that allows similar cases to be treated in a dissimilar fashion fails to qualify as a moral theory. The term caught on, Singer wrote that it was an awkward word and it became an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1985, defined as discrimination against or exploitation of animal species by human beings, based on an assumption of mankinds superiority. Paola Cavalieri writes that the current humanist paradigm is that human beings are members of the moral community
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Vegetarianism and religion
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Vegetarianism is strongly linked with a number of religions that originated in ancient India. In Jainism, vegetarianism is mandatory for everyone, in Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism, it is advocated by some influential scriptures, most Indian religions have philosophical schools that forbid consumption of meat and Jainism institutes an outright ban on the same. Consequently, India is home to more vegetarians than any other country, about 30% of Indias 1.2 billion population practices lacto vegetarianism, with overall meat consumption increasing. The per capita consumption in India in 2002 was 5.2 kg. Meat consumption in the United States and India grew at about 40% over the last 50 years, in 1961 Indian per capita meat consumption was 3.7 kg, while the US consumption was 89.2 kg. Vegetarianism in Jainism is based on the principle of nonviolence, Vegetarianism is considered mandatory for everyone. Jains are either lacto-vegetarians or vegans, no use or consumption of products obtained from dead animals is allowed. Moreover, Jains try to avoid injury to plants and suksma jiva. The goal is to cause as little violence to living things as possible, hence they avoid eating roots, tubers such as Potatoes, garlic, Every act by which a person directly or indirectly supports killing or injury is seen as violence, which creates harmful karma. The aim of ahimsa is to prevent the accumulation of such karma, Jains consider nonviolence to be the most essential religious duty for everyone. Their scrupulous and thorough way of applying nonviolence to everyday activities, a side effect of this strict discipline is the exercise of asceticism, which is strongly encouraged in Jainism for lay people as well as for monks and nuns. Jains do not practice animal sacrifice as they consider all sentient beings to be equal, Vegetarianism is an integral part of most schools of Hinduism although there are a wide variety of practices and beliefs that have changed over time. An estimated 30% of all Hindus are vegetarians, some sects of Hindus do not observe vegetarianism. The principle of nonviolence applied to animals is connected with the intention to avoid negative karmic influences which result from violence, the suffering of all beings is believed to arise from craving and desire, conditioned by the karmic effects of both animal and human action. The violence of slaughtering animals for food, and its source in craving and they must all be considered the slayers of the animal. The question of religious duties towards the animals and of negative Karma incurred from violence against them is discussed in detail in Hindu scriptures, Hindu scriptures belong or refer to the Vedic period which lasted till about 500 BCE according to the chronological division by modern historians. In the historical Vedic religion, the predecessor of Hinduism, meat eating was not banned in principle, several highly authoritative scriptures bar violence against domestic animals except in the case of ritual sacrifice. This view is expressed in the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana
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Christian vegetarianism
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Alternatively, Christians may be vegetarian for ethical, environmental, nutritional or other spiritual reasons. Various church founders have recommended vegetarianism, such as William Cowherd from the Bible Christian Church, Cowherd, who founded the Bible Christian Church in 1809, helped to establish the worlds first Vegetarian Society in 1847. While vegetarianism is not a practice in current western Christian thought and culture. According to the Bible, in the beginning, before the Fall, human and nonhuman animals, who are beings who have or are an ānima, Latin for soul, were completely vegan, and it was very good. Immediately after the Flood, God allegedly permitted the eating of meat, but forbade consuming blood, Christian vegetarians interpret that passage not as a free pass to kill for eating if the blood is supposedly excluded from alimentation, but as an invitation to necrophagy. The biological fact is, no matter what you do you can never remove all the blood from the flesh of a slaughtered animal, one of the Ten Commandments says categorically, Thou shalt not kill — without specifying that some animals are allowed to be killed. Isaiah states He that killeth an ox he slew a man, however, specific sacrifices of animals for the atonement of sin were also mandated, by Moses, what may be inconsistent with the principle of grace or that one cannot force God to forgive. Centuries after Noah, Leviticus 11 records God giving the Israelites rules about what types of meat may be eaten, the Old Testament says that God commanded the Israelites to eat meat on some occasions. During the Exodus out of Egypt and the first Passover, God commanded that all of the Israelites to slaughter a Passover lamb and this was to be a lasting tradition. The sacrifices, however, are considered as types of the Lamb of God and they preferred meat, and were condemned for it. Because of that lust, the place where the incident happened became known as Kibroth Hattaavah, a donkey temporarily given the ability to speak showed Balaam more than signs of sentience. Daniel specifically refuses the kings meat and instead requests vegetables, philo says that the Essenes, “being more scrupulous than any in the worship of God do not sacrifice animals, but hold it right to dedicate their own hearts as a worthy offering”. They maintained that the sacrifices polluted the Temple, there is a special interest on Jesus of Nazareth in the matter of animals rights and the Bible, that is thought to be divinely inspired and, supposedly therefore, necessarily consistent. Critics of the supposed Biblical inerrancy may use verses like Proverbs 4,7 or Proverbs 9,9 in order to support what they understand as impartiality, Jesus is regarded in Christianity to be the Son of God and-or the Theanthropos, the incarnation of God. The Gospels offer that Jesus gave fish to others, according to Luke 24, 41-43, Jesus ate fish himself after his resurrection, what could be explained by the so-called synoptic principle. The Synoptic Gospels narrate that Jesus expelled a legion of demons out of two people and allowed the spirits, by their own request, to indwell a large herd of pigs. The swine ran violently down a bank into the Sea of Galilee. According to Proverbs 12,10, A righteous man regardeth the life of his beast, Lukes Acts of the Apostles portrays a story where the Apostle Peter has a vision where God declares previously unclean meat as clean and orders Peter to kill and eat
