1.
Governor of Pennsylvania
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The Governor of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is the head of the executive branch of Pennsylvanias state government and serves as the commander-in-chief of the states military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce laws, and the power to approve or veto bills passed by the Pennsylvania Legislature. The governor may grant pardons except in cases of impeachment, there have been seven presidents and 46 governors of Pennsylvania, with two governors serving non-consecutive terms, totaling 55 terms in both offices. The longest term was that of the first governor, Thomas Mifflin, the shortest term belonged to John Bell, who served only 19 days as acting governor after his predecessor resigned. The current governor is Tom Wolf, whose term began on January 20,2015, Pennsylvania was one of the original thirteen colonies, and was admitted as a state on December 12,1787. Prior to declaring its independence, Pennsylvania was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain, the first Pennsylvania constitution in 1776 created the Supreme Executive Council as the states executive branch, with the President as its head. The president was chosen annually by the council, though no specific term dates. The original 1776 constitution created the position of vice-president, though no provision was made if the office of president became vacant, contemporary sources continue to label the chief executive in such times as the vice president, without any notion of succeeding to the presidency. One acting president, George Bryan, was recognized as a full-fledged governor. The 1838 constitution moved the start of the term to the third Tuesday of the January following the election, the 1874 constitution lengthened the term to four years, and prohibited governors from succeeding themselves. The current constitution of 1968 changed this to allow governors to two consecutive terms. There are no limits on the number of terms a governor may serve in total as long as there is a break after a second term. Under the 1968 constitution, Milton Shapp was the first governor to serve 2 terms, should both offices be vacant, the president pro tempore of the state senate becomes governor. The position of lieutenant governor was created in the 1874 constitution, prior to then, originally, the lieutenant governor could only act as governor, it was not until the 1968 constitution that the lieutenant governor could actually become governor in that fashion. The office of governor has been vacant for an extended period once, Governors and lieutenant governors are elected on the same ticket. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Pennsylvania except where noted, † Denotes those offices from which the governor resigned to take the governorship. Even when the first bill was proposed to purchase a home, rather, the home was and is designated as a residence. Even during the 79 years that Keystone Hall was used, it was simply as that
2.
Catherine Baker Knoll
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Catherine Baker Knoll was an American politician and member of the Democratic Party. She was the 30th Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania, serving under Governor Ed Rendell from 2003 to 2008, Catherine Baker was born in the Pittsburgh suburb of McKees Rocks, the daughter of Nick Baker, a successful man who later served as mayor of McKees Rocks and Teresa May. She was one of nine children, one of five girls, Charles Knoll and Catherine had three sons and one daughter. Their names are Charles A. Knoll Jr. Mina Baker Knoll, Albert Baker Knoll, Knoll began her political career as a campaign worker for local and statewide Democratic candidates, first for her father, Nick, and later for Governor Milton Shapp. When Shapp was elected governor in 1970, he awarded Knoll a job with the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation. In 1976, she ran for the Democratic nomination for State Treasurer but lost to Robert E. Casey, who was unrelated to, but often confused with Bob Casey who went on to become Governor of Pennsylvania. She ran again in 1984 but lost a primary in which her opponent, Auditor General Al Benedict, originally conceded on election night. In 1988, one year after her husbands death, she ran a time and was elected State Treasurer of Pennsylvania. In 1994, the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission launched an investigation into Knoll, Knoll claimed that the official paperwork had been altered after she signed off on the plan. Knoll was never charged with a crime but the well-publicized inquiry hurt her politically, however, the four state consultants were found guilty and served prison time. The State Committee voted to no candidate and Knoll re-entered the race only to finish third in a seven-way primary. In 1996, Knoll, who was limited, endorsed her daughter Mina Baker Knoll as her successor. Mina Knolls opponent, Republican Barbara Hafer questioned her status because she had lived in New York City. The race, which Hafer won, opened a rift between the two women that culminated in 2000 when Knoll herself ran against Hafer for Treasurer, in the end, Hafer won the election by less than 100,000 votes. In 2002, Knoll sought the Democratic nomination for Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania and she faced nine candidates in the primary, including state Senators Allen Kukovich, John Lawless, Thaddeus Kirkland, and Jack Wagner, the later of which was endorsed by the state party. Maintaining her base of support among women and senior citizens, Knoll won the primary with 25% of the vote and she was paired with Democratic nominee for governor Ed Rendell, who also defeated the establishment favorite in his primary. Her campaign was memorable for her traveling from town to small town. The Rendell/ Knoll ticket won the general election 53% to 44% over Republicans Mike Fisher, Knoll was sworn in as Pennsylvanias first-ever woman Lieutenant Governor on January 21,2003
3.
Joseph B. Scarnati
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Joe Scarnati is an American politician from the U. S. State of Pennsylvania. He is a member of the Republican Party and is currently the President pro tempore of the Pennsylvania State Senate, Scarnati is in his fourth term as Senator from the 25th District. As President Pro Tempore, he assumed the role of Lieutenant Governor upon the death of Catherine Baker Knoll on November 12,2008 and he was sworn in on December 3,2008. He did not seek election to the post in 2010, and was succeeded as Lieutenant Governor by Jim Cawley, Scarnati was born and raised in Brockway, Pennsylvania, a borough located in Jefferson County. He graduated from Penn State DuBois with a A. A. in Business Administration in 1982, prior to his senate election, Scarnati served on both the Brockway Borough Council and the Jefferson County Development Council. In 1996, Scarnati first ran for Pennsylvanias 25th senate district when incumbent Republican State Senator John E. Peterson decided to retire in order to run for congress, Scarnati lost the Republican primary to Bill Slocum by 351 votes. Slocum won the primary with a plurality of 32% of the vote in the four candidate field, in 2000, Slocum was convicted of illegal dumping and resigned. Scarnati ran for the seat as an independent against Slocum, who was attempting a comeback in the election to replace him. Scarnati won the election with 33% of the vote, defeating Democratic nominee Joseph J. Calla and he edged Calla by just 197 votes. After the election, he switched back to the Republican party, in 2004, Scarnati ran for re-election with no Democratic opposition in his first re-election campaign. He defeated Constitution Party nominee Alan R. Kiser 90%-10%, in 2008, he won re-election to a third term, defeating Democrat Donald L. Hilliard 67%-33%. In 2012, he won re-election to a fourth term unopposed, in May 2006, Robert Jubelirer and David Brightbill, the Republicans two top leaders were defeated in the primary election, victims of the legislative pay raise fallout. Scarnati narrowly won the race to replace Jubelirer against veteran lawmakers Stewart Greenleaf, upon the death of Lieutenant Governor Catherine Baker Knoll on November 12,2008, Scarnati assumed the position of Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania. He served as acting Lieutenant Governor until he was sworn into office on Wednesday and he did not seek election to the post in 2010, and was succeeded as Lieutenant Governor by Jim Cawley. Scarnati played a role in representing Republicans during Pennsylvanias 2009 budget impasse. He was seen as the de facto leader to Rendell. As a matter of fact, anyone who has ventured outdoors the past few days may very well have good reason to disagree with that point of view and it had been snowing in Harrisburg, off and on, for the previous two days. Scarnati was criticized for confusing weather with climate, abruzzo was confirmed in a 42-8 vote
4.
Mark S. Schweiker
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Mark Stephen Schweiker is a businessman and politician who served as the 44th Governor of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania from October 5,2001 to January 21,2003. Schweiker, a Republican, became Governor of Pennsylvania in 2001, Schweiker serves as the SVP and Chief Relationship Officer of Renmatix. Mark Schweiker, second son of John and Mary Schweiker, was born in Levittown, Bucks County and he is of German and Irish descent. He attended Bishop Egan High School in Bucks County and earned a Bachelor of Science degree from Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania and he holds a masters degree in administration from Rider University. He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Law degree from Rider University in 2004, after college he entered the business world and held positions at Sadlier Oxford and McGraw Hill. Later, he formed his own management consulting firm, Schweiker entered politics in 1979 when he successfully ran for supervisor of Middletown Township. In 1987, he was elected Bucks County Commissioner, Schweiker and fellow Republican Andrew Warren overturned a Democratic majority on the board, largely on the strength of opposition to a water project planned for Point Pleasant. In 1994, Schweiker successfully ran for the Republican nomination for Lieutenant Governor, Schweiker ran in the fall general election alongside Congressman Tom Ridge, the gubernatorial nominee. Constitution Party candidate Peg Luksik captured 12.8 percent of the vote, the Ridge–Schweiker ticket easily won reelection in 1998. In a 2002 PoliticsPA feature story designating politicians with yearbook superlatives, Schweiker had decided against a run for the governors office in 2002 and was preparing to finish out his term when the September 11th terrorist attack occurred. Ridge resigned as governor on October 5,2001, to join the Bush administration as Homeland Security Advisor, Schweiker began preparing for the transition as acting governor on September 20, and was formally sworn in as Pennsylvanias 44th governor on the day of Ridges resignation. By provision of the Pennsylvania Constitution, Robert Jubelirer, the President Pro Tempore of the State Senate and this became a matter of some controversy as Jubelirer retained his leadership position and seat in the state senate. Schweiker also faced budget shortfalls due to the collapse following the attacks. Schweiker negotiated the takeover of the school district and also was the first governor of Pennsylvania to put state funds into pre-school activities. He also passed the most significant tort reform measures in recent decades, when he replaced Ridge, following the rescue, Schweiker implemented a series of new safety procedures to provide better protection for miners. However, he did send out a release as a joke on April Fools Day announcing his intention to run. Rendell won the election and was sworn in as Schweikers successor on January 21,2003 and he was named to the PoliticsPA list of Sy Snyders Power 50 list of influential individuals in Pennsylvania politics in 2003. He left office when his term expired on January 21,2003 and he also works as a consultant to the law firm of Stradley Ronon
5.
