1.
Gross domestic product
–
Gross Domestic Product is a monetary measure of the market value of all final goods and services produced in a period. Nominal GDP estimates are used to determine the economic performance of a whole country or region. The OECD defines GDP as a measure of production equal to the sum of the gross values added of all resident and institutional units engaged in production. ”An IMF publication states that GDP measures the monetary value of final goods and services - that is. Total GDP can also be broken down into the contribution of industry or sector of the economy. The ratio of GDP to the population of the region is the per capita GDP. William Petty came up with a concept of GDP to defend landlords against unfair taxation during warfare between the Dutch and the English between 1652 and 1674. Charles Davenant developed the method further in 1695, the modern concept of GDP was first developed by Simon Kuznets for a US Congress report in 1934. In this report, Kuznets warned against its use as a measure of welfare, after the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, GDP became the main tool for measuring a countrys economy. The switch from GNP to GDP in the US was in 1991, the history of the concept of GDP should be distinguished from the history of changes in ways of estimating it. The value added by firms is relatively easy to calculate from their accounts, but the value added by the sector, by financial industries. GDP can be determined in three ways, all of which should, in principle, give the same result and they are the production approach, the income approach, or the expenditure approach. The most direct of the three is the approach, which sums the outputs of every class of enterprise to arrive at the total. The income approach works on the principle that the incomes of the factors must be equal to the value of their product. This approach mirrors the OECD definition given above, deduct intermediate consumption from gross value to obtain the gross value added. Gross value added = gross value of output – value of intermediate consumption, value of output = value of the total sales of goods and services plus value of changes in the inventories. The sum of the value added in the various economic activities is known as GDP at factor cost. GDP at factor cost plus indirect taxes less subsidies on products = GDP at producer price, for measuring output of domestic product, economic activities are classified into various sectors. Subtracting each sectors intermediate consumption from gross output gives the GDP at factor cost, adding indirect tax minus subsidies in GDP at factor cost gives the GDP at producer prices
Gross domestic product
–
Selection of GDP PPP data (top 10 countries and blocks) in no particular order
2.
List of countries by public debt
–
This is a list of countries by public debt to GDP ratio as listed by Eurostat for the EU and by CIAs World Factbook 2012 for the rest of the world. It is the total of all government borrowings less repayments that are denominated in a countrys home currency. Gross government debt is the most relevant data for discussions of government default and it is different from external debt, which includes the foreign currency liabilities of non-government entities. The figures here are represented as a percentage of gross domestic product. The public debt relative information provided by national sources is not always objective and true, note that net debt figures are included where gross debt figures are unavailable in the CIA set
List of countries by public debt
–
Total (gross) government debt as a percent of
GDP by IMF (2012)
List of countries by public debt
–
Public debt as a percent of
GDP by CIA (2012)
3.
Maharashtra
–
Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India and is Indias second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. It is the wealthiest Indian state and it is also the worlds second-most populous sub-national entity. It has over 112 million inhabitants and its capital, Mumbai, has a population of approximately 18 million, Nagpur is Maharashtras second capital as well as its winter capital. Maharashtras business opportunities along with its potential to offer a standard of living attract migrants from all over India. Ancient and medieval Maharashtra included the empires of the Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Mughals, the major rivers of the state are Godavari, and Krishna. The Narmada and Tapti Rivers flow near the border between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state in India. The state has several popular Hindu places of pilgrimage including Pandharpur, Dehu and Alandi, other places that attract pilgrims from other parts of India and beyond include Hazur Sahib Gurudwara at Nanded, Sai Baba shrine at Shirdi and Dikshabhumi at Nagpur. Maharashtra is the wealthiest and one of the most developed states in India, as of 2011, the state had a per capita income of ₹1.0035 lakh, more than the national average of ₹0.73 lakh. Its GDP per capita crossed the ₹1.20 lakh threshold for the first time in 2013, however, as of 2014, the GDP per capita reduced to ₹1.03 lakh Agriculture and industries are the largest parts of the states economy. Major industries include chemical products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum, Jai Maharashtra The modern Marathi language developed from the Maharashtri Prakrit, and the word Mahratta is found in the Jain Maharashtri literature. The terms Maharashtra, Maharashtri, Marathi and Maratha may have derived from the same root, however, their exact etymology is uncertain. But the Marathas as a people do not seem to be mentioned before the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the most widely accepted theory among the linguistic scholars is that the words Maratha and Maharashtra ultimately derived from a combination of Maha and rashtrika. The word rashtrika is a Sanskritized form of Ratta, the name of a tribe or dynasty of petty chiefs ruling in the Deccan region. Another theory is that the term is derived from Maha and ratha / rathi, an alternative theory states that the term derives from the word Maha and Rashtra. However, this theory has not found acceptance among scholars who believe it to be the Sanskritised interpretation of later writers. Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, around 230 BCE Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty for 400 years. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, in 90 CE Vedishri, son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty, made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. The state was ruled by Western Satraps, Gupta Empire, Gurjara-Pratihara, Vakataka, Kadambas, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Dynasty, and Western Chalukya before finally
Maharashtra
–
Trimurti sculpture of
Lord Dattatreya from
Elephanta Caves, an
UNESCO World Heritage Site in Maharashtra
Maharashtra
–
Ajanta Caves in
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Maharashtra
–
Late Harappa figure from
Daimabad hoard,
Indus Valley Civilization
Maharashtra
–
Bronze statue of
Shivaji Maharaj in the collection of the Shri Bhavani Museum of
Aundh, Maharashtra.
4.
Mumbai
–
Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
Mumbai
–
Clockwise from top:
Cuffe Parade skyline,
Taj Mahal Palace Hotel,
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus,
Bandra–Worli Sea Link, and the
Gateway of India.
Mumbai
–
The temple of local Hindu goddess
Mumbadevi, from whom the city of Mumbai derives its name
Mumbai
–
Kanheri Caves served as a centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient times
5.
Bombay Stock Exchange
–
The Bombay Stock Exchange is an Indian stock exchange located at Dalal Street, Kala Ghoda, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Established in 1875, the BSE is Asia’s first stock exchange and it claims to be the worlds fastest stock exchange, with a median trade speed of 6 microseconds. The BSE is the worlds 11th largest stock exchange with a market capitalization of $1.43 Trillion as of March,2016. More than 5500 companies are listed on the BSE. Unlike countries like the United States where 70% of the GDP is derived from larger companies and the corporate sector, of these, as of November 2016, there are only 7,800 listed companies of which only 4000 trade on the stock exchanges at BSE and NSE. Hence the stocks trading at the BSE and NSE account for only about 4% of the Indian economy, Bombay Stock Exchange founded by Premchand Roychand. He was one of the most influential businessmen in 19th-century Bombay, a man who made a fortune in the stockbroking business and came to be known as the Cotton King, the Bullion King or just the Big Bull. He was also the founder of the Native Share and Stock Brokers Association, the Bombay Stock Exchange is the oldest exchange in Asia. Its history dates back to 1855, when five stockbrokers would gather under banyan trees in front of Mumbais Town Hall, the location of these meetings changed many times to accommodate an increasing number of brokers. The group eventually moved to Dalal Street in 1874 and became an organization known as The Native Share & Stock Brokers Association in 1875. On August 31,1957, the BSE became the first stock exchange to be recognized by the Indian Government under the Securities Contracts Regulation Act, in 1980, the exchange moved to the Phiroze Jeejeebhoy Towers at Dalal Street, Fort area. In 1986, it developed the BSE SENSEX index, giving the BSE a means to measure the performance of the exchange. In 2000, the BSE used this index to open its derivatives market, the development of SENSEX options along with equity derivatives followed in 2001 and 2002, expanding the BSEs trading platform. Historically an open outcry floor trading exchange, the Bombay Stock Exchange switched to a trading system developed by CMC Ltd. in 1995. It took the exchange only 50 days to make this transition and this automated, screen-based trading platform called BSE On-Line Trading had a capacity of 8 million orders per day. The BSE has also introduced a centralized exchange-based internet trading system, the BSE is also a Partner Exchange of the United Nations Sustainable Stock Exchange initiative, joining in September 2012. Robert Owen was the first to start co operative society at year of 18441 March 2001 Corporatisation of Exchanges proposed by the Union Govt. e, date on which Corporatisaton and Demutualisation was achieved. BSEs normal trading sessions occur on all days of the week except weekends, the launch of SENSEX in 1986 was later followed up in January 1989 by the introduction of the BSE National Index
Bombay Stock Exchange
Bombay Stock Exchange
6.