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Diet in Hinduism
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Diet in Hinduism varies with its diverse traditions. The ancient and medieval Hindu texts do not explicitly prohibit eating meat, many Hindus prefer a vegetarian or lacto-vegetarian lifestyle, and methods of food production that are in sync with nature, compassionate, and respectful of other life forms as well as nature. Most Hindu sects and gurus also promote a sattvic vegetarian diet as an obligation as part of living a lifestyle that causes minimum harm to other lifeforms. The diet of Hindus may include eggs and meat, however, often they favor jhatka style preparation of meat since Hindus believe that this method minimizes trauma and suffering to the animal. Ancient Hindu texts describe the whole of creation as a vast food chain, Hindu mendicants avoid preparing their own food, relying either on begging for leftovers or harvesting seeds and fruits from forests, as this minimizes the likely harm to other life forms and nature. The Vedic texts have conflicting verses, which scholars have interpreted to support or opposition to meat-based food. In some verses, the oldest Hindu text, the Rigveda, denounces eating meat of cattle and horses, Some consider this as a disapproval of cow slaughter and meat eating in general. However, elsewhere the Rig Veda says, These verses mention deity Indra eating bulls, but states Pandit, these verses are in the context of demons and evil spirits stealing the cattle and the milk. The Upanishads and Sutra texts of Hinduism discuss moderate diet and proper nutrition, the Upanishads and Sutra texts invoke the concept of virtuous self-restraint in matters of food, while the Samhitas discuss what and when certain foods are suitable. A few Hindu texts such as Hathayoga Pradipika combine both, moderation in diet is called Mitahara, and this is discussed in Shandilya Upanishad, as well as by Svātmārāma as a virtue. It is one of the yamas discussed in ancient Indian texts, the Upanishad, states Stiles, notes “from food life springs forth, by food it is sustained, and in food it merges when life departs”. The Bhagavad Gita includes verses on diet and moderation in food in Chapter 6 and it states in verse 6.16 that a Yogi must neither eat too much nor too little, neither sleep too much nor too little. Understanding and regulating one’s established habits about eating, sleeping and recreation is suggested as essential to the practice of yoga in verse 6.17. Verse 251, for instance, questions how can one be possessed of kindness, who, to increase his own flesh, eats the flesh of other creatures. It also says that the wise, who are devoid of mental delusions, do not eat the body of other creatures, suggesting that flesh is nothing. This text, written before 400 CE, and sometimes called the Tamil Veda, discusses eating habits and its role in a healthy life, dedicating Chapter 95 of Book 7 to it. Tirukkuṛaḷ states in verses 943 through 945, eat in moderation, tiruvalluvar also emphasizes overeating has ill effects on health, in verse 946, as “the pleasures of health abide in the man who eats moderately. The pains of disease dwell with him who eats excessively. ”The practice of Mitahara, in Hathayoga Pradipika, includes avoiding stale, impure and tamasic foods, and consuming moderate amounts of fresh, vital and sattvic foods
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Ahimsa
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Ahimsa means not to injure and compassion and refers to a key virtue in Indian religions. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike, hiṃsā is injury or harm, a-hiṃsā is the opposite of this, i. e. cause no injury, do no harm. Ahimsa is also referred to as nonviolence, and it applies to all living beings—including all animals—in ancient Indian religions, Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues and an important tenet of Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Ahimsa is a concept, inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy, therefore. Ahimsa has also related to the notion that any violence has karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of Ahimsa, most popularly, Mahatma Gandhi strongly believed in the principle of ahimsa. Ahimsas precept of cause no injury includes ones deeds, words, classical literature of Hinduism such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as modern scholars debate principles of Ahimsa when one is faced with war and situations requiring self-defence. The historic literature from India and modern discussions have contributed to theories of Just War, and theories of appropriate self-defence. The word Ahimsa—sometimes spelled as Ahinsa—is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike, hiṃsā is injury or harm, a-hiṃsā is the opposite of this, There is a debate on the origins of the word Ahimsa, and how its meaning evolved. Mayrhofer as well as Dumot suggest the word may be han which means kill. Schmidt as well as Bodewitz explain the root word is hiṃs and the Sanskrit verb hinasti. Wackernagel-Debrunner concur with the latter explanation, ancient texts use ahimsa to mean non-injury, a broader concept than non-violence. Non-injury implies not killing others, as well as not hurting others mentally or verbally, in classical Sanskrit literature of Hinduism, another word Adrohi is sometimes used instead of Ahimsa, as one of the cardinal virtues necessary for moral life. One example is in Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2.6.23, Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in Vedic texts. The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention Ahimsa, the term Ahimsa appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda, where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of non-injury, the Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture. Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads, Kaneda gives examples of the word Ahimsa in these Upanishads. Other scholars suggest Ahimsa as a concept that started evolving in the Vedas
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