1.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
2.
Encino, Los Angeles
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Encino is a neighborhood in the San Fernando Valley region of Los Angeles, California. Fray Juan Crespi, a Franciscan missionary travelling with the expedition, all of Crespis name was later dropped except encino. Rancho Los Encinos was established in 1845 when a parcel of former Mission San Fernando land was granted to three Mission Indians by governor Pio Pico. Many ranchos were created after the secularization of the California missions, Encino derives its name from the rancho. In 2008, the city estimated that the resident population had increased to 44,581, in 2000 the median age for residents was 42, considered old for city and county neighborhoods, the percentages of residents aged 50 and older were among the countys highest. The neighborhood was considered not especially diverse ethnically within Los Angeles, the breakdown was whites,80. 1%, Latinos,8. 5%, Asians,4. 9%, blacks,2. 4%, and others,4. 1%. Iran and Russia were the most common places of birth for the 32. 8% of the residents who were born abroad—an average percentage for Los Angeles, the median yearly household income in 2008 dollars was $78,529, considered high for the city. The percentage of households that earned $125,000 and up was high for Los Angeles County, the average household size of 2.3 people was low when compared to the rest of the city and the county. Renters occupied 38. 4% of the stock and house- or apartment-owners held 61. 6%. The percentages of divorced residents and of widowed men and women were among the countys highest, in 2000 military veterans amounted to 10. 6% of the population, a high rate for the county. Encino is situated in the portion of the southern San Fernando Valley. It is flanked on the north by Reseda and the Sepulveda Basin, on the east by Sherman Oaks, on the southeast by Bel-Air, on the south by Brentwood, the local economy provides jobs primarily in health care, social services, and professional services sectors. There are approximately 3,800 businesses employing about 27,000 people at a payroll of $1,400,000,000. Encino is in Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors district 3 and it is also represented within the city of Los Angeles by the Encino Neighborhood Council, an advisory body under the auspices of the city Department of Neighborhood Empowerment. The United States Postal Service operates the Encino Post Office at 5805 White Oak Avenue, forty-six percent of Encino residents aged 25 and older had earned a four-year degree by 2000, a high percentage for both the city and the county. The percentage of residents with a masters degree or higher was also high for the county. Lull Special Education Center, LAUSD,17551 Miranda Street Lanai Road Elementary School, LAUSD,4241 Lanai Road As of 2009, public high schools serving portions of Encino are Birmingham High School in Lake Balboa, and Reseda High School in Reseda. In 1982 the board considered closing Rhoda Street Elementary School in Encino, in April 1983 an advisory committee of the LAUSD recommended closing eight LAUSD schools, including Rhoda Street School
3.
Tarzana, Los Angeles
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Tarzana /tɑːrˈzænə/ is an affluent neighborhood in the San Fernando Valley region of the city of Los Angeles, California. Tarzana is on the site of a ranch owned by author Edgar Rice Burroughs. It is named after Burroughs storybook jungle character hero, Tarzan, the area now known as Tarzana was occupied in 1797 by Spanish settlers and missionaries who established the San Fernando Mission. Later absorbed by Mexico, the land was ceded to the United States in 1848 by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo following the Mexican-American War, under US rule it evolved into a series of large cattle ranches owned by local elites. Investors took over in the 1870s, turning grazing into large-scale wheat farm operation, the area was purchased in 1909 by the Los Angeles Suburban Homes Company. LA Times founder and publisher General Harrison Gray Otis invested in the company, in February 1919, Edgar Rice Burroughs, author of the popular Tarzan novels, arrived in California with his family, relocating from Oak Park, Illinois. He and his family had wintered in Southern California twice before, on March 1, Burroughs purchased Otis’s tract and established Tarzana Ranch. Burroughs subdivided and sold the land for development with neighboring small farms following suit. Tarzana, which measures 8.79 square miles, is bounded on the south by Topanga State Park, on the east by Encino, on the north by Reseda and on the west by Woodland Hills. Victory Boulevard marks the edge of the neighborhood, Lindley Avenue the eastern, Corbin Avenue, with a jog to Oakdale Avenue, the western. The U. S. census counted 35,502 people living in Tarzana in 2000, there were 4,038 people per square mile, among the lowest population densities in the city. According to the 2000 U. S. Census, the composition was predominantly white, followed by Asian. The Los Angeles Times considered the area as moderately diverse, thirty-five percent of the population was foreign-born. Iran and Mexico were the most common places of birth. The percentage of divorced men and women was among the countys highest, some 9% of the residents were military veterans, considered high for the city of Los Angeles. The percentages of residents aged 50 and older were among the countys highest, the median age,38, was old when compared to the rest of the city and the county. The median household income in 2008 dollars was considered high, at $73,195. 3% of Tarzana residents aged 25, percentages of those residents with a bachelors degree or with a masters degree are also high for the county. The Los Angeles Public Library operates the Encino-Tarzana Branch on Ventura Boulevard in Tarzana, the Tarzana Recreation Center has a gymnasium that also is used as an auditorium, the buildings capacity is 600
4.