Pune
–
Pune is the second largest city in the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ninth most populous city in the country. In the 18th century, Pune was the centre of the Indian subcontinent. Considered to be the capital of Maharashtra, Pune is known as Oxford of the East due to the presence of several well-known educational institutions in the city. The city has emerged as an educational hub in recent decades. Since the 1950s and 1960s, Pune has had a traditional old-economic base as most of the old industries continue to grow, a few college in the Europe have also actively engaged in Student-exchange programs with several colleges in Pune. Pune is also one of the fastest growing cities in the Asia-Pacific region, the ‘Mercer 2015 Quality of Living rankings’ evaluated local living conditions in more than 440 cities around the world where Pune ranked at 145, second in India after Hyderabad. It also highlights Pune among evolving business centres and emerging nine cities around the world with citation Hosts IT, the oldest reference to the place is found inscribed on a Rashtrakuta Dynasty copper plate dated AD937, which refers to the town as Punya-Vishaya meaning Sacred News. By the 13th century, it had come to be known as Punawadi, copper plates dated 858 AD and 868 AD show that by the 8th century an agricultural settlement known as Punnaka existed where Pune is today. The plates indicate that this region was ruled by the Rashtrakuta dynasty, the Pataleshwar rock-cut temple complex was built during this era. Pune was part of the territory ruled by Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri from the 9th century to 1327, in 1595, Maloji Raje Bhosale was granted the jagirdari of Pune by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate. Pune was ruled by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate until it was annexed by the Mughals in the 17th century, Pune was part of the Jagir granted to Maloji Bhosale in 1599 for his services to the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar. His grandson, Shivaji, the founder of Maratha Empire, was born in Shivneri fort not far from Pune, Shivaji was brought up by his mother in Pune. Pune changed hands several times between the Mughals and the Marathas in the period between 1660 and 1705 and he stabilised the revenue collection and administrative systems of areas around Pune and in neighbouring area of the Maval region. In addition, he developed methods to manage disputes and to enforce law. Construction on the Lal Mahal began in 1631 AD, the Lal Mahal was completed in 1640 AD. Jijabai is said to have commissioned the building of the Kasba Ganapati temple, the Ganesha idol consecrated at this temple has been regarded as the presiding deity of the city. Shivaji encouraged the development of dams in the Parvati and Kondhwa regions of Pune for agricultural purposes, Pune and its surrounding villages were the major recruitment areas for Shivajis army between 1645 AD and 1680 AD. Between 1660 AD and 1670 AD the town was captured by Mughal General Shahista Khan, Shivaji often used Pune as his transit base during his major campaigns such as Varhad-Karanja, AhemadaNagar District, Karnataka, and Jalna
Pune
–
From top:
Fergusson College,
Mahatma Gandhi Road (left),
Shaniwarwada (right), the
HSBC Global Technology India Headquarters, and the
National War Memorial Southern Command
Pune
–
The circular Nandi
mandapa at the
Pataleshwar cave temple, built during the
Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Pune
–
An equestrian statue of
Baji Rao I outside the
Shaniwar Wada, who is credited with successful expansion of Maratha power in North India (circa 1730 CE)
7.
Navi Mumbai
–
Navi Mumbai is a planned township of Mumbai off the west coast of the Indian state of Maharashtra in Konkan division. The city is divided into two parts, North Navi Mumbai and South Navi Mumbai, for the development of Panvel Mega City. The city would have its own international airport by 2019 and it is being developed primarily to ease the burden off Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport in Mumbai and to put Navi Mumbai on the global map as a stand-alone city. The area around the proposed Navi Mumbai International Airport will be controlled and planned by CIDCO under The Special Planning Authority - Navi Mumbai Airport Influence Notified Area, the place was selected because of its strategic location near Panvel. NAINA will be responsible for avoiding any haphazard development around the airport in Panvel, Navi Mumbai has a population of 1,119,477 as per the 2011 provisional census. The area was mooted in 1971 to be a new township of Mumbai by the Government Of Maharashtra. For this purpose a new public sector undertaking was established that is the CIDCO, Navi Mumbai is situated across two districts namely Thane and Raigad. The remaining newly developed and developing nodes in the Raigad district are administered by the CIDCO, Navi Mumbai is widely considered an entry point to Mumbai. The city has been ranked 12th among 73 cities surveyed for cleanliness and hygiene by the Union Ministry of Urban Development, Navi Mumbai is home to various educational institutions offering courses in several streams including engineering, medical sciences, interior designing, and hotel management. Various MNCs like Siemens, McDonalds, Bureau Veritas, Bizerba, Navi Mumbai also has many quality restaurants and luxury hotels for accommodation. There are many shopping malls such as Little World mall in Kharghar, Centre One, Inorbit, a phenomenal rate of urban growth has been experienced by India during the 25 years following independence and Bombay has had its due share in it. Development inputs could not keep pace with the growing population, industry, trade. Besides, there are limitations to the growth of a city built on a long and narrow peninsula. The Government of Maharashtra has been alive to the problems of this metropolis. Responsible public opinion was equally vigilant and several constructive suggestions appeared from time to time in the press, all this helped in keeping the problems of Bombay in the forefront of public awareness. In 1958, the Govt. of Bombay appointed a group under the Chairmanship of Shri S. G. The Barve Group reported in February 1959, One of its major recommendations was that a rail-cum-road bridge be built across the Thane Creek to connect peninsular Bombay with the mainland. The Group hoped that the development would be orderly and would take place in a planned manner
Navi Mumbai
–
Navi Mumbai Skyline
Navi Mumbai
–
Utsav Chowk at Kharghar
Navi Mumbai
–
Shivaji Chowk
Navi Mumbai
–
Vashi Bridge across the creek.
8.