Tom Corbett
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Thomas Wingett Tom Corbett, Jr. is an American politician and attorney who served as the 46th Governor of Pennsylvania from January 18,2011 to January 20,2015. He is a member of the Republican Party, born in Philadelphia, Corbett is a graduate of Lebanon Valley College and St. Marys University School of Law and served as a captain in the Pennsylvania Army National Guard. Corbett began his career as an assistant district attorney in Allegheny County, Corbett then joined the U. S. Department of Justice as an assistant U. S. Attorney for the Western District of Pennsylvania, serving from 1980 to 1983, upon entering private practice. W. In 1995, Corbett was appointed to fill the remainder of Ernie Preates term as Attorney General of Pennsylvania, Corbett then reentered private practice and worked as the general counsel for Waste Management, Inc before being elected Attorney General of Pennsylvania in 2004. Corbett was then elected to a term in 2008, serving a total of two non-consecutive tenures as Attorney General from 1995 to 1997, and 2005 to 2011. Corbett declared his candidacy for Governor in March 2009 and he won the Republican nomination and defeated Democratic nominee Dan Onorato, with 54. 5% of the vote in the 2010 general election. He was sworn into office on January 18,2011, on November 8,2013 he announced his intention to run for a second term as the states chief executive. Corbett lost his bid for a term to Democrat Tom Wolf in the November 4,2014 general election. This election marked the first time an incumbent Governor running for re-election in Pennsylvania lost since William Bigler in 1854, Corbett was born in Philadelphia, the son of Mary Bernardine and Thomas W. Corbett. He received his Bachelors degree at Lebanon Valley College and was employed as a 9th grade teacher for one year, Corbett then earned his J. D. from St. Marys University Law School. He served in the Pennsylvania Army National Guards 28th Infantry Division from 1971 to 1984, Corbetts career has been split between private practice and civil service. He began his career as an assistant district attorney in Pittsburghs Allegheny County in 1976. After three and a half years, he was hired in 1980 as an assistant United States Attorney for the Western District of Pennsylvania, in 1983, Corbett entered private practice as an associate partner at Rose, Schmidt, Hasley & DiSalle. From 1988 and 1989, Corbett won his first election as a commissioner in the Pittsburgh suburb of Shaler Township. In 1988, a judge appointed him to monitor the Allegheny County jail while it was under the courts supervision, in 1989, Senators John Heinz and Arlen Specter recommended to President Bush that he nominate Corbett as U. S. Attorney for the Western District of Pennsylvania. Corbett served in the post until May 1993, when he was dismissed by President Bill Clinton, Corbett then returned to private practice, also serving as an adviser to the gubernatorial campaign of Tom Ridge. Following Ridges victory, Corbett served on a number of commissions including the Pennsylvania Commission on Crime and Delinquency. Corbett left office in 1997 and again went into the sector, first as general counsel for Waste Management
6.
National Governors Association
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The National Governors Association is an organization consisting of the governors of the states, territories and commonwealths of the United States. The NGAs role is to act as a voice for governors on matters of national policy, as well as allowing governors to share best practices. The organization was founded in 1908 as the National Governors Conference, the NGA represents the governors of the fifty U. S. states and five U. S. territories. It is funded primarily by state dues, federal grants and contracts, NGA serves as a key public policy liaison between the state governments and the federal government. The NGA Center for Best Practices focuses on state innovations and best practices on issues that range from education and health to technology, welfare reform, NGA also provides management and technical assistance to both new and incumbent governors. The vice chair is usually of the party to the chair. The current NGA chair is Governor Terry McAuliffe of Virginia, a Democrat, the vice chair is Governor Brian Sandoval of Nevada, a Republican. Bill Clinton is, to date, the former chair of the organization to become President of the United States. Janet Napolitano became the first female chair in 2006, formally adopted as policy in 1977, chairs preside for a one-year term and alternate party affiliation, which means that the same party never serves for two terms in a row. A similar organization in Mexico United States Conference of Mayors National Governors Association –19 official homepage of the American NGA
7.
Tim Pawlenty
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Timothy James Tim Pawlenty is president and CEO of Financial Services Roundtable, a Washington, D. C. -based industry advocacy group. He was a Republican politician who served as the 39th Governor of Minnesota and he previously served in the Minnesota House of Representatives, where he was majority leader for two terms. In 2011, he entered the campaign for the Republican presidential nomination, Pawlenty was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, and raised in nearby South St. Paul. He graduated from University of Minnesota with a B. A. in political science and his early career included working as a labor law attorney and the vice president of a software as a service company. After settling in the city of Eagan with his wife, Pawlenty was appointed to the citys Planning Commission and was elected to the Eagan City Council at the age of 28 and he won a seat as a state representative in 1992, representing District 38B in suburban Dakota County. He was re-elected four times and was voted majority leader by House Republicans in 1998, after narrowly winning the Republican gubernatorial primary in 2002, Pawlenty won a three-way election for Governor of Minnesota, and was re-elected in 2006 by a margin of less than one percent. His campaign platform focused on balancing the budget without raising taxes, during Pawlentys governorship, he did not raise income taxes, but did enact targeted increases in sales tax and user fees. He signed a bill mandating 20% ethanol in gasoline by 2013 and he cut health care costs in an attempt to balance the budget, and borrowed funds from the states K-12 education and low income programs. He signed an order rejecting federal funds related to the Patient Protection. He also led worldwide trips for business leaders and trade delegations to explore trade opportunities, in the 2007–2008 term, he served as chairman of the National Governors Association. After withdrawing from that race, he became a finalist to join his partys nominee on the 2012 ticket as its presidential candidate. Pawlenty was not selected as Mitt Romneys vice presidential candidate, in September 2012, he left Romneys campaign to become a Washington lobbyist for financial institutions. Pawlenty was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, to Eugene Joseph Pawlenty and his father, who drove a milk delivery truck, was of Polish descent, while his mother was of German ancestry. His mother died of cancer when he was 16, Pawlenty grew up in South St. Paul, where he played ice hockey on his high schools junior varsity squad. Intending to become a dentist, Pawlenty enrolled in the University of Minnesota, however, he changed his plans and spent the summers of 1980 and 1982 working as an intern at the office of U. S. In 1983, he graduated with a B. A. in political science and he received a Juris Doctor from the University of Minnesota Law School in 1986. While in law school, he met wife, Mary Anderson, Pawlenty first worked as a labor law attorney at the firm Rider Bennett, where he had interned while a law student. He later became president of a software as a service company
8.