Fantasy
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Fantasy is a fiction genre set in an imaginary universe, often but not always without any locations, events, or people from the real world. Most fantasy uses magic or other elements as a main plot element, theme. Magic and magical creatures are common in many of these imaginary worlds, in popular culture, the fantasy genre is predominantly of the medievalist form. In its broadest sense, however, fantasy works by many writers, artists, filmmakers. Fantasy is studied in a number of disciplines including English and other studies, cultural studies, comparative literature, history. The identifying trait of fantasy is the reliance on imagination to create narrative elements that do not have to rely on history or nature to be coherent. This differs from realistic fiction in that whereas realistic fiction has to attend to the history and natural laws of reality, an author applies his or her imagination to come up with characters, plots, and settings that are impossible in reality. Fantasy has often compared with science fiction and horror because they are the major categories of speculative fiction. Fantasy is distinguished from science fiction by the plausibility of the narrative elements, a science fiction narrative is unlikely, though seeming possible through logical scientific and/or technological extrapolation, whereas fantasy narratives do not need to be scientifically possible. The imagined elements of fantasy do not need an explanation to be narratively functional. Authors have to rely on the suspension of disbelief, an acceptance of the unbelievable or impossible for the sake of enjoyment. Despite both genres heavy reliance on the supernatural, fantasy and horror are distinguishable, horror primarily evokes fear through the protagonists weaknesses or inability to deal with the antagonists. Beginning perhaps with the earliest written documents, mythic and other elements that would come to define fantasy. MacDonald was an influence on both J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis. The other major fantasy author of this era was William Morris, lord Dunsany established the genres popularity in both the novel and the short story form. Many popular mainstream authors also began to write fantasy at this time, including H. Rider Haggard, Rudyard Kipling and Edgar Rice Burroughs. Indeed, juvenile fantasy was considered more acceptable than fantasy intended for adults, nathaniel Hawthorne wrote fantasy in A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys, intended for children, though works for adults only verged on fantasy. Political and social trends can affect a societys reception towards fantasy, in the early 20th century, the New Culture Movements enthusiasm for Westernization and science in China compelled them to condemn the fantastical shenmo genre of traditional Chinese literature
5.