Nasik
–
Nashik is a city in the northwest region of Maharashtra in India, and is the administrative headquarter of the Nashik District and Nashik Division. The city is situated at the foothills of the Western Ghats mountains on the banks of the river Godavari, at 700 m above sea level, its elevation is highest among the major cities in Maharashtra and one of the highest among million plus cities in India. Nashik lies in the part of Maharashtra state at 700 m from the mean sea level. The river Godavari originates from the Brahmagiri Mountain, Trimbakeshwar about 24 km from Nashik and flows through the old residential settlement, due to high pollution created by factories in proximity of the city the river was dying at an alarming rate. It has since been successfully cleaned, other than Godavari, important rivers like Vaitarana, Bhima, Girana, Kashyapi and Darana flow across Nashik. Nashik lies on the edge of the Deccan Plateau which is a volcanic formation. Lime and Kankar nodules are found widely in Nashik district, the district shares border with Jalgaon and Aurangabad to east, Ahmadnagar to the south, while Thane and parts of Gujarat state are on the west. Trimbakeshwar is about 30 km from the city, it is where from river Godavari originates, the land area of the city is about 259.13 km2. The citys tropical location and high altitude combine to give it a mild version of a tropical wet. Summers, which last from March to mid-June, are hot, with temperatures reaching 36 °C. They are followed by the season, which continues till early October. These months see high levels of cloud cover, torrential rains, temperatures rise slightly in October, but this is followed by the cool season from November to February. The cool season sees warm temperatures of around 28 °C during the day, but cool nights, with lows averaging 13 °C, Nashik city is governed by the Nashik Municipal Corporation. The Nashik Court Building is built in stone in British Regime. There are 73 courts including taluka court, in the Nashik Municipal Corporation area about 225 MT of solid waste is generated per day. Unlike other Indian cities, this garbage is collected by vehicles titled Ghantagadi, smaller versions of the ghantagadi ply in the congested old city areas. A plant has set by the Nashik Municipal Corporation near Pandav Leni to process the garbage. According to the Census of India,2011, Nashik had a population of 14,86,973, males constitute 7,84,995 of the population and females 7,01,978
Nasik
–
Nashik city view from Pandavleni
Nasik
–
Ram, Lakshman, Sita at a Nashik Temple.
Nasik
–
"Ram kund".
Nasik
–
Trimbakeshwar Temple near Nashik (source of the Godavari River)
9.
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
–
Aurangabad is a city in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state in India. Aurangabad is named after the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, the city is a tourism hub, surrounded by many historical monuments, including the Ajanta Caves and Ellora Caves, which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as well as Bibi Ka Maqbara and Panchakki. Aurangabad is the Tourism Capital of Maharashtra, Khadki was the original name of the village which was made a capital city by Malik Ambar, the Prime Minister of Murtaza Nizam, Shah of Ahmadnagar. Within a decade, Khadki grew into a populous and imposing city and he was succeeded by his son Fateh Khan, who changed the name of Khadki to Fatehnagar. With the capture of Daulatabad by the troops in 1633. In 1653 when Mughal prince Aurangzeb was appointed the viceroy of the Deccan for the time, he made Fatehnagar his capital. Aurangabad is sometimes referred to as Khujista Bunyad by the Chroniclers of Aurangzebs reign and his son and successor, Nizam Ali Khan Asaf Jah II transferred his capital from Aurangabad to Hyderabad in 1763. During the period of the British Raj, the city was known as Aurungábád, in 1956 it became a part of newly formed bilingual Bombay state and in 1960 it became a part of Maharashtra state. The co-ordinates for Aurangabad are N 19°5347 – E 75°2354, the city is surrounded by hills on all directions. Climate Classification, Aurangabad features a semiarid climate under the Köppen climate classification, temperature, Annual mean temperatures in Aurangabad range from 17 to 33 °C, with the most comfortable time to visit in the winter – October to February. The highest maximum temperature recorded was 46 °C on 25 May 1905. The lowest recorded temperature was 2 °C on 2 February 1911, rainfall, Most of the rainfall occurs in the monsoon season from June to September. Thunderstorms occur between November to April. Average annual rainfall is 710 mm. The city is often cloudy during the monsoon season, the daily maximum temperature in the city often drops to around 22 °C due to the cloud cover and heavy rains. The entire area is covered by the Deccan Traps lava flows of Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene age, the lava flows are overlain by thin alluvial deposits along the Kham and Sukhana river. The basaltic lava flows belonging to the Deccan Trap is the major geological formation occurring in Aurangabad. The lava flows are horizontal and each flow has two distinct units, the difference in the productivity of groundwater in various flows arises as a result of their inherent physical properties such as porosity and permeability. The groundwater occurs under water table conditions and is controlled by the extent of its secondary porosity i. e. thickness of weathered rocks and spacing of joints. The highly weathered vesicular trap and underlying weathered jointed and fractured massive trap constitutes the main water yielding zones, the soil is mostly formed from igneous rocks and are black, medium black, shallow and calcareous types having different depths and profiles
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
–
Bibi Ka Maqbara at Aurangabad
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
–
Zeb-un-Nisa 's palace, Aurangabad 1880s.
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
–
Station Road, Aurangabad
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
–
Himroo Shawl
10.
Latur
–
La Tur was a Mexican airline that operated from 1988 until 1992 when it was taken over by TAESA. Set up in 1988 to help develop the tourist market, La Tur began charter operations using McDonnell Douglas MD-83 aircraft, one year later, the Airbus A300-600 was introduced for flights to Europe and Asia. Plans were made to replace the MD-83s with Airbus A320 and Airbus A321, by 1992, La Tur had too much capacity and the A300 was leased out. The fall of the Mexican peso and the deregulation of Mexican air transport led to the take over by TAESA, gustavo Díaz Ordaz International Airport Amsterdam - Schiphol International Airport Atlanta - William B. Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport New York - John F. Kennedy International Airport Fleet and Code information Hengi, B. I
Latur
–
LaTur
11.
Jatropha incentives in India
–
The use of biofuels varies by region and with increasing oil prices there is a renewed interest in it as an energy source. International Biofuels Forum is formed by Brazil, China, India, South Africa, the United States, the world leaders in biofuel development and use are Brazil, United States, France, Sweden and Germany. The government of Brazil hopes to build on the success of the Proálcool ethanol program by expanding the production of biodiesel which must contain 2% biodiesel by 2008, the government of Canada aims for 45% of the country’s gasoline consumption to contain 10% ethanol by 2010. Colombia mandates the use of 10% ethanol in all gasoline sold in cities with populations exceeding 500,000, in Venezuela, the state oil company is supporting the construction of 15 sugar cane distilleries over the next five years, as the government introduces a E10 blending mandate. Essentially all ethanol fuel in the US is produced from corn, corn is a very energy-intensive crop, which requires one unit of fossil-fuel energy to create just 0.9 to 1.3 energy units of ethanol. A senior member of the House Energy and Commerce Committee, Congressman Fred Upton introduced legislation to use at least E10 fuel by 2012 in all cars in the USA. The 2007-12-19 US Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 requires American fuel producers to use at least 36 billion US gallons of biofuel in 2022 and this is nearly a fivefold increase over current levels. This is causing a significant shift of resources away from food production, American food exports have decreased, and US food imports have increased significantly. Today most biofuels are not currently cost-effective without significant subsidies, americas ethanol program is a product of government subsidies. There are more than 200 different kinds, as well as a 54 cents-a-gallon tariff on imported ethanol and this prices Brazilian ethanol out of an otherwise competitive market. Brazil makes ethanol from sugarcane rather than corn, which has a better EROEI, federal subsidies alone cost $7 billion a year. General Motors is starting a project to produce E85 fuel from cellulose ethanol for a projected cost of $1 a gallon, the raw materials can be as simple as corn stalks and scrap petroleum-based vehicle tires, but used tires are an expensive feedstock with other more-valuable uses. GM has over 4 million E85 cars on the road now, but by 2012, the supply of ethanol will not even be close to supplying this much E85. Coskata Inc. is building two new plants for the ethanol fuel, theoretically, the process is claimed to be five times more energy efficient than corn based ethanol, but it is still in development and has not been proven to be cost effective in a free market. The greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by 86% for cellulose compared to corn’s 29% reduction, the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 is a $288 billion, five-year agricultural policy bill being considered by the United States Congress as a continuation of the 2002 Farm Bill. The bill continues the United States long history of agricultural subsidy as well as pursuing areas such as energy, conservation, nutrition, and rural development. Subsequently, several Asian countries formulated policies and set targets for biofuels utilization. ”Thailand has established a 10% target for a mix in regular gasoline. Indonesia plans to double the palm oil acreage area over the next 30 years, China has 45 listed companies doing biofuels-related businesses and is expected to grow even more because of China’s booming economy
Jatropha incentives in India
–
Seeds from the
Jatropha curcas plant are used for the production of bio-fuel, a crucial part of India's plan to attain energy sustainability.