Jim Douglas
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James Holley Jim Douglas is an American politician from the state of Vermont. A Republican, he was elected the 80th governor of the state in 2002 and was reelected three times with a majority of the vote, on August 27,2009, Douglas announced that he would not seek re-election for a fifth term in 2010. He left the office in January 2011, on January 3,2011, Douglas became an executive in residence at Middlebury College where he taught a 24 student course titled Vermont Government and Politics. Douglas is the director of the Vermont Historical Society. Douglas currently serves on the Governors’ Council of the Bipartisan Policy Center in Washington, Douglas was born in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts. In 1968, he graduated from East Longmeadow High School in the town of East Longmeadow and he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Middlebury College in Middlebury, Vermont, where he had been active in the College Republicans, eventually becoming chairman. At Middlebury College, Douglas was a Russian Studies major, Vermont maintains a sister-state relationship with the Republic of Karelia, Russia, though this relationship was started in 1991 under the governorship of Madeline Kunin. In November 1972, Douglas was elected to the Vermont House of Representatives and he left the Vermont General Assembly in 1979, afterwards serving as a top aide to Governor Richard A. Snelling. Douglas was elected Secretary of State in November 1980, a post which he held until 1992 and that year he sought election to the U. S. Senate, but was defeated by Democratic incumbent Patrick Leahy. During his tenure as Vermont State Treasurer, Democrat Paul W. Ruse Jr, because of the controversy, in 1994 Ruse decided not to run for reelection. This decision was not widely known, Ruse stated that he withheld his decision not to run so that Ed Flanagan, the incumbent Vermont State Auditor, would not run for treasurer. Flanagan and Ruse had been involved in a behind the dispute over details of an auditor’s report about the treasurer’s office. In the general election, Douglas faced only token opposition, ruse’s deputy had retired in October 1994. After Douglas won the election, Ruse offered him the deputy’s position so that Douglas would have an opportunity to learn the workings of the treasurer’s office. Douglas accepted, and served as deputy state treasurer from November 1994 until beginning his term as treasurer in January 1995, Douglas was reelected in 1996,1998 and 2000. In the 2002 gubernatorial election to succeed five-term Governor Howard Dean, the Vermont constitution requires that the state legislature select who is to become governor if no candidate receives over 50% of the votes. Because neither candidate won 50% of the vote, Douglas was officially selected by the legislature as required by the state constitution, Douglas won reelection to a second two-year term in 2004, defeating Democrat Peter Clavelle,59 to 38 percent. In early 2005, Douglas announced that he would not run against Democratic-leaning independent Jim Jeffords in the 2006 Senate race, on April 30, Douglas announced again that he would not seek Jeffords seat, and simultaneously announced that he would run for re-election for governor in 2006
9.
Democratic National Committee
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The Democratic National Committee is the formal governing body for the United States Democratic Party. The committee coordinates strategy to support Democratic Party candidates throughout the country for local, state and it organizes the Democratic National Convention held every four years to nominate and confirm a candidate for president, and to formulate the party platform. While it provides support for party candidates, it not have direct authority over elected officials. The DNC is composed of the chairs and vice-chairs of each state Democratic Party committee and over 200 members elected by Democrats in all 50 states and its chairperson is elected by the committee. It conducts fundraising to support its activities, the DNC was established at the 1848 Democratic National Convention. The DNCs main counterpart is the Republican National Committee, the DNC is responsible for articulating and promoting the Democratic platform and coordinating party organizational activity. When the president is a Democrat, the party generally works closely with the president, there are state committees in every state, as well as local committees in most cities, wards, and towns. The chairperson of the DNC is elected by vote of members of the Democratic National Committee, primary elections, in particular, are invariably conducted by state governments according to their own laws. Outside of the process of nominating a candidate, the DNCs role in actually selecting candidates to run on the party ticket is minimal. All DNC members are superdelegates to the Democratic National Convention whose role can influence a close primary race, sitting Democratic governors and members of Congress. Distinguished party leaders, consisting of current and former presidents, vice presidents, congressional leaders, in the 2002 election cycle, the DNC and its affiliated committees raised a total of US $162,062,084, 42% of which was hard money. The largest contributor, with US $7,297,937 was the Saban Capital Group, fred Eychaner, the owner of Newsweb Corporation, gave the second highest amount of money to the DNC and its affiliates, US $5,175,000. The third largest contributor was Steve Bing of Shangri-La Entertainment, who gave US $4,758,000, in the 2006 election cycle, the DNC raised a total of US $37,939,887. The three largest contributors were investment bank Goldman Sachs, university of California and Pond North LLP. The DNC introduced a fund raising campaign, the Democracy Bonds program. There were only 31,000 Democracy Bond donors by May 2006, the program no longer is in place. In the 2016 election cycle, the DNC raised a total of US $75,945,536 as of July 21,2016, the three largest contributors were hedge fund Renaissance Technologies, Newsweb Corp and Total Wine. In July 2015, during the 2016 election cycle, the DNC, led by Debbie Wasserman-Schultz, Chair, Tom Perez, former U. S. Secretary of Labor under Barack Obama Deputy Chair, Keith Ellison, U. S. S
10.
Roy Romer
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Roy Rudolf Romer was the 39th Governor of Colorado and served as the superintendent of the Los Angeles Unified School District from 2001 to 2006. Romer was born in Garden City, Kansas and he grew up in the southeastern Colorado town of Holly. Romer received a degree in agricultural economics from Colorado State University in 1950. He later received a law degree from the University of Colorado School of Law in 1952 and he also studied ethics for one year at Yale Divinity School, and was a legal officer in the U. S. Air Force. He and his wife, Bea, have seven children and 19 grandchildren and his son Paul Romer is an economist, and his son Chris Romer, was elected to a Colorado State Senate seat from Denver in November 2006. In the 1950s and 1960s, Romer was an attorney in Denver and he was also active in the management of his familys agricultural operations throughout Colorado. Romer has continued and is also the owner, with one of his sons, of a chain of John Deere equipment stores in Colorado, Virginia and he helped develop Colorados Centennial Airport, ran a flying school and owned and operated a ski area. Romer served in the Colorado House of Representatives from 1958 to 1962, Romer was Colorado State Treasurer from 1977 to 1987, and a member of the governors cabinet. Romer was first elected as governor in 1986, and re-elected in 1990 and 1994, in 1997, Romer, along with Utah Governor Michael O. Leavitt and Wyoming Governor Jim Geringer, led a bipartisan team of 19 state governors in the founding of Western Governors University. Romer chaired the Democratic Governors Association in 1991, in 1992, he was co-chairman of the Democratic National Platform Committee. Romer served as vice chair of the Democratic Leadership Council. In January 1997, Romer was elected to serve as chairman of the Democratic National Committee. From 1992 to 1993, Romer served as chair of the National Governors Association, in 1994–1995 he chaired the Education Commission of the States, and in 1995, was part of a bipartisan effort by the nations governors to reform Medicaid. In law, his name is associated with the anti-discrimination suit Romer v. Evans that was brought to the Supreme Court during his tenure as Governor of Colorado. Though he was opposed to the amendment to the Constitution of Colorado in question, he defended the law in state, the Supreme Court ultimately ruled against the states defense of Amendment 2 has a rational relationship to legitimate state interests. The Court then invalidate Amendment 2 under the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution, the state ultimately failed to give a Rational basis to the purpose of the law. The lawsuit alleged David Grant attempted to lure the districts 700,000 students to a pornographic website, Roy Romer and the Los Angeles Unified School District subsequently settled the suit by paying Grant $360,000.00 in exchange for the domain name royromer. com. On June 7,2000, he became Superintendent of the Los Angeles Unified School District, on October 12,2006, the Los Angeles Board of Education unanimously named David L. Brewer III as his successor
11.
Terry McAuliffe
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Terence Richard Terry McAuliffe is an American politician and former businessman, who is currently serving as the 72nd Governor of Virginia. McAuliffe was previously a candidate for the Democratic nomination in the 2009 gubernatorial election. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, he ran unopposed in the Democratic primary and he defeated Republican Ken Cuccinelli and Libertarian Robert Sarvis in the general election, collecting 47. 8% of the vote, Cuccinelli garnered 45. 2% and Sarvis received 6. 5%. McAuliffe assumed office on January 11,2014, McAuliffe was born and raised in Syracuse, New York, the son of Mildred Katherine Lonergan and Jack McAuliffe. His father was an estate agent and local Democratic politician. The family is of Irish Catholic descent and he graduated from Bishop Ludden Junior/Senior High School in 1975. In 1979, he earned a degree from The Catholic University of America where he served as a resident adviser. After graduating, McAuliffe worked at President Jimmy Carters re-election campaign, following the campaign, McAuliffe enrolled at the Georgetown University Law Center, and received his juris doctor degree in 1984. At age of 14, McAuliffe started his first business, McAuliffe Driveway Maintenance, sealing driveways, according to The Washington Post, McAuliffe has earned millions as a banker, real estate developer, home builder, hotel owner, and internet venture capitalist. In 1985, McAuliffe helped found the Federal City National Bank, in January 1988, when McAuliffe was thirty years old, the banks board elected McAuliffe as chairman, making him the youngest chairman in the United States Federal Reserve Banks charter association. In 1991, McAuliffe negotiated a merger with Credit International Bank, McAuliffe became the vice-chairman of the newly merged bank. Shareholders questioned if he was special treatment, Chairman Richard V. Allen denied the allegation. In 1979, McAuliffe had met Richard Swann, a lawyer who was in charge of fundraising for Jimmy Carters presidential campaign in Florida, in 1988, McAuliffe married Swanns daughter, Dorothy. McAuliffe invested $800,000 in Swanns American Pioneer Savings Bank, the Resolution Trust Corporation, a federal agency, took over American Pioneers assets and liabilities. Under Swanns guidance, McAuliffe purchased some of American Pioneers real estate from the Resolution Trust Corporation, McAuliffes equal partner in the deal was a pension fund controlled by the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and the National Electrical Contractors Association. They purchased real estate, valued at $50 million, for $38.7 million, the deal was arranged by Jack Moore, a NECA trustee, and acquaintance of McAuliffe. Next, McAuliffe acquired a distressed house-building company, American Heritage Homes, McAuliffe served as chairman of American Heritage along with CEO Carl H. Linder. The Florida-based company came out of distress under a plan in which it built 800 homes a year, in 1997, McAuliffe invested $100,000 in Global Crossing, a Bermuda-registered telecommunications company
12.