Lost world (genre)
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The lost world is a subgenre of the fantasy or science fiction genres that involves the discovery of a new world out of time, place, or both. It began as a subgenre of the adventure romance and remains popular into the 21st century. Thus, real stories of archaeological finds by imperial adventurers succeeded in capturing the publics imagination, between 1871 and the First World War, the number of published lost-world narratives, set in every continent, dramatically increased. The genre has similar themes to mythical kingdoms, such as El Dorado, King Solomons Mines by H. Rider Haggard is sometimes considered the first lost-world narrative. Merritts The Moon Pool, and H. P. Lovecrafts At the Mountains of Madness, earlier works, such as Edward Bulwer-Lyttons Vril, The Power of the Coming Race and Samuel Butlers Erewhon use a similar plot as a vehicle for Swiftian social satire rather than romantic adventure. Edgar Allan Poes The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket has certain lost world elements towards the end of the tale, James Hiltons Lost Horizon enjoyed popular success in using the genre as a takeoff for popular philosophy and social comment. It introduced the name Shangri-La, a meme for the idealization of the lost world as a paradise, similar books where the inhabitants of the lost world are seen as superior to the outsiders, are Joseph ONeills Land under England and Douglas Valder Duffs Jack Harding’s Quest. Hergé also explores the theme in his comics The Seven Crystal Balls, here the protagonists encounter an unknown Inca kingdom in the Andes. Contemporary American novelist Michael Crichton invokes this tradition in his novel Congo, during the 1990s, James Gurney published a series of juvenile novels about a lost island called Dinotopia, in which humans live alongside living dinosaurs. The lost world is present in other media. In video games, it is most notably present in Tomb Raider and its sequels, in movies, the Indiana Jones franchise makes use of similar concepts. Also comics make use of the idea, such as Savage Land in Marvel Comics, early lost-world novels were typically set in parts of the world as yet unexplored by Europeans. Favorite locations were the interior of Africa or inland South America, later writers favored Antarctica, especially as a refuge for prehistoric species. In Edison Marshalls Dian of the Lost Land, Cro-Magnons, Neanderthals, and mammoths survive in the Moss Country, a sheltered warm corner of the continent. Dennis Wheatleys novel The Man Who Missed the War also deals with a warm and hidden area on the continent, in Jeremy Robinsons Antarktos Rising, dinosaurs and Nephilim emerge as the icecap melts. Mat Johnsons Pym describes giant white hominids living in ice caves, ian Camerons The Mountains at the Bottom of the World has a relict population of Paranthropus living not quite in Antarctica, but in the southern Chilean Andes. Crusoe Warburton, by Victor Wallace Germains, describes an island in the far south Atlantic, with a lost, a checklist of lost-world/lost-race books, and related material Examples of Lost Worlds in pop culture from tvtropes. org
6.
Sword and planet
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Sword and planet is a subgenre of science fantasy that features rousing adventure stories set on other planets, and usually featuring Earthmen as protagonists. Although there are works that herald the genre, such as Percy Gregs Across the Zodiac, gullivar Jones, His Vacation, the prototype for the genre is A Princess of Mars by Edgar Rice Burroughs originally serialized by All-Story in 1912 as Under the Moons of Mars. The genre predates the popularity of science fiction proper, and does not necessarily feature any scientific rigor. Native technology will often break the laws of physics. The genre tag Sword and planet is constructed to mimic the terms sword and sorcery and sword and sandal. The phrase appears to have first been coined in the 1960s by Donald A. Wollheim, editor of Ace Books, there is a fair amount of overlap between Sword and planet and planetary romance although some works are considered to belong to one and not the other. In general the alien planet will seem to be more medieval and this leads to anachronistic situations such as flying ships held aloft by anti-gravity technology, while ground travel is done by riding domesticated native animals. In A Princess of Mars, John Carter, a Confederate officer and soldier, has taken up prospecting in Arizona after the war to regain his fortune, under mysterious circumstances, he is transported to Mars, called Barsoom by its inhabitants. There he encounters savage and monstrous aliens, a princess. Burroughs Pellucidar series could arguably be considered sword-and- planet, as it follows most of the plot conventions described below, Burroughs established a set of conventions that were followed fairly closely by most other entries in the Sword and Planet genre. The transportation may be via astral projection, teleportation, time travel, or any form of scientific magic. The Earthman thus finds himself the representative of his own race on an alien planet. This planet is at a pre-modern, even barbaric stage of civilization, a lower gravity may be invoked to explain such things as large flying animals or people, or the superhuman strength of the hero, but will otherwise be ignored. Not long after discovering his predicament, the Earthman finds himself caught in a struggle between two or more factions, nations, or species and he sides, of course, with the nation with the prettiest woman, who will sometimes turn out to be a princess. Before he can set about seriously courting her, however, she is kidnapped by a villain or villains. The Earthman, taking up his sword, sets out on a quest to recover the woman, stories in the Sword and Planet genre fall primarily into two chronological classes. The first includes the stories of Burroughs himself and his early imitators, the second and larger group includes authors who began to write Burroughs pastiches from the mid-1960s to early 1970s. Such authors included Lin Carter and Michael Moorcock, except for continuations of the extended Dray Prescot and Gor sequences, and occasional parodies of earlier series, not many new works in the genre have appeared from major publishers since 1980
7.