12.
Ralegaon Siddhi
–
Ralegan Siddhi is a village in Parner taluka of Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra state in western India. It is located at a distance of 87 km from Pune, the village has an area of 982.31 ha. It is considered a model of environmental conservation, the village has carried out programs like tree planting, terracing to reduce soil erosion and digging canals to retain rainwater. For energy, the village uses solar power, biogas and a windmill, the project is heralded as a sustainable model of a village republic. The villages biggest accomplishment is in its use of non-conventional energy, for example, all the village street lights each have separate solar panels. The village is headed by a Sarpanch who is the chief of the Gram Panchayat, in 2001, the village had 394 households and a bunch of 2306. In 1975 the village was afflicted by drought, poverty prevailed, the village tank could not hold water as the embankment dam wall leaked. Work began with the percolation tank construction, Hazare encouraged the villagers to donate their labour to repair the embankment. Once this was fixed, the seven wells below filled with water in the summer for the first time in memory, now the village has water year round, as well as a grain bank, a milk bank, and a school. There is no longer any poverty, the Ralegan Siddhi example, now 25 years old, by demonstrating that it is possible to rebuild natural capital in partnership with the local economy, is a model for the rest of the country. Indian social activist Anna Hazare, Sarpanch of the village, is accredited to help in the development of the village and he was awarded the Padma Bhushan—the third-highest civilian award—by the Government of India in 1992 for his efforts in establishing this village as a model for others
Ralegaon Siddhi
–
Villages
13.
Ahmednagar District
–
Ahmednagar district is the largest district of Maharashtra state in western India. The historical Ahmednagar city is the headquarters of the district, Ahmednagar was the seat of the Ahmednagar Sultanate of late medieval period. This district is known for the towns of Shirdi associated with Sai Baba, Ahmednagar district is part of Nashik Division. The neighbouring districts to Ahmednagar district are Solapur, Osmanabad, Beed, Aurangabad, Nashik, Thane, Ahmednagar District was created after the defeat of the Maratha Confederacy in the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1818, when most of the Peshwas domains were annexed to British India. The district remained part of the Central division of Bombay Presidency until Indias independence in 1947, when it became part of Bombay State, in 2006 the Ministry of Panchayati Raj named Ahmednagar one of the countrys 250 most backward districts. It is one of the districts in Maharashtra currently receiving funds from the Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme. Ahmednagar is Maharashtra’s most advanced district in many ways and it has the maximum number of sugar factories, perhaps to spread the message of “Rural Prosperity through Cooperation” it gave the country half a century ago. The first cooperative sugar factory in Asia was established at Pravanagar, a role model of water conservation work can be seen at Ralegaon-Siddhi, which is also called the Ideal Village. Newase where Dnyaneshwari was written, Shri Saibaba’s Shirdi, one of Ashtavinayaks at Siddhatek, the Palace of Chandbibi, the Bhandardara dam, the Maldhok sanctuary and the Rehkuri sanctuary are some of the places of tourist attraction. Ahmednagar district consists of fourteen talukas and these talukas are Ahmednagar district has twelve Vidhan Sabha constituencies, six in each of the two parliamentary constituencies. Sangamner is much developed city than Shrirampur, ralegaon Siddhi is a village in the district that is considered a model of environmental conservation. In the 2001 India census, Ahmednagar district had a population of 4,040,642, at that time the district was 19. 89% urban. Males represented 51. 55% of the population, and females 48. 45%, according to census, Hindus were 84%, Muslims 7%, Christians 4% and others were 4%. In the 2011 census Ahmednagar district recorded a population of 4,543,083 and this gave it a ranking of 33rd among the districts of India. The district had a density of 266 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 12. 43%, ahmadnagar had a sex ratio of 934 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 80. 22%. Islam arrived in Ahmednagar during the Tughlaq dynasty, there are many Muslim monuments like Chand Bibi Mahal, Faria Baug, Ground Fort and many dargas, and they are found in main town and cities. Christianity arrived in the 18th century when the British took over the area from the Maratha empire onwards, christianity has been Ahmednagars third-largest religion, found all over the district except in the south-west
Ahmednagar District
Ahmednagar District
–
Location of Ahmednagar district in Maharashtra
Ahmednagar District
14.
Natural environment
–
The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some part of Earth and this environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a system in the desert. Though many animals build things to provide an environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams. People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum, more precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, in a field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil. Natural environment is used as a synonym for habitat. For instance, when we say that the environment of giraffes is the savanna. Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air, and life respectively. Some scientists include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, Earth science, is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology, the Earths crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools, beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes. An ocean is a body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earths surface is covered by ocean, a body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans. More than half of area is over 3,000 meters deep
Natural environment
–
Land management policies have been developed to preserve the natural characteristics of
Hopetoun Falls,
Australia while allowing ample access for visitors.
Natural environment
–
Bachalpsee in the
Swiss Alps: Mountainous areas in Switzerland are
summer farm pasture.
Natural environment
–
A satellite image of the
Sahara desert; the world's largest hot desert and third-largest desert after
Antarctica and the
Arctic.
Natural environment
–
A
volcanic fissure and
lava channel.
15.