Wilson Goode
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W. Wilson Goode is a former Mayor of Philadelphia and the first African American to hold that office. He served from 1984 to 1992, a period included the controversial MOVE police action. Goode was also a community activist, commissioner for the state Public Utility Commission, Goode was born into a family of tenant farmers in North Carolina, arriving in Philadelphia in 1954. After graduating from John Bartram High School in January,1957, after African-American state senators complained that there had never been an African-American member of the state Public Utility Commission, Governor Milton Shapp began actively searching for one. His aide, Terry Dellmuth, knew Goode from his community and political activities, Shapp nominated him and the state senate, despite its record of obstructing Shapps PUC choices, confirmed him. He was soon elevated to the chairmanship of the PUC, where he continued his pro-consumer policies, Green kept his promise by appointing Goode as managing director at the urging of members of the Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce and key members of the black community. Goode used this position to make himself visible, frequently attending community events all over the city. During the primary election of 1983, Green decided not to seek re-election when his wife, Patricia, Goode jumped into the race and defeated former Mayor Frank Rizzo in a racially polarized primary election. Goode went on to win the election over former Green fund-raiser and Philadelphia Stock Exchange Chairman John Egan. Goode continued his heavy public schedule as Mayor, during the final assault on the building, the police dropped an improvised bomb made of C-4 plastic explosive and Tovex, an explosive gel used in underwater mining. This caused the house to fire, and ignited a massive blaze which eventually consumed almost 4 city blocks, killed 11 people. While public opinion initially supported Goode, an investigation by an appointed by Goode held extensive public hearings in which Goodes judgement was held up to public scrutiny. Goode defeated Rendell for the nomination and then defeated Rizzo, who became the Republican nominee, in both primary and general elections, Philadelphias black voters stuck by Goode, although with less enthusiasm than he had aroused in 1983. In an attempt to re-balance the citys budget, Goode pushed through tax increases that raised the citys wage tax to a high of 4.96 percent. His successors, Edward G. Rendell and John Street were able to reduce the city wage tax incrementally, in the election of 1991, Goode was unable to maintain Philadelphias black vote as a unified bloc. White withdrew before the primary and Rendell won the nomination, Goode stayed active after leaving as mayor by attending community meetings, hosting a radio show on WDAS, and holding mid-level positions in the U. S. Department of Education. He became active for a time in the development programs of Landmark Education, including the Landmark Forum. He currently serves as an adviser to Public/Private Ventures where he oversees Amachi
13.
John F. Street
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John Franklin Street is an American politician and lawyer who served as the 97th Mayor of the City of Philadelphia. He was first elected to a beginning on January 3,2000. He followed Ed Rendell as mayor, assuming the post on January 3,2000, Street was Philadelphias second black mayor. Street floated the possibility of being a candidate for office in Pennsylvania. In light of corruption scandals, those prospects have diminished, time Magazine listed him as one of the three worst big-city mayors in the United States in 2005. Street was born in Norristown, Pennsylvania, and grew up as a member of a farming household, in his first professional job, Street taught English at an elementary school and, later, at the Philadelphia Opportunities Industrialization Center. He also practiced law prior to entering into public service. He is married and has four children and he is also a practicing Seventh-day Adventist. His brother, Milton, is a member of the state legislature. Inspired by his brothers successful election in 1978, Street made his foray into elected politics in 1979. Moore was a popular and respected civil rights leader in the city who was active within the NAACP, Moore was, however, in failing health. He initially sought to see-off the challenge from Street, but died before the May primary, Street won the election, and quelled some of the tensions over his original challenge to Moore by sponsoring a bill to rename the former Columbia Avenue in Moores honor. Street was chosen unanimously by members of the Council to serve as President in 1992, after incumbent Joe Coleman retired, despite decreasing the business and wage tax four years in a row, Philadelphia still has the 10th largest tax burden in the United States. This is due to the burden to run the citys prisons, pay debt service. Street was elected in one of the closest elections in Philadelphia history, in 2001, he was named runner up Politician of the Year by PoliticsPA. Street was once challenged by Sam Katz. Despite an ongoing FBI investigation, Street was aided by Pennsylvania Governor and former Mayor of Philadelphia, Street won with 58% of the vote for reelection. The race was covered in the documentary film The Shame of a City and his relationship with the City Council was tenuous at best
14.
Ronald D. Castille
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Ronald D. Castille served on the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania from 1994 to 2014, and was Chief Justice from 2008 to 2014. He stepped down from the court in 2014 after reaching the retirement age of 70. He was the District Attorney of the City of Philadelphia from 1986 until 1991 and is a member of the Republican Party and he is also an amputee, having lost his right leg to enemy gunfire while serving as a Marine platoon commander during the Vietnam War. Castille received a B. S. in Economics from Auburn University in 1966, following graduation was commissioned an officer in the United States Marine Corps in Vietnam where he served as a platoon commander in 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines. On March 16,1967, Castille was conducting a Search and destroy mission with his company in Duc Pho, during the fighting Castille was seriously wounded and fell, unable to move. One of his Marines, Angel Mendez shielded him and then carried him to friendly lines, which were more than seventy-five meters away. During this action Mendez was hit in the shoulder and two of his comrades rushed to him with Castille but Mendez refused to let go of Castille. Mendez continued to shield his Lieutenant with his own body until he was mortally wounded, for his actions Mendez was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross and promoted to Sergeant. Following his medical retirement from the Marine Corps in 1968 Castille received his J. D. from the University of Virginia School of Law, moving to Philadelphia 1971, District Attorney Arlen Specter hired Castille as an Assistant District Attorney. He served in capacity for 14 years, from 1971 to 1985. In 1985 he was elected District Attorney of Philadelphia and served from January,1986 through 1991 and he narrowly lost in the Republican primary to former Democratic Mayor Frank Rizzo by 47,523 votes to 46,094. Prior to his election to the Supreme Court, he was in practice as a civil litigator for Reed Smith Shaw & McClay in Philadelphia. He was elected to the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania in 1993, on January 14,2008, Castille was sworn in as Chief Justice of Pennsylvania. He reached the retirement age of 70 years on March 16,2014. Castille was elected to membership in the American Law Institute in 2014, while Chief Justice, Castille, in his capacity as head administrator of the Pennsylvania courts, hired Jeffrey B. Rotwitt to act as the attorney in a project to build a new family courthouse in Philadelphia County. Castille later claimed to have been duped by Rotwitt, in 2012, Castille, a Republican, cast the deciding vote against the Pennsylvania Legislative Reapportionment Commissions redistricting map, siding with his Democratic colleagues. In his opinion, Castille wrote that the map split too many municipalities and he also wrote the unanimous opinion upholding the LRCs revised redistricting maps in 2013
15.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
16.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
17.
Midge Rendell
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Marjorie Midge Osterlund Rendell is a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit and a former First Lady of Pennsylvania. In 2003, she was named to the PoliticsPA list of Pennsylvanias Most Politically Powerful Women, Rendell was born in Wilmington, Delaware. Her father was employed as a DuPont executive and she attended Ursuline Academy and she married Ed Rendell, a future Governor of Pennsylvania, in 1971. On January 21,2003, Judge Rendell administered the oath of office to her husband after he won the election in November 2002. During her husbands campaigns for mayor and governor, Rendell was barred by the judicial ethics code from publicly campaigning on his behalf. On February 7,2011, a joint email from the announced that they had amicably separated. They have one son, Jesse. On September 6,2016, Ed Rendell announced the couple had filed for amicable divorce and she received a Bachelor of Arts degree, cum laude, from the University of Pennsylvania in 1969 and a Juris Doctor from Villanova University School of Law in 1973. Afterward, she practiced as an attorney for 20 years as a partner at the Philadelphia firm of Duane, Morris & Heckscher and she also served as a mediator for the United States District Court. While in private practice, Judge Rendell experienced sexism originating from both her clients and cohorts, at times, she was called honey by her male colleagues and would hide or downplay the existence of her then young son. In 1994, she was appointed by President Bill Clinton and confirmed by the Senate to serve as a judge for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. In 1997, she was again nominated by President Clinton and confirmed by the Senate. The circuit court cases from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware. In 1993, Rendell founded and managed Avenue of the Arts and she currently serves as one of the members of the board of directors. She is also a trustee of the University of Pennsylvania, judges of the United States Courts
18.