Planetary romance
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In either case, it is the planetside adventures which are the focus of the story, not the mode of travel. As the name of the genre suggests, the romance is an extension of late 19th and early 20th century adventure novels. Other planets replace Asia and Africa as exotic locales, while hostile tribes of aliens and their decadent monarchies substitute for Western stereotypes of savage races and oriental despotisms. The first author to achieve a market for this type of story was Edgar Rice Burroughs. Burroughs writing popularized the concept of adventures on other planets. Frank Herberts Dune and George Lucas Star Wars are direct inheritors of this tradition of welding the futuristic to the medieval, the content of the Barsoom stories is pure swashbuckler, being a series of imprisonments, forced gladiatorial combat, daring escapes, monster-killings, and duels with villains. Fantasy elements are minimal, other than telepathy, most instances of magic are dismissed or exposed as humbuggery, Burroughs stories spawned a large number of imitators. Some, like Otis Adelbert Kline, were exploiting the new market that Burroughs had created, even Burroughs imitated himself in his Venus series, starting in 1934. Perhaps for this reason, many Sword and Planet authors have written staggeringly long series sequences, the publication of pulp science fiction magazines starting in 1926 created a new market for planetary romances, and had a strong effect on later incarnations of the genre. Bracketts stories are primarily adventure fiction, but also contain reflections on the themes of cultural, there is an instructive comparison between The Enchantress of Venus, one of Bracketts Stark stories, and A. E. van Vogts Empire of the Atom. Both take as their point the plot and situation of I. Van Vogt follows the plot more closely, concentrating his invention on the background of his empire while emphasizing the heros vulnerability. Brackett introduces an Earthman who is struck by the allure of the women involved in these intrigues. While both stories are space operas, only Bracketts is a planetary romance, one exception is the Gor series, published from 1967 to the present. Gor is a Counter-Earth planet in an orbit to Earth on the other side of the Sun. Gravitational effects and detection by terrestrial probes are explained away by “superior alien science”, the planetary romance has become a significant component of current science fiction, though few writers use the term self-descriptively. Given the cross-pollination between planetary romance and space opera, many stories are difficult to classify as being one or the other. Similarly, L. Sprague de Camps Krishna series of rationalized planetary romances are a subseries of his space opera Viagens Interplanetarias series
8.
Soft science fiction
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Soft science fiction, or soft SF, is a category of science fiction with two different definitions. It either explores the soft sciences, and especially the sciences, rather than engineering or the hard sciences, or is not scientifically accurate. Soft science fiction of either type is more concerned with character and speculative societies. It is the complement of science fiction. The term first appeared in the late 1970s and is attributed to Australian literary scholar Peter Nicholls, in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, Peter Nicholls writes that soft SF is a not very precise item of SF terminology and that the contrast between hard and soft is sometimes illogical. In fact, the boundaries between hard and soft are neither definite nor universally agreed-upon, so there is no standard of scientific hardness or softness. Some readers might consider any deviation from the possible or probable to be a mark of softness, in Brave New Words, subtitled The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction, soft science fiction is given two definitions. The first definition is science fiction that is focused on advancements in, or extrapolations of, the soft sciences. The second definition is science fiction in which science is not important to the story, the term soft science fiction was formed as the complement of the earlier term hard science fiction. The earliest known citation for the term is in 1975, The Year in Science Fiction by Peter Nicholls and he wrote The same list reveals that an already established shift from hard sf to soft sf is continuing more strongly than ever. Poul Anderson, in Ideas for SF Writers, described H. G. Jeffrey Wallmann suggests that science fiction grew out of the gothic fiction of Edgar Allan Poe. In calling out specific examples from this period, McGuirk describes Ursula K, le Guins 1969 novel The Left Hand of Darkness as a soft SF classic. The New Wave movement in science fiction developed out of science fiction in the 1960s and 70s. The conte cruel was the narrative form of soft science fiction by the 1980s. During the 1980s cyberpunk developed from soft science fiction, McGuirk identifies two subgenres of soft science fiction, Humanist science fiction and Science fiction noir. And yet, its style is realistic, and despite its then-future setting, very much more like a spy novel or political thriller in terms of its themes. The film The Invention of Lying, written by Ricky Gervais, however, the setting appears to be relatively similar to our own world in terms of aesthetics and industrial progression. Frank Herberts Dune series is a landmark of science fiction
9.