Conservation ethic
–
Conservation is an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection. Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the world, its fisheries, habitats. Secondary focus is on conservation, including non-renewable resources such as metals, minerals and fossil fuels, and energy conservation. Those who follow the conservation ethic and, especially, those who advocate or work toward conservation goals are termed conservationists, the terms conservation and preservation are frequently conflated outside of the academic, scientific, and professional literatures. Both terms involve a degree of protection, but how that is protection is carried out is the key difference, Conservation is generally associated with the protection of natural resources, while preservation is associated with the protection of buildings, objects, and landscapes. Put simply, conservation seeks the proper use of nature, while preservation seeks protection of nature from use, during the environmental movement of the early 20th century, two opposing factions emerged, conservationists and preservationists. More Utilitarian schools of conservation seek a proper valuation of local and global impacts of human activity upon nature in their effect upon human well being, now and to posterity. How such values are assessed and exchanged among people determines the social, political and this is a view common in the modern environmental movement. These movements have diverged but they have deep and common roots in the conservation movement, in the United States of America, the year 1864 saw the publication of two books which laid the foundation for Romantic and Utilitarian conservation traditions in America. The posthumous publication of Henry David Thoreaus Walden established the grandeur of unspoiled nature as a citadel to nourish the spirit of man, in common usage, the term refers to the activity of systematically protecting natural resources such as forests, including biological diversity. Carl F. Jordan defines the term as, biological conservation as being a philosophy of managing the environment in a manner that does not despoil, exhaust or extinguish. While this usage is not new, the idea of conservation has been applied to the principles of ecology, biogeography, anthropology, economy. The term conservation itself may cover the concepts such as diversity, genetic diversity. These are often summarized as the priority to respect diversity, especially by Greens, much recent movement in conservation can be considered a resistance to commercialism and globalization. Slow food is a consequence of rejecting these as moral priorities, distinct trends exist regarding conservation development. Thus countries like Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, etc, — a long time before there were national parks and national nature reserves. Protected areas in developing countries, where probably as many as 70–80 percent of the species of the live, still enjoy very little effective management. The Adopt A Ranger Foundation has calculated that worldwide about 140,000 rangers are needed for the areas in developing
Conservation ethic
–
Satellite photograph of industrial deforestation in the Tierras Bajas project in eastern Bolivia, using
skyline logging and replacement of forests by agriculture
Conservation ethic
–
Much attention has been given to preserving the natural characteristics of
Hopetoun Falls,
Australia, while allowing access for visitors.
Conservation ethic
–
The
Daintree Rainforest in
Queensland,
Australia
Conservation ethic
–
Bachalpsee in the
Swiss Alps; generally mountainous areas are less affected by human activity.
16.
Make in Maharashtra
–
Make in India is an initiative launched by the Government of India to encourage multi-national, as well as national companies to manufacture their products in India. It was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 25 September 2014, in 2015, India received US$63 billion in FDI. Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched Make in India on 25 September 2014 in a function at the Vigyan Bhavan, the major objective behind the initiative is to focus on job creation and skill enhancement in 25 sectors of the economy. The initiative also aims at high quality standards and minimising the impact on the environment, the initiative hopes to attract capital and technological investment in India. The campaign was designed by Wieden+Kennedy, under the initiative, brochures on the 25 sectors and a web portal were released. Before the initiative was launched, foreign equity caps in various sectors had been relaxed, the application for licenses was made available online and the validity of licenses was increased to three years. Various other norms and procedures were also relaxed, in August 2014, the Cabinet of India allowed 49% foreign direct investment in the defence sector and 100% in railways infrastructure. The defence sector previously allowed 26% FDI and FDI was not allowed in railways and this was in hope of bringing down the military imports of India. Earlier, one Indian company would have held the 51% stake, between September 2014 and November 2015, the government received ₹1.20 lakh crore worth of proposals from companies interested in manufacturing electronics in India. 24. 8% of smartphones shipped in the country in the April–June quarter of 2015 were made in India, with the demand for electronic hardware expected to rise rapidly to US$400 billion by 2020, India has the potential to become an electronic manufacturing hub. The government is targeting to achieve net zero imports of electronics by 2020 by creating a level playing field, Make in India focuses on the following twenty-five sectors of the economy, Automobiles As per the new Govt. Policy 100% FDI is permitted in all the sectors, except for space, defence. India ranks 130th out of 190 countries in the World Banks 2016 ease of doing business index, covering the period from June 2014, India was ranked 134th in the 2015 index. The World Bank does not consider reforms initiated by a government in its ease of doing business index, but instead considers feedback from actual beneficiaries of those reforms. The move is intended to take advantage of this fact to improve Indias ranking on the index, in particular, the government criticised the World Banks decision to survey only two cities - Delhi and Mumbai - and use it to rank the whole of India. In January 2015, the Spice Group said it would start a mobile phone manufacturing unit in Uttar Pradesh with an investment of ₹5 billion, a memorandum of understanding was signed between the Spice Group and the Government of Uttar Pradesh. In February, Samsung said that will manufacture the Samsung Z1 in its plant in Noida, in February 2015, Hitachi said it was committed to the initiative. It said that it would increase its employees in India from 10,000 to 13,000 and it said that an auto-component plant will be set up in Chennai in 2016
Make in Maharashtra
–
Prithviraj Chavan,then chief minister of Maharashtra India; Sudha Pilay,then member secretary, planning commission, India; and
Ben Verwaayen, chief executive officer, Alcatel-Lucent, France were the co-chairs of the India Economic Summit 2011 in
Mumbai
Make in Maharashtra
–
Location of Maharashtra (marked in red) in
India
Make in Maharashtra
–
Nariman Point in
Mumbai
Make in Maharashtra
–
Modi and Cabinet ministers at the concluding session of the National Workshop on Make in India in New Delhi, December 2014.
17.
Solapur
–
Solapur is a city located in the south-eastern region of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Solapur is located on road and rail routes between Mumbai and Hyderabad, with a branch line to the cities of Bijapur and Gadag in the neighbouring state of Karnataka. It is classified as a 2 Tier and B-2 class city by House Rent Allowance classification by the Government of India and it is 49th-most-populous city in India and 43rd-largest urban agglomeration. Solapur has speakers of Marathi and kannada Solapur district has the highest number of factories in India. Solapur leads Maharashtra in production of Indian cigarettes or Beedi, solapuri Chadars and towels are famous in India and also at a global level, however there has been a significant decline in their exports due to quality reasons. Solapuri chadars are the famous and first product in Maharashtra to get a Geographical Indication tag It has been a centre for cotton mills. Solapur had the worlds second-largest and Asias largest spinning mill, the National Research Centre on Pomegranate of India is located in Solapur. and pomegranate farming is done on a large scale in Solapur District. The Science Centre in Kegaon is the third largest and prominent scientific association in Maharashtra, the Raichur- Solapur Power Transmission line of 765 kV power capacity suffices the power grid accessing need of the southern states of Karanataka and Andhra Pradesh. The first waste-to-energy electricity plant in Maharashtra is situated in Solapur, the Gramadevata of the city is Shri Shivyogi Siddheshwar. In 1992, the Solapur Municipal Corporation extended its area up to 300 square kilometres by merging its suburbs, the present city of Solapur was considered to be spread over sixteen villages viz. It is evident from the inscriptions of Shivayogi Lord Siddheshwar of the time of the Kalachuristis of Kalyani, the town was known as Sonnalagi even up to the times of Yadavas. A Sanskrit inscription dated Śakē1238, after the downfall of the Yadavas found at Kamati in Mohol shows that the town was known as Sonalipur. One of the found in Solapur fort shows that the town was called Sonalpur while another inscription on the well in the fort shows that it was known as Sandalpur. Subsequently, the British rulers pronounced Solapur as Sholapur and hence the name of the district, the present Solapur district was previously part of Ahmednagar, Pune and Satara districts. In 1838 it became the Sub-district of Ahmednagar and it included Barshi, Mohol, Madha, Karmala, Indi, Hippargi and Muddebihal Sub-divisions. In 1864 this Sub-district was abolished, the Solapur Municipal Council was the first municipal council to hoist the indian national flag on the Municipal Council building in 1930. The municipal corporation building was built by Rao Saheb Mallappa Warad and he was also one of the first ones to bring the farming tractor in India. It was his wish that the building should be used for public purpose
Solapur
–
Satrasta in Solapur
Solapur
–
Kambar Talav (lake), also known as Sambhaji Talav (lake)
Solapur
–
Main entrance of Solapur Railway Station
Solapur
–
NH9, the
Pune -
Machilipatnam highway at the outskirts of Solapur.