University of Pennsylvania
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The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees
19.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
20.
Villanova University
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Villanova University is a private research university located in Radnor Township, a suburb northwest of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, within the Archdiocese of Philadelphia in the United States. Named after Saint Thomas of Villanova, the school is the oldest Catholic university in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, U. S. News & World Report ranks Villanova as tied for the 50th best National University in the U. S. for 2017. The university is a member of the Augustinian Secondary Education Association, in October 1841, two Augustinian friars from Saint Augustines Church in Philadelphia purchased the 200-acre Belle Air estate in Radnor Township with the intention of starting a school. The school, which was called the Augustinian College of Vilanova, however, the Philadelphia Nativist Riots of 1844 that burned Saint Augustines Church in Philadelphia caused financial difficulties for the Augustinians, and the college was closed in February 1845. The college reopened in 1846 and graduated its first class in 1847, in March 1848, the governor of Pennsylvania incorporated the school and gave it the power to grant degrees. In 1859, the first masters degree was conferred on a student, in 1857, the school closed again as the demand for priests in Philadelphia prevented adequate staffing, and the crisis of the Panic of 1857 strained the school financially. The school remained closed throughout the Civil War and reopened in September 1865 and its prep department later moved to Malvern, a town along the Main Line, and is still run by the order. The School of Technology was established in 1905, in 1915, a two-year pre-medical program was established to help students meet medical schools new requirements. This led to a four-year pre-medical program, the B. S. in biology, Villanova was all-male until 1918, when the college began evening classes to educate nuns to teach in parochial schools. In 1938, a laywoman received a Villanova degree for the first time and it was not until the nursing school opened in 1953 that women permanently began attending Villanova full-time. In 1958, the College of Engineering admitted its first female student, Villanova University became fully coeducational in 1968. During World War II, Villanova was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission, after World War II, Villanova expanded, returning veterans swelling enrollments and the faculty growing fourfold. Additional facilities were built, and in 1953, the College of Nursing, Villanova achieved university status on November 18,1953. Between 1954 and 1963,10 new buildings were built or bought on land adjacent to the campus, including Bartley, Mendel, during the 1970s and 1980s, Villanova worked to become a nationally recognized university. The quality of faculty and students improved dramatically and international studies programs were introduced, additional residential and recreational facilities were constructed, and efforts to increase the endowment were undertaken. In the 1980s, endowed chairs were established in theology, philosophy, engineering, and business, scholarship funding was increased, and the curriculum expanded and improved. An extensive building campaign created facilities for the Colleges of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Engineering, Commerce, and Finance, as well as student residences on the south, in 1985, the school also won the Mens NCAA basketball tournament, giving the school increased national exposure. Augustine High School in San Diego, which was established in 1922 with teaching staff dispatched from Villanova, Villanova University sits on 254 acres just 12 miles from Center City Philadelphia
21.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
22.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
23.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
24.
Second lieutenant
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Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces, comparable to NATO OF-1b rank. Like the United Kingdom, the rank of second lieutenant replaced the rank of ensign, the rank of second lieutenant was phased out in the Australian Regular Army in 1986. The Canadian Forces adopted the rank insignia of a single gold ring around the service dress uniform cuff for both army and air personnel upon unification in 1968 until the late 2000s. For a time, naval personnel used this rank but reverted to the Royal Canadian Navy rank of acting sub-lieutenant, currently, the Canadian Army insignia for second lieutenant is a pip and the Royal Canadian Air Force insignia for lieutenant is one thick braid. The equivalent rank for the Royal Canadian Navy is acting sub-lieutenant, also known as an Ensign in the Foot Guards units. The insignia consists of a bar in accordance with the color of the ceremonial uniform buttons. For cavalry or forest rangers, ceremonial dress buttons were silver, as was the horn on the forest commissioned officers képi. The insignia consists of a silver star. Officers holding this rank should be addressed as Kyrie Anthypolochage by their subordinates, in Indonesia, Second lieutenant is known as Letnan Dua which is the most junior ranked officer in the Indonesian Military. Cadets who graduate from the Indonesian Military Academy achieve this rank as young officers, senior Non-commissioned officers promoted to becoming commissioned officers go to the Officers Candidate School in Bandung for achieving the Second Lieutenant rank. The Lieutenant rank has two levels, which are Second lieutenant and First lieutenant, lieutenants in Indonesia usually command a Platoon level of troops and are referred to as Danton abbreviated from Komandan Pleton in Indonesian. Since 1951 in the Israel Defense Forces (סגן-משנה (סגמ segen mishne has been equivalent to a second lieutenant, from 1948 –1951 the corresponding rank was that of a segen, which since 1951 has been equivalent to lieutenant. Segen mishne means junior lieutenant and segen literally translates as assistant, typically it is the rank of a platoon commander. Note that the IDF uses this rank across all three of its services, the equivalent rank in Norway is fenrik. This is the first rank, where they are commanding officer, Fenriks are usually former experienced sergeants but to become a fenrik one has to go through officers training and education. Fenriks fill roles as second in command within a platoon, Fenriks are in some cases executive officers. Most fenriks have finished the War Academy as well, and are fully trained officers, to qualify for the Military Academy, Fenriks are required to do minimum 6 months service in international missions, before or after graduation. The Pakistan Army follows the British pattern of ranks, a second lieutenant is represented by one metal pip on each shoulder in case of khaki uniform and one four quadric printed star on the chest in case of camouflage combat dress
25.
United States Army Reserve
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The United States Army Reserve is the federal reserve force of the United States Army. Together, the Army Reserve and the Army National Guard constitute the Army element of the Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces. On 30 June 2016, Lieutenant General Charles D. Luckey became the 33rd Chief of Army Reserve, on 23 April 1908 Congress created the Medical Reserve Corps, the official predecessor of the Army Reserve. This organization provided a pool of trained Reserve officers and enlisted men for use in war. The Organized Reserve included the Officers Reserve Corps, Enlisted Reserve Corps, the Organized Reserves were redesignated 25 March 1948 as the Organized Reserve Corps. Recognizing the importance of the Organized Reserve to the World War II effort, Congress authorized retirement, a tentative troop basis for the Organized Reserve Corps, prepared in March 1946, outlined 25 divisions, three armored, five airborne, and 17 infantry. These divisions and all other Organized Reserve Corps units were to be maintained in one of three categories, labeled Class A, Class B, and Class C. The troop basis listed nine divisions as Class A, nine as Class B, eventually the War Department agreed and made the appropriate changes. Although the dispute over Class A units lasted several months, the War Department proceeded with the reorganization of the Organized Reserve Corps divisions during the summer of 1946. That all divisions were to begin as Class C units, progressing to the categories as men and equipment became available. Also, the War Department wanted to take advantage of the pool of trained reserve officers, by that time Army Ground Forces had been reorganized as an army group headquarters that commanded six geographic armies. The armies replaced the nine areas of the prewar era. The First United States Army declined to support a division. After the change, the Organized Reserve Corps had four airborne, the Second Army insisted upon the number 80 for its airborne unit because the division was to be raised in the prewar 80th Divisions area, not that of the 99th. Finally, the 103rd Infantry Division, organized in 1921 in New Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona, was moved to Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, a major problem in forming divisions and other units in the Organized Reserve Corps was adequate housing. While many National Guard units owned their own armories, some dating back to the nineteenth century, although the War Department requested funds for needed facilities, Congress moved slowly in response. During the summer and fall of 1951 the six army commanders in the United States, staff agencies, the army commanders urged that all divisions in the Organized Reserve Corps be infantry divisions because they believed that the reserves could not adequately support armored and airborne training. They thought thirteen, rather than twelve, reserve divisions should be maintained to provide a geographic distribution of the units
26.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
27.
Author
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An author is narrowly defined as the originator of any written work and can thus also be described as a writer. More broadly defined, an author is the person who originated or gave existence to anything, in the copyright laws of various jurisdictions, there is a necessity for little flexibility regarding what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States to authors of works of authorship. After a fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public domain, however, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his/her work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time its created, an interesting aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to another upon ones death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, questions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the issue of fan fiction. If the media responsible for the authorized production allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal constraints from actors, music. Additionally, how does copyright apply to fan-generated stories for books, what powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction. In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting, in the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text. Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author and he writes, in his essay Death of the Author, that it is language which speaks, not the author. The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, with this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak. Michel Foucault argues in his essay What is an author and that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that a letter may have a signatory—it does not have an author. For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to certain standards upon the text which. Foucaults author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a work, a part of its structure
28.