Western (genre)
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Cowboys and gunslingers typically wear Stetson hats, bandannas, spurs, cowboy boots and buckskins. Other characters include Native Americans, bandits, lawmen, bounty hunters, outlaws, mounted cavalry, settlers, Westerns often stress the harshness of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape of deserts and mountains. Often, the vast landscape plays an important role, presenting a. mythic vision of the plains, specific settings include ranches, small frontier towns, saloons, railways and isolated military forts of the Wild West. Many Westerns use a plot of depicting a crime, then showing the pursuit of the wrongdoer, ending in revenge and retribution. The Western was the most popular Hollywood genre, from the early 20th century to the 1960s, Western films first became well-attended in the 1930s. John Fords landmark Western adventure Stagecoach became one of the biggest hits in 1939, Westerns were very popular throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Many of the most acclaimed Westerns were released during this time – including High Noon, Shane, The Searchers, the Western depicts a society organized around codes of honor and personal, direct or private justice–frontier justice–dispensed by gunfights. These honor codes are played out through depictions of feuds or individuals seeking personal revenge or retribution against someone who has wronged them. The popular perception of the Western is a story that centers on the life of a semi-nomadic wanderer, a showdown or duel at high noon featuring two or more gunfighters is a stereotypical scene in the popular conception of Westerns. In some ways, such protagonists may be considered the descendants of the knight errant which stood at the center of earlier extensive genres such as the Arthurian Romances. And like knights errant, the heroes of Westerns frequently rescue damsels in distress, similarly, the wandering protagonists of Westerns share many characteristics with the ronin in modern Japanese culture. The Western typically takes these elements and uses them to tell simple morality tales, Westerns often stress the harshness and isolation of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape. Apart from the wilderness, it is usually the saloon that emphasizes that this is the Wild West, it is the place to go for music, women, gambling, drinking, brawling and shooting. The American Film Institute defines western films as those set in the American West that embodies the spirit, the struggle, the term Western, used to describe a narrative film genre, appears to have originated with a July 1912 article in Motion Picture World Magazine. Most of the characteristics of Western films were part of 19th century popular Western fiction and were firmly in place before film became an art form. Protagonists ride between dusty towns and cattle ranches on their trusty steeds, Western films were enormously popular in the silent film era. With the advent of sound in 1927-28, the major Hollywood studios rapidly abandoned Westerns, leaving the genre to smaller studios and these smaller organizations churned out countless low-budget features and serials in the 1930s. Released through United Artists, Stagecoach made John Wayne a mainstream star in the wake of a decade of headlining B westerns
10.