18.
Ichalkaranji
–
Ichalkaranji is a Town in Kolhapur district in the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is governed by a municipal council, Ichalkaranji Town is known for its export of Textile goods and textile manufacturing industry. The Nearest Airport from Ichalkaranji is Pune, Maharashtra and Belgaum, Kolhapur Airport is currently under construction. After construction it will be the nearest airport, Ichalkaranji is in western India about 425 kilometres south east of Mumbai. The City is growing rapidly and now merging with neighbouring Jaysingpur town to form a large satellite suburban township with Sangli city which is just 24 kilometres away, the city of Ichalkaranji assumes a place amongst the cities having highest per capita income in the country. Ichalkaranji City was a Maratha Princely state situated on the banks of Panchganga River and it was ruled by the Ghorpade dynasty for the last two centuries. He was the source of inspiration for the development of both the decentralized textile industry as well as the co-operative movement. He encouraged Mr. Vitthalrao Datar, an entrepreneur of the town. Perhaps this was the first power loom started in the textile industry of the country. Thus, Ichalkaranji has given a new concepts and dimensions to the field of India. The foresighted ruler gave a royal patronage by extending financial assistance as well as land to the desires weavers. The dynasty of Maratha rulers of Ichalkaranji, having its origin in the middle of the century, has had a long. A Brahmin widow, by the surname of Joshi, failing to eke out a living in the village of Mhapan, near Vengurla, in the Sindhudurg district, decided to try her luck up over the ghats. So, taking her son, Naro Mahadeo, a lad of about seven, she came to the village of Kapshi. Naro Mahadeo early took a keen interest in the horses of the general. This stolen ride was observed by the alert Santaji, who roundly scolded the syce, but also began to take a deep interest in the prodigal boy, thus, Naro Mahadev, the lad was benefited by the generals personal attention. Naro in turn served Santaji loyally and both developed affection for each other, as Naro Mahadeo proved his ability, he was promoted and later on was rewarded with Inams. Out of gratitude to his benefactor, Naro went on to change his surname from Joshi to Ghorpade and it was not long after this that Pune became the political centre of Maharashtra
Ichalkaranji
–
Universal Testing Machine made in Ichalkaranji
Ichalkaranji
–
This article contains wording that
promotes the subject in a subjective manner without imparting real information. Please remove or replace such wording and instead of making proclamations about a subject's importance, use facts and attribution to demonstrate that importance. (May 2015)
Ichalkaranji
–
Suke Mutton
19.
Indian Rupees
–
The Indian rupee, is the official currency of the Republic of India. The rupee is subdivided into 100 paise, though as of 2011,25 paise is no more a legal tender, the issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank manages currency in India and derives its role in management on the basis of the Reserve Bank of India Act,1934. The rupee is named after the coin, rupiya, first issued by Sultan Sher Shah Suri in the 16th century. In 2010, a new symbol ₹, was officially adopted and it was derived from the combination of the Devanagari consonant र and the Latin capital letter R without its vertical bar. The parallel lines at the top are said to make an allusion to the tricolour Indian flag, the first series of coins with the new rupee symbol started in circulation on 8 July 2011. On 8 November 2016 the Government of India announced the demonetisation of ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes with effect from midnight of the same day, a newly redesigned series of ₹500 banknote, in addition to a new denomination of ₹2000 banknote is in circulation since 10 November 2016. The new redesigned series is expected to be enlarged with banknotes in the denominations of ₹1000, ₹100. The word rupee was derived from the Sanskrit word रूप्यकम् or rupaya, the modern Indian rupee has a direct lineage from the rupiya, the silver coin, issued by Sher Shah Suri, continued by the Mughal rulers. Rūpa means to form or shape, example, Rūpyarūpa, rūpya — wrought silver, however, in the region of Bengal, the term taka has always been used to refer to currency. In the 14th century, Ibn Battuta noticed that people in the Bengal Sultanate referred to gold, today, the currency of Bangladesh is officially known as taka. The word taka in Bengali is also used generically to mean any money, currency. Thus, colloquially, a person speaking in Bengali may use taka to refer to money regardless of what currency it is denominated in, thus, in the states of West Bengal and Tripura the Indian rupee is officially known টাকা. Whereas, in the states of Assam and Odisha, the Indian rupee is known by names derived from the Sanskrit word ṭaṅka, টকা in Assamese. During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Sultan Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, the silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include, the Bank of Hindustan, the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar, historically, the rupee was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the century when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of relative to gold
Indian Rupees
–
Silver punch mark coin of the
Maurya empire, known as Rūpyarūpa, 3rd century BCE.
Indian Rupees
–
Indian rupee
Indian Rupees
–
Rupiya issued by
Sher Shah Suri, 1540–1545 CE
Indian Rupees
–
One-rupee banknote
20.
Pharmaceutical
–
A pharmaceutical drug is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy is an important part of the field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement. Drugs are classified in various ways, one of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs from over-the-counter drugs. Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, an elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs. In the US, a drug is, A substance recognized by an official pharmacopoeia or formulary, a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. A substance intended to affect the structure or any function of the body, a substance intended for use as a component of a medicine but not a device or a component, part or accessory of a device. Pharmaceutical or a drug is classified on the basis of their origin, Drug from natural origin, Herbal or plant or mineral origin, some drug substances are of marine origin. Drug from chemical as well as origin, Derived from partial herbal and partial chemical synthesis Chemical. Drug derived from animal origin, For example, hormones, Drug derived from microbial origin, Antibiotics Drug derived by biotechnology genetic-engineering, hybridoma technique for example Drug derived from radioactive substances. An elaborate and widely used system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, the main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and Local anesthetics. For consciousness Some anesthetics include Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates, the main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are, NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. Administration is the process by which a patient takes a medicine, there are three major categories of drug administration, enteral, parenteral, and other. It can be performed in various forms such as pills, tablets. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous and they can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously
Pharmaceutical
–
"Medication" redirects here. For other uses, see
Medication (disambiguation).
21.