American Jews
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American Jews, also known as Jewish Americans, are Americans who are Jews, either by religion, ethnicity, or nationality. The Jewish community in the United States is composed predominantly of Ashkenazi Jews and their US-born descendants, Minority Jewish ethnic divisions are also represented, including Sephardic Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and a smaller percentage of converts to Judaism. The American Jewish community manifests a wide range of Jewish cultural traditions, depending on religious definitions and varying population data, the United States is home to the largest or second largest Jewish community in the world. In 2012, the American Jewish population was estimated at between 5.5 and 8 million, depending on the definition of the term and this constitutes between 1. 7% and 2. 6% of the total U. S. population. Jews have been present in what is today the United States of America since the mid-17th century, however, they were small in number, with at most 200 to 300 having arrived by 1700. The majority were Sephardic Jewish immigrants of Spanish and Portuguese ancestry, until after 1720 when Ashkenazi Jews from Central, after passage of the Plantation Act of 1740, Jews were specifically permitted to become British citizens and immigrate to the colonies. Until about 1830, Charleston, South Carolina had more Jews than anywhere else in North America and they primarily became merchants and shop-owners. Jewish migration to the United States increased dramatically in the early 1880s, as a result of persecution, many Jews also emigrated from Romania. Over 2,000,000 Jews landed between the late 19th century and 1924, when the Immigration Act of 1924 restricted immigration, most settled in the New York metropolitan area, establishing the worlds major concentrations of Jewish population. In 1915 the circulation of the daily Yiddish newspapers was half a million in New York City alone, in addition thousands more subscribed to the numerous weekly papers and the many magazines. American Jewish writers of the time urged assimilation and integration into the wider American culture,500,000 American Jews fought in World War II, and after the war younger families joined the new trend of suburbanization. There, Jews became increasingly assimilated and demonstrated rising intermarriage, more recent waves of Jewish emigration from Russia and other regions have largely joined the mainstream American Jewish community. Americans of Jewish descent have been successful in many fields. Scholars debate whether the historical experience for Jews in the United States has been such a unique experience as to validate American exceptionalism. Korelitz shows how American Jews during the late 19th and early 20th centuries abandoned a racial definition of Jewishness in favor of one that embraced ethnicity. The key to understanding this transition from a racial self-definition to a cultural or ethnic one can be found in the ‘’Menorah Journal’’ between 1915 and 1925, siporin uses the family folklore of ethnic Jews to their collective history and its transformation into an historical art form. They tell us how Jews have survived being uprooted and transformed, many immigrant narratives bear a theme of the arbitrary nature of fate and the reduced state of immigrants in a new culture. By contrast, ethnic family narratives tend to show the more in charge of his life
29.
Russian Jews
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Jews in the Russian Empire have historically constituted a large religious diaspora, the vast territories of the Russian Empire at one time hosted the largest population of Jews in the world. The presence of Jewish people in the European part of Russia can be traced to the 7th–14th centuries CE, in the 11th and 12th centuries, the Jewish population in Kiev, in present-day Ukraine, was restricted to a separate quarter. Evidence of the presence of Jewish people in Muscovite Russia is first documented in the chronicles of 1471, during the reign of Catherine II in the 18th century, Jewish people were restricted to the Pale of Settlement within Russia, the territory where they could live or immigrate to. Beginning in the 1880s, waves of pogroms swept across different regions of the empire for several decades. More than two million Jews fled Russia between 1880 and 1920, mostly to the United States, before 1917 there were 300,000 Zionists in Russia, while the main Jewish socialist organization, the Bund, had 33,000 members. Only 958 Jews had joined the Bolshevik Party before 1917, thousands joined after the Revolution, the chaotic years of World War I, the February and October Revolutions, and the Russian Civil War had created social disruption that led to anti-Semitism. Some 150,000 Jews were killed in the pogroms of 1918–1922,125,000 of them in Ukraine,25,000 in Belarus and these were probably the largest-scale European massacres of Jews to date. The pogroms were perpetrated by anti-communist forces, sometimes, Red Army units engaged in pogroms as well. After a short period of confusion, the Soviets started executing guilty individuals, the Russian Civil War pogroms shocked world Jewry and rallied many Jews to the Red Army and the Soviet regime, and also strengthened the desire for the creation of a homeland for the Jewish people. In August 1919 the Soviet government arrested many rabbis, seized Jewish properties, including synagogues, the Jewish section of the Communist Party labeled the use of the Hebrew language reactionary and elitist and the teaching of Hebrew was banned. Zionists were persecuted harshly, with Jewish communists leading the attacks, following the civil war, however, the new Bolshevik governments policies produced a flourishing of secular Jewish culture in Belarus and western Ukraine in the 1920s. At the beginning of the 1930s, the Jews were 1.8 percent of the Soviet population, in 1934 the Soviet state established the Jewish Autonomous Oblast in the Russian Far East, but the region never came to have a majority Jewish population. Today, the JAO is Russias only autonomous oblast and, aside of Israel, the observance of the Sabbath was banned in 1929, foreshadowing the dissolution of the Communist Partys Yiddish-language Yevsektsia in 1930 and worse repression to come. Numerous Jews were victimized in Stalins purges as counterrevolutionaries and reactionary nationalists, the share of Jews in the Soviet ruling elite declined during the 1930s, but was still more than double their proportion in the general Soviet population. According to Israeli historian Benjamin Pinkus, We can say that the Jews in the Soviet Union took over the privileged position, in the 1930s, many Jews held high rank in the Red Army High Command, Generals Iona Yakir, Yan Gamarnik, Yakov Smushkevich and Grigori Shtern. During World War Two, an estimated 500,000 soldiers in the Red Army were Jewish, about 160,000 were decorated, and more than a hundred achieved the rank of Red Army general. Over 150 were designated Heroes of the Soviet Union, the highest award in the country, more than two million Soviet Jews are believed to have died during the Holocaust in warfare and in Nazi-occupied territories. For many years during this period, Russia had a rate of immigration to Israel than any other country
30.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
31.
Villanova University School of Law
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Villanova Universitys Charles Widger School of Law is part of the Villanova University System. The University is the oldest and largest Catholic University in Pennsylvania, Villanova was founded 150 years ago by the Augustinians, a prominent Roman Catholic teaching order. The University is located 25 minutes from Center City Philadelphia in the Main Line suburb of Villanova, opened in 1953, the School of Law is approved by the American Bar Association and is a member of the Association of American Law Schools. The faculty /student ratio is 17,1, in November 2007, the Villanova School of Law began construction on a new building to house classrooms, offices, and research facilities. The building was completed in August 2009, the new facility was built according to LEED standards and incorporate a park like setting with a walking trail. With School of Business J. D. /LL. M. in Law, in the program, credit is given for certain courses by both the School of Law and the School of Business. Through this program, degrees may be completed in time than it would take to obtain them separately. The Graduate Tax Program is a program led by Leslie M. Book conducted under the auspices of the Villanova University School of Law. The program has over 30 courses, which are available to JD candidates. Courses as well as participate in the joint JD/LL. M, Business students participating in the Graduate Tax Program may earn a Master of Science in Taxation degree. The Jeffrey S. Moorad Center for the Study of Sports Law was created in 2012, the Center prepares students for careers in sports-related fields. It is one of only a few in the United States dedicated to the study of law, and it is run by director Andrew Brandt, a lawyer, former NFL team executive. Hands-on clinical opportunities allow students to apply classroom experiences to real-world client representation, clinical programs include Federal Tax, Civil Justice, Asylum, Refugee, and Emigrant Services, and Farmworkers Legal Aid. The school also strives to provide leadership in technology, law and psychology, taxation. The 2016 edition of U. S. News & World Reports Best Graduate Schools increased Villanova Laws ranking to 74th in the country overall. In previous years, U. S. News & World Reports Best Graduate Schools ranked Villanova Law #87, #93, #101, #81, #67, the 2015 edition of Above the Laws Top 50 Law Schools ranked Villanova as the 38th best law school in the country. In 2015, the National Law Journal ranked Villanova Law as the #34 Go-To law school based on its employment statistics with the nations largest law firms, members of the law review are selected on the basis of academic rank or through an open writing competition. The Villanova Law Review was first published in 1956, the law journals are, Villanova Law Review Environmental Law Journal The Villanova Environmental Law Journal publishes both student and outside articles dealing with environmental issues
32.
Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, 1986
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The Pennsylvania Gubernatorial election of 1986 was held on November 4,1986. Democrat Bob Casey narrowly defeated Republican Bill Scranton III, in a race featured two very high profile candidates. Governor Bill Scranton III ran unopposed for the Republican nomination, the affable Casey had a reformist but conservative track record that made him popular in rural areas and unionized towns, while Rendell had a strong urban base. However, it was one of many negative ads that helped to sway the election. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Department of General Services
33.