Barsoom
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Barsoom is a fictional representation of the planet Mars created by American pulp fiction author Edgar Rice Burroughs. The first Barsoom tale was serialized as Under the Moons of Mars in 1912, ten sequels followed over the next three decades, further extending his vision of Barsoom and adding other characters. The world of Barsoom is a vision of a dying Mars. Burroughs gives credits to him in his writings, and goes as far as to say that he based his vision of Mars on that of Flammarion. In The Plurality of Inhabited Worlds and Lumen, he speculates about plant people. Elements of the books have been adapted by many writers, in novels, short stories, comics, television and film. Burroughs began writing the Barsoom books in the half of 1911. The first Barsoom tale was serialized in The All-Story magazine as Under the Moons of Mars, the final Barsoom tale was a novella, Skeleton Men of Jupiter, published in Amazing Stories in February 1943. Collectively, this series of novels has been referred to as the Martian Series, Burroughs frequently invented words from the languages spoken by the peoples in his novels, and used these extensively in the narrative. In Thuvia, Maid of Mars he included a glossary of Barsoomian words used in the first four novels, the word Barsoom, the native Martian word for Mars, is composed of the Martian name for planet, soom, and the Martian word for eight, bar. This assumes that Mars is the body in the inner solar system, though to reach this figure it is necessary to count the Sun. John Carters and Dejah Thoriss son Carthoris is also introduced as a character in The Gods of Mars. Three other books focus on their descendants, Carthoris, in Thuvia, Maid of Mars, his sister, Tara of Helium, in The Chessmen of Mars, and Taras daughter, Llana of Gathol, in Llana of Gathol. Ulysses Paxton, another Earth man transported to Mars, is the focus of The Master Mind of Mars, most of the tales are first-person narratives. John Carter narrates A Princess of Mars, The Gods of Mars, The Warlord of Mars, Swords of Mars, ulysses Paxton narrates one, The Master Mind of Mars. Martian guardsman Vor Daj narrates Synthetic Men of Mars and Martian navy officer Tan Hadron narrates A Fighting Man of Mars. Two other novels, Thuvia, Maid of Mars and The Chessmen of Mars, are written in the person, as is John Carter. The same device appears in several sequels, The Gods of Mars, The Chessmen of Mars, Swords of Mars, Burroughs had actually typed Normal Bean on his submitted manuscript, but his publishers typesetter changed it to Norman
11.
Mars
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Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, after Mercury. Named after the Roman god of war, it is referred to as the Red Planet because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance. Mars is a planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth, Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet, Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Mars trojan, there are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars, as well as the possibility of extant life. Future astrobiology missions are planned, including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers, liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure, which is about 6⁄1000 that of the Earths, except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be largely of water. The volume of ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted. On November 22,2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior, Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye, as can its reddish coloring. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.91, which is surpassed only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 kilometers across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earths atmosphere. Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth with an area only slightly less than the total area of Earths dry land. Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earths volume and 11% of Earths mass, the red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron oxide, or rust. It can look like butterscotch, other common colors include golden, brown, tan. Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a metallic core overlaid by less dense materials. Current models of its interior imply a core with a radius of about 1,794 ±65 kilometers, consisting primarily of iron and this iron sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements than Earths. The core is surrounded by a mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet
12.
John Carter of Mars
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John Carter of Mars is a fictional Virginian transported to Mars and the initial protagonist of Edgar Rice Burroughs Barsoom stories. His character is enduring, having appeared in media since his 1912 debut in a magazine serial. The 2012 feature film John Carter marked the 100th anniversary of the characters first appearance, John Carter was the lead character in the first novel by Edgar Rice Burroughs, set on a fictionalized version of Mars known as Barsoom. Written between July and September 28,1911, the novel was serialized as Under the Moons of Mars in the pulp magazine The All-Story from February to July 1912 and it later appeared as a complete novel only after the success of Burroughs Tarzan series. For its October 1917 hardcover publication by A. C. McClurg & Company, Carter reappeared in subsequent volumes of the series, most prominently in the second, the third, the eighth, the tenth, and the eleventh and final installment. John Carter is also a secondary character in the fourth volume. Carter stands 6 feet 2 inches and has close-cropped black hair, in the opening pages of A Princess of Mars, it is revealed that Carter can remember no childhood, having always been a man of about thirty years old. Many generations have known him as Uncle Jack, but he lived to see them grow old and die. His character and courtesy exemplify the ideals of the antebellum South, a Virginian, he served as a captain in the American Civil War on the side of the Confederacy. After the war, Carter and his companion Powell, who was also a captain in the Civil War, Carter and Powell struck it rich by finding gold in Arizona. Accustomed to the gravity of Earth, he finds himself to be much stronger. On