Petrochemical
–
Petrochemicals, also called petroleum distillates, are chemical products derived from petroleum. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. The two most common classes are olefins and aromatics. Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions, chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of natural gas liquids like ethane and propane. Aromatics are produced by catalytic reforming of naphtha, Olefins and aromatics are the building-blocks for a wide range of materials such as solvents, detergents, and adhesives. Olefins are the basis for polymers and oligomers used in plastics, resins, fibers, elastomers, lubricants, global ethylene and propylene production are about 115 million tonnes and 70 million tonnes per annum, respectively. Aromatics production is approximately 70 million tonnes, the largest petrochemical industries are located in the USA and Western Europe, however, major growth in new production capacity is in the Middle East and Asia. There is substantial inter-regional petrochemical trade, primary petrochemicals are divided into three groups depending on their chemical structure, Olefins includes ethylene, propylene, and butadiene. Ethylene and propylene are important sources of chemicals and plastics products. Butadiene is used in making synthetic rubber, aromatics includes benzene, toluene, and xylenes. Benzene is a raw material for dyes and synthetic detergents, manufacturers use xylenes to produce plastics and synthetic fibers. Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen used to make ammonia, ammonia is used to make the fertilizer urea and methanol is used as a solvent and chemical intermediate. The prefix petro- is an abbreviation of the word petroleum, since petro- is Ancient Greek for rock. Therefore, the correct term would be oleochemicals. However, the term oleochemical is used to describe chemicals derived from plant, benzene, toluene and xylenes, as a whole referred to as BTX and primarily obtained from petroleum refineries by extraction from the reformate produced in catalytic reformers. Methane and BTX are used directly as feedstocks for producing petrochemicals, the output ethylene capacity of large steam crackers ranged up to as much as 1.0 –1.5 Mt per year. Steam crackers are not to be confused with steam reforming plants used to produce hydrogen, like commodity chemicals, petrochemicals are made on a very large scale. Petrochemical manufacturing units differ from commodity chemical plants in that often produce a number of related products
Petrochemical
–
Petrochemical plant in the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
22.
Chemical
–
A chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical methods, i. e. without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys, Chemical substances are often called pure to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a substance is pure water, it has the same properties. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond, gold, table salt, however, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical. Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions. Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not matter, a chemical substance may well be defined as any material with a definite chemical composition in an introductory general chemistry textbook. According to this definition a chemical substance can either be a chemical element or a pure chemical compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition, a substance can also be defined as a form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties. The chemical substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition, in geology, substances of uniform composition are called minerals, while physical mixtures of several minerals are defined as rocks. Many minerals, however, mutually dissolve into solid solutions, such that a rock is a uniform substance despite being a mixture in stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are an example, anorthoclase is an alkali aluminium silicate. In law, chemical substances may include both pure substances and mixtures with a composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH defines monoconstituent substances, multiconstituent substances and substances of unknown or variable composition, the latter two consist of multiple chemical substances, however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical analysis or reference to a single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is a complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing process. Therefore, although the chemical identity is unknown, identification can be made to a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures, polymers almost always appear as mixtures of molecules of multiple molar masses, each of which could be considered a separate chemical substance. However, the polymer may be defined by a precursor or reaction
Chemical
–
Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical substance, water.
Chemical
–
Colors of a single chemical (
Nile red) in different solvents, under visible and UV light, showing how the chemical interacts dynamically with its solvent environment.
Chemical
–
Native sulfur crystals. Sulfur occurs naturally as elemental sulfur, in
sulfide and
sulfate minerals and in
hydrogen sulfide.
Chemical
–
Potassium ferricyanide is a compound of potassium, iron, carbon and nitrogen; although it contains cyanide anions, it does not release them and is nontoxic.
23.
Electronics
–
Electronics is the science of controlling electrical energy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements, the science of electronics is also considered to be a branch of physics and electrical engineering. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible, until 1950 this field was called radio technology because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control and this article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a circuit board. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits, some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active or passive, vacuum tubes were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and they played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid state devices have all but completely taken over, vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors, thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic, circuits and components can be divided into two groups, analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types, most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, one rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance and this type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation, an example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit
Electronics
–
Surface-mount electronic components
Electronics
–
Electronics Technician performing a voltage check on a power circuit card in the air navigation equipment room aboard the aircraft carrier
USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72).
Electronics
–
Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency drive chassis
24.
Automobile
–
A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
Automobile
–
Benz "Velo" model (1894) by German inventor
Carl Benz – entered into an
early automobile race as a
motocycle
Automobile
–
A modern car,
BMW E90
Automobile
–
Cugnot's 1771 fardier à vapeur, as preserved at the
Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris
Automobile
–
Karl Benz, the inventor of the modern car
25.
Food processing
–
Food processing is the transformation of raw ingredients, by physical or chemical means into food, or of food into other forms. Food processing combines raw food ingredients to produce food products that can be easily prepared and served by the consumer. Salt-preservation was especially common for foods that constituted warrior and sailors diets until the introduction of canning methods and these tried and tested processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial revolution. Examples of ready-meals also date back to before the preindustrial revolution, both during ancient times and today in modern society these are considered processed foods. Modern food processing technology developed in the 19th and 20th centuries was developed in a part to serve military needs. Although initially expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the used in cans. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1864, improved the quality of preserved foods and introduced the wine, beer, in the late 20th century, products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed. In western Europe and North America, the half of the 20th century witnessed a rise in the pursuit of convenience. Food processing companies marketed their products especially towards middle-class working wives, frozen foods found their success in sales of juice concentrates and TV dinners. Processors utilised the perceived value of time to appeal to the population. Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and distribution tasks, modern supermarkets would not exist without modern food processing techniques, and long voyages would not be possible. Processed foods are less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh foods and are better suited for long distance transportation from the source to the consumer. When they were first introduced, some processed foods helped to alleviate food shortages, processing can also reduce the incidence of food borne disease. Fresh materials, such as produce and raw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms capable of causing serious illnesses. The extremely varied modern diet is only possible on a wide scale because of food processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as well as the elimination of much hard labour gives the modern eater easy access to a variety of food unimaginable to their ancestors. The act of processing can often improve the taste of food significantly, mass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual production of meals from raw ingredients. Therefore, a profit potential exists for the manufacturers and suppliers of processed food products
Food processing
–
Industrial
cheese production
Food processing
–
Michael Foods
egg -processing plant in Wakefield, Nebraska
Food processing
–
Grain silos in
Ardrossan,
Scotland
Food processing
–
A form of pre-made
split-pea soup that has become traditional
26.
Jeep
–
Jeep is a brand of American automobiles that is a division of FCA US LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. The former Chrysler Corporation acquired the Jeep brand, along with the assets of its owner American Motors. The division is headquartered in Toledo, Ohio, Jeeps current product range consists solely of sport utility vehicles and off-road vehicles, but has also included pickup trucks in the past. The original Jeep was the prototype Bantam BRC, Willys MB Jeeps went into production in 1941 specifically for the military, arguably making them the oldest four-wheel drive mass-production vehicles now known as SUVs. The Jeep became the primary light 4-wheel-drive vehicle of the United States Army, the term became common worldwide in the wake of the war. Doug Stewart notes, The spartan, cramped, and unstintingly functional jeep became the ubiquitous World War II four-wheeled personification of Yankee ingenuity and cocky, the first civilian models were produced in 1945. It inspired a number of light utility vehicles, such as the Land Rover. Many Jeep variants serving similar military and civilian roles have since been designed in other nations, only two companies responded to the request, American Bantam Car Company and Willys-Overland. The Army had set what seemed like an impossible deadline of 49 days to supply a working prototype, Willys asked for more time, but was refused. The bankrupt American Bantam Car Company had no engineering staff left on the payroll and solicited Karl Probst, after turning down Bantams initial request, Probst responded to an Army request and commenced work, initially without salary, on July 17,1940. Probst laid out plans for the Bantam prototype, known as the BRC or Bantam Reconnaissance Car. Bantams bid was submitted, complete with blueprints, on July 22, while much of the vehicle could be assembled from off-the-shelf automotive parts, custom four-wheel drivetrain components were to be supplied by Spicer. The hand-built prototype was completed in Butler, Pennsylvania, and driven to Camp Holabird, Maryland, the vehicle met all the Armys criteria except engine torque. The resulting Ford Pygmy and Willys Quad prototypes looked very similar to the Bantam BRC prototype, fifteen hundred of each of the three models were built and extensively field-tested. Delmar Barney Roos, Willys-Overlands chief engineer, made changes to meet a revised weight specification. He was thus able to use the powerful but comparatively heavy Willys Go Devil engine, the Willys version of the car would become the standardized Jeep design, designated the model MB and was built at their plant in Toledo, Ohio. The familiar pressed-metal Jeep grille was actually a Ford design feature, the Army chose Ford as the second supplier, building Jeeps to the Willys design. Willys supplied Ford with a set of plans and specifications
Jeep
–
Bantam BRC 40
Jeep
–
Ford Pygmy
Jeep
–
Dashboard of World War II era jeep.