Mayor of Philadelphia
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The Mayor of Philadelphia is the chief executive of the government of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as stipulated by the Charter of the City of Philadelphia. The current Mayor of Philadelphia is Jim Kenney, the first mayor of Philadelphia, Humphrey Morrey, was appointed by city founder William Penn. Edward Shippen was appointed by Penn as first mayor under the charter of 1701, subsequent mayors, who held office for one year, were elected by the city council from among their number. No compensation was paid to the earliest office-holders, and candidates often objected strongly to their being selected, in 1704 Alderman Griffith Jones was elected but declined to serve, for which he was fined twenty pounds. In 1706, Alderman Thomas Story was similarly fined for refusing office, in 1745, Alderman Abraham Taylor was fined thirty pounds for refusing the mayoralty, Council then elected Joseph Turner, who also refused and was likewise fined. Robert Wharton declined in 1800 and 1811, amid serving for 14 one-year terms, making him the most-often-elected, in 1747, at the request of retiring Mayor William Attwood, Council resolved to institute an annual salary of 100 pounds for the office. Nevertheless, that year, Anthony Morris secretly fled to Bucks County to avoid being notified of his election to the mayoralty. When after three days he could not be located, a new election had to be arranged, beginning in 1826, Council could elect any citizen of Philadelphia to the mayoralty. From 1839, mayors were elected by popular vote, if no candidate won a majority of the popular vote, then the joint Councils would decide between the two leading candidates. John Swift was the first mayor to be elected directly by the people in the 1840 election, the length of the term of office was extended to two years in 1854, to three years in 1861, and to four years in 1885. A two-consecutive-term limit was instituted in 1951, parties Democratic Democratic-Republican Federalist National Republican Republican Whig
34.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
35.
Al Gore
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Albert Arnold Al Gore Jr. is an American politician and environmentalist who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. He was Clintons running mate in their campaign in 1992. At the end of Clintons second term, Gore was picked as the Democratic nominee for the 2000 presidential election, after leaving office, Gore remained prominent as an author and environmental activist, whose work in climate change activism earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007. Gore was an official for 24 years. He was a Congressman from Tennessee and from 1985 to 1993 served as one of the states Senators and he served as Vice President during the Clinton administration from 1993 to 2001. In the 2000 presidential election, in what was one of the closest presidential races in history, Gore won the popular vote but lost in the Electoral College to Republican George W. Bush. A controversial election dispute over a vote recount in Florida was settled by the U. S. Supreme Court, and a senior adviser to Google. Gore is also a partner in the capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers. He has served as a professor at Middle Tennessee State University, Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, Fisk University. He served on the Board of Directors of World Resources Institute, Gore was also the subject of the Academy Award-winning documentary An Inconvenient Truth in 2006. In 2007, he was named a runner-up for Times 2007 Person of the Year, Gore was born in Washington, D. C. the second of two children of Albert Gore Sr. a U. S. Representative who later served for 18 years as U. S, Senator from Tennessee, and Pauline Gore, one of the first women to graduate from Vanderbilt University Law School. Gore is partly descended from Scots-Irish immigrants who first settled in Virginia in the mid-17th-century and his older sister Nancy LaFon Gore, who was born in 1938, died of lung cancer in 1984. During the school year he lived with his family in The Fairfax Hotel in the Embassy Row section in Washington D. C, during the summer months, he worked on the family farm in Carthage, Tennessee, where the Gores grew tobacco and hay and raised cattle. Gore attended St. Albans School, an independent college preparatory day and boarding school for boys in Washington, D. C. from 1956 to 1965, a prestigious feeder school for the Ivy League. He was the captain of the team, threw discus for the track and field team, and participated in basketball, art. He graduated 25th in his class of 51, applied to one college, Harvard. Gore met Mary Elizabeth Tipper Aitcheson from the nearby St. Agnes School at his St. Albans senior prom in 1965
36.
United States presidential election, 2000
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The United States presidential election of 2000 was the 54th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 7,2000, Bush was seen as the early favorite for the Republican nomination and, despite a contentious primary battle with Senator John McCain and other candidates, secured the nomination by Super Tuesday. Bush chose former Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney as his running mate, both major party candidates focused primarily on domestic issues, such as the budget, tax relief, and reforms for federal social insurance programs, although foreign policy was not ignored. Clinton and Gore often did not campaign together, a deliberate decision resulting from the Lewinsky sex scandal two years prior. This was the closest presidential election in the history, with a. 009% margin,537 votes. The narrow margin there triggered a mandatory machine recount the next day, after which Gore requested recounts in four counties, including populous South Florida, litigation ensued in numerous counties in both state and federal courts, ultimately reaching the Florida Supreme Court and the United States Supreme Court. Nationwide, this was the presidential election in which the winner received fewer votes than his opponent. After the election, recounts conducted by news media organizations continued a primary focus on ballots that machines read as not showing a vote. Based on the review of these ballots, their results indicated that Bush would have won if certain recounting methods had been used, but that Gore might have won under other standards and scenarios. The Green Party gained widespread attention during the 2000 presidential election when the ticket composed of Ralph Nader. Nader was vilified by some Democrats, who accused him of spoiling the election for Al Gore, Naders impact on the 2000 election has remained controversial. Until 2016, this was the last time a Republican candidate won a vote in the region of New England. As of 2017, this was the last election where a Republican candidate won New Hampshire, traditionally, the primary elections are indirect elections where voters cast ballots for a slate of party delegates pledged to a particular candidate. The partys delegates then officially nominate a candidate to run on the partys behalf, President Bill Clinton, a Democrat and former Governor of Arkansas, was ineligible to seek reelection to a third term due to restrictions of the Twenty-second Amendment. In accordance with Section I of the Twentieth Amendment, his term expired at 12,00 noon EST on January 20,2001, Democratic candidates Al Gore, Vice President of the United States Bill Bradley, former U. S. Senator from New Jersey Al Gore from Tennessee was a consistent front-runner for the nomination, of these, only Wellstone formed an exploratory committee. Running an insurgency campaign, Bradley positioned himself as the alternative to Gore, the closest Bradley came to a victory was his 50–46 loss to Gore in the New Hampshire primary. On March 14, Al Gore clinched the Democratic nomination, none of Bradleys delegates were allowed to vote for him, so Gore won the nomination unanimously at the Democratic National Convention
37.
Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, 2002
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The Pennsylvania gubernatorial election of 2002 was held on November 5,2002, and included the races for the governor and lieutenant governor of Pennsylvania. Attorney General Mike Fisher ran unopposed for the Republican nomination, although incumbent Governor Mark Schweiker was eligible to run for reelection, he chose not to seek his partys nomination. Despite polls showing that Schweiker polled well among the groups that backed Ridge. In the Democratic primary, Mayor of Philadelphia Ed Rendell defeated Pennsylvania Auditor General Bob Casey, despite strong support from organized labor for Casey, lackluster campaigning, combined with Rendells ability to cast himself as a strong executive allowed him to pull out a primary win. Rendell defeated Fisher with endless retail politicking and a hard-working campaign, the political website PoliticsPA praised Rendells campaign team of David L. Cohen, David W. Sweet, and Sandi Vito. Rendell was the first official from Philadelphia to win a spot in the mansion since 1914
38.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
39.
Democratic Governors Association
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The Democratic Governors Association is a Washington, D. C. based 527 organization founded in 1983, consisting of U. S. state and territorial governors affiliated with the Democratic Party. The mission of the organization is to provide party support to the election and re-election of Democratic gubernatorial candidates, the DGAs Republican counterpart is the Republican Governors Association. The DGA is not directly affiliated with the non-partisan National Governors Association, elisabeth Pearson is currently the Executive Director of the DGA. The DGA in its current form was founded by Virginia Governor Chuck Robb in 1983 with the help of Democratic National Committee Chairman Chuck Manatt. The purpose of the committee was to raise funds to elect Democrats to governorships, prior to its current formation in mid-1983, they met in a Democratic Governors Conference. The DGA played a role in the election of Bill Clinton to the Presidency in 1992. Republicans had handily won in all but Washington and Oregon the previous three elections, according to The Washington Post, it was all but unthinkable to Republicans that the GOP could lose such stalwart pieces of the partys electoral base as Wyoming and Nevada. Clinton lost Wyoming but carried Nevada, Colorado, Montana, Washington, Oregon, in the past 30 years Democratic Governors have served in various other government positions after their tenure. The following list provides recent positions from the Clinton and Obama administrations, thus senators such as Gaylord Nelson, Richard Russell Jr. Edmund Muskie, Majority Leader Joseph Taylor Robinson and etc. are not included. Ernest Fritz Hollings, even though he was elected in an election in 1966, is included in the list because he had won reelection in the years 1986,1992 and 1998. The leadership of the DGA consists of elected Democratic governors, there are currently 16 Democratic governors, In addition to governors of U. S. states, the DGA also offers membership to Democratic governors of U. S. territories. The DGA reported raising over $20 million in 2011, almost doubling what it raised during the comparable 2007 election cycle. Because of our efforts in 2011, we will have the resources to aid Democratic candidates in targeted states and continue to fight for our core priorities. We are delighted with the support of everyone who believes in our mission of creating jobs. Several former DGA staff members have gone on to prominent positions in the government and in the private. Former Communications Director Jake Siewert served as Press Secretary for President Bill Clinton for four months from 2000 to 2001, from 2001 to 2009, he worked for Alcoa Inc. In 2009, he became an advisor to then-Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner, former Policy Director Sheryl Rose Parker was Director of Intergovernmental Affairs for U. S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi. She is currently Deputy Director of Government Affairs for the Bill, former Policy Communications Director Doug Richardson served as Director of Public Affairs at the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy in the Obama administration
40.
Philadelphia Eagles
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The Philadelphia Eagles are a professional American football franchise based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Eagles compete in the National Football League as a club of the leagues National Football Conference East division. The franchise was established in 1933 as a replacement for the bankrupt Frankford Yellow Jackets, when a group led by Bert Bell secured the rights to an NFL franchise in Philadelphia. Bell, Chuck Bednarik, Bob Brown, Reggie White, Steve Van Buren, Tommy McDonald, Greasy Neale, Pete Pihos, Sonny Jurgensen, the team has an intense rivalry with the New York Giants. This rivalry is the oldest in the NFC East and is among the oldest in the NFL and they also have a historic rivalry with the Washington Redskins, as well as their bitter rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys, which has become more high-profile in the last three decades. The team consistently ranks in the top three in attendance and has sold out every game since the 1999 season, in a Sports Illustrated poll of 321 NFL players, Eagles fans were selected the most intimidating fans in the NFL. Midway through the 1931 season, the Frankford Yellow Jackets went bankrupt, the Bell-Wray group had to pay an entry fee of $3,500 and assumed a total debt of $11,000 that was owed to three other NFL franchises. Neither the Eagles nor the NFL officially regard the two franchises as the same, citing the period of dormancy. Furthermore, almost no Yellow Jackets players were on the Eagles first roster, the Eagles, along with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the now-defunct Cincinnati Reds, joined the NFL as expansion teams. To accommodate football at Shibe Park during the winter, management set up stands in right field, some 20 feet high, these east stands had 22 rows of seats. The goalposts stood along the first base line and in left field, the uncovered east stands enlarged capacity of Shibe Park to over 39,000, but the Eagles rarely drew more than 25 to 30,000. The Eagles struggled over the course of their first decade, enduring repeated losing seasons, soon after, Bell and Rooney traded the Eagles franchise to Thompson and moved it to Pittsburgh, while Thompson moved the Steelers franchise to Philadelphia. By the late 1940s, head coach Earle Greasy Neale and running back Steve Van Buren led the team to three consecutive NFL Championship Games, winning two of them in 1948 and 1949. After the 1957 season, the Eagles moved from Connie Mack Stadium to Franklin Field at the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin Field would seat over 60,000 for the Eagles, whereas Connie Mack had a capacity of 39,000. The stadium switched from grass to AstroTurf in 1969 and it was the first NFL stadium to use artificial turf. In 1960, the Eagles won their third NFL championship, under the leadership of future Pro Football Hall of Famers Norm Van Brocklin and Chuck Bednarik, the head coach was Buck Shaw. The 1960 Eagles, by a score of 17–13, became the team to defeat Vince Lombardi. The Eagles had a good 1961 season and then fell on hard times in 1962
41.
NBC Sports Regional Networks
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The networks were originally established as Comcast SportsNet, a unit of Comcasts cable television business, beginning with a network in Philadelphia which launched in 1997. Their operations were aligned with the national NBC Sports division following the 2011 acquisition of NBC Universal by Comcast, NBC Sports Regional Networks business and master control operations are based in New York City, New York. The group operates seven regional networks, Comcast also has an ownership interest in SportsNet New York, which is co-owned with Charter Communications. Since the alignment of CSN with NBC, the networks have continued to operate primarily under the Comcast SportsNet name. Although the company originally considered dropping the Comcast branding on the networks in favor of NBC following the merger, HTS was later relaunched as Comcast SportsNet Mid-Atlantic on April 4,2001. On October 1,2004, Comcast SportsNet Chicago was launched to replace FSN Chicago, also in October 2004, Comcast SportsNet West was launched conjunction with Maloof Sports & Entertainment, owners of the Sacramento Kings. The channel was renamed Comcast SportsNet California in 2008, in April 2012, NBC Owned Television Stations took over responsibilities of selling national advertising on behalf of four CSN networks. For unwired sales, the Group will be continue to be represented by Home Team Sports, the arrangement is an extension of one that it had established with New England Cable News in 2011. In early 2012, Comcast signed a contract worth $1 billion with the Houston Astros and Houston Rockets, the network was then integrated into DirecTV-operated Root Sports group, which relaunched it as Root Sports Southwest on November 14,2014. CSN quietly dropped all FSN-supplied programming on August 1,2012, Comcast is currently exploring implementing this new branding in other markets. New England Cable News, a news channel owned by Comcast, was operated as a part of Comcast Sports Group. In July 2013, as part of a reorganization, NECN had its operations transferred to NBC Owned Television Stations. Comcast also owned Comcast Local, a Detroit-based sports network that was distributed throughout Michigan, the network provided coverage of local collegiate and high school sports events, as well as minor league sports throughout its broadcast area. Comcast Local ceased operations in February 2008, as every major professional or college team in the region had its programming tied to FSN Detroit and/or the Big Ten Network, Comcast SportsNet HD is a high definition simulcast feed of select programs from Comcast SportsNet including live sports and series. Comcast SportsNet Northwest currently does not maintain a high-definition simulcast in the Seattle market, each of the Comcast SportsNet outlets have acquired the play-by-play broadcast rights to major sports teams in their regional market. In some markets, CSN competes directly with other sports networks for the broadcast rights to team-specific programming. Premier League select games NASCAR Sprint Cup Series & NASCAR Xfinity Series live practice & qualifying coverage when NBCSN & CNBC are unable to broadcast due to other programming
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Bipartisan Policy Center
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The Bipartisan Policy Center is a non-profit organization that drives principled solutions through rigorous analysis, reasoned negotiation, and respectful dialogue. It considers itself a think tank characterized by politically balanced policy making with strong, proactive advocacy, the Center was founded in 2007 by former Senate Majority Leaders Howard Baker, Tom Daschle, Bob Dole, and George J. Mitchell. BPC currently has projects focused on policy, energy, health care and nutrition, housing, national security. Jason Grumet serves as president of BPC, prior to helping found the organization in 2007, Grumet directed the National Commission on Energy Policy. He was also an adviser on energy and the environment for the successful 2008 presidential campaign of then Senator Barack Obama. While BPC was formally launched in March 2007, the organizations roots trace back to 2002, on June 17,2009, BPCs Leaders Project on the State of American Health Care released a report, Crossing Our Lines, Working Together to Reform the U. S. Health System] The report, which came at the height of the health reform debate in the United States, laid out plans to help states establish insurance exchanges. Former Senate Majority Leaders and BPC Co-Founders Howard Baker, Tom Daschle, on February 16,2010, BPC hosted Cyber ShockWave, a simulated cyber attack on the United States. The simulation, which was moderated by Wolf Blitzer and broadcast as a special on CNN, european Command Charles F. Wald as Secretary of Defense. BPC released a report summarizing the findings and recommendations from the simulation, on November 17,2010, BPCs Debt Reduction Task Force released its report, Restoring Americas Future, in an effort to influence the debate over the national debt. Their report was released two weeks prior to that of President Obamas National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform. On May 11,2011, former President of Colombia Álvaro Uribe spoke at BPC during an event to release a new report, Stabilizing Fragile States and he highlighted his administrations efforts to reform the countrys security services to combat extremist groups and gain the trust of the citizenry. On May 23,2011, House Minority Whip Steny Hoyer called for an approach to deficit reduction in a speech at BPC. On October 26,2011, BPC launched the Housing Commission, an effort led by Kit Bond, Henry Cisneros, Mel Martinez. On March 21,2012, BPC hosted A Century of Service at the Andrew W. Mellon Auditorium in Washington, the event was a tribute to BPC founders and former Senate Majority Leaders Howard Baker and Bob Dole. Speakers included Vice President Joe Biden, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, Republican Leader Mitch McConnell, former Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle, a BPC founder, and former Leaders Trent Lott and Bill Frist, both BPC Senior Fellows, also made remarks. To highlight the accomplishments and contributions of the honorees, BPC unveiled two short films that offer a glimpse into the careers of Baker and Dole. In April 2011, the Economic Policy Project released a budget enforcement mechanism called Save-as-you-Go or SAVEGO
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Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
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Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
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United States
United States Army
Second Lieutenant