Jeep
–
Jeep with
50 cal. Browning machine gun
27.
Car
–
A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
Car
–
Benz "Velo" model (1894) by German inventor
Carl Benz – entered into an
early automobile race as a
motocycle
Car
–
A modern car,
BMW E90
Car
–
Cugnot's 1771 fardier à vapeur, as preserved at the
Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris
Car
–
Karl Benz, the inventor of the modern car
28.
Synthetic fiber
–
Synthetic fibers is the result of extensive research by scientists to improve on naturally occurring animal and plant fibres. In general, synthetic fibers are created by extruding fiber forming materials through spinnerets into air and water, before synthetic fibres were developed, artificially manufactured fibres were made from polymers obtained from petrochemicals. These fibres are called synthetic or artificial fibres, some fibres are manufactured from plant-derived cellulose. Joseph Swan invented the first synthetic fiber in the early 1880s and his fiber was drawn from a cellulose liquid, formed by chemically modifying the fiber contained in tree bark. In 1885, he unveiled fabrics he had manufactured from his material at the International Inventions Exhibition in London. The next step was taken by Hilaire de Chardonnet, a French engineer and industrialist, who invented the first artificial silk, in the late 1870s, Chardonnet was working with Louis Pasteur on a remedy to the epidemic that was destroying French silkworms. Failure to clean up a spill in the darkroom resulted in Chardonnets discovery of nitrocellulose as a replacement for real silk. Realizing the value of such a discovery, Chardonnet began to develop his new product, unfortunately, Chardonnets material was extremely flammable, and was subsequently replaced with other, more stable materials. The first successful process was developed in 1894 by English chemist Charles Frederick Cross and they named the fiber viscose, because the reaction product of carbon disulfide and cellulose in basic conditions gave a highly viscous solution of xanthate. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company Courtaulds Fibers in 1905, the name rayon was adopted in 1924, with viscose being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane. A similar product known as cellulose acetate was discovered in 1865, rayon and acetate are both artificial fibers, but not truly synthetic, being made from wood. Nylon, the first synthetic fiber, was developed by Wallace Carothers and it soon made its debut in the United States as a replacement for silk, just in time for the introduction of rationing during World War II. Its novel use as a material for womens stockings overshadowed more practical uses, such as a replacement for the silk in parachutes, the first polyester fiber was introduced by John Rex Whinfield and James Tennant Dickson, British chemists working at the Calico Printers Association, in 1941. They produced and patented the first polyester fibre which they named Terylene, also known as Dacron, equal to or surpassing nylon in toughness, ICI and DuPont went on to produce their own versions of the fibre. The world production of fibers was 55.2 million tonnes in 2014. Synthetic fibers are made from synthesized polymers or small molecules, the compounds that are used to make these fibers come from raw materials such as petroleum based chemicals or petrochemicals. These materials are polymerized into a long, linear chemical that bond two adjacent carbon atoms, differing chemical compounds will be used to produce different types of fibers. Synthetic fibers account for half of all fiber usage, with applications in every field of fiber
Synthetic fiber
–
Joseph Swan created the first synthetic fiber.
Synthetic fiber
–
Nylon was first synthesized by
Wallace Carothers at
DuPont.
Synthetic fiber
–
A device for spinning Viscose Rayon dating from 1901
29.
Fiber
–
Fiber or fibre is a natural or synthetic substance that is significantly longer than it is wide. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials, the strongest engineering materials often incorporate fibers, for example carbon fiber and ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene. Natural fibers develop or occur in the shape, and include those produced by plants, animals. Plant fibers are employed in the manufacture of paper and textile, wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable fiber, is from tree sources. Forms include groundwood, lacebark, thermomechanical pulp, and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps, animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are silkworm silk, spider silk, sinew, catgut, wool, sea silk and hair such as wool, mohair and angora, fur such as sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox, beaver. Mineral fibers include the asbestos group, asbestos is the only naturally occurring long mineral fiber. Six minerals have been classified as asbestos including chrysotile of the serpentine class, short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite and palygorskite. Instances are collagen family of proteins, tendon, muscle proteins like actin, cell proteins like microtubules and many others, spider silk, sinew, man-made or chemical fibers are fibers whose chemical composition, structure, and properties are significantly modified during the manufacturing process. Man-made fibers consist of regenerated fibers and synthetic fibers, the earliest semi-synthetic fiber is the cellulose regenerated fiber, rayon. Most semi-synthetic fibers are cellulose regenerated fibers, cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from natural cellulose. The cellulose comes from sources, rayon from tree wood fiber, Modal from beech trees, bamboo fiber from bamboo, seacell from seaweed. In the production of fibers, the cellulose is reduced to a fairly pure form as a viscous mass. Therefore, the process leaves few characteristics distinctive of the natural source material in the finished products. Some examples are, rayon bamboo fiber Lyocell, a brand of rayon Modal, historically, cellulose diacetate and -triacetate were classified under the term rayon, but are now considered distinct materials. Synthetic come entirely from materials such as petrochemicals, unlike those man-made fibers derived from such natural substances as cellulose or protein. Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel, carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and via pyrolysis carbonized polymers like PAN, but the end product is almost pure carbon. Silicon carbide fibers, where the polymers are not hydrocarbons but polymers
Fiber
–
A bundle of
optical fibers
Fiber
–
Fundamentals
30.
Pune Metropolitan Area
–
The Pune Metropolitan Region is the region that consists of two municipal corporations and three cantonments of Pune Metro City. The population of the region as per 2011 census was 7,541,946 in May 2014, the Pune Metropolitan Development Authority is the governing body of the Pune Metropolitan Region. The jurisdiction of PMRDA covers Maval, Pune, parts of Haveli, Bhor, Daund, Shirur, Mulshi, Khed talukas of Pune district
Pune Metropolitan Area
–
History
18 000 crores and accounts for more than 30 per cent of the country's software exports, with over 1,200 software units based in the state.[4] Maharashtra ranks first nationwide in coal-based thermal electricity as well as nuclear electricity generation with national market shares of over 13% and 17% respectively. Maharashtra is also introducing Jatropha cultivation and has started a project for the identification of suitable sites for Jatropha plantations.[5] Ralegaon Siddhi is a village in Ahmednagar District that is considered a model of environmental conservation.[6]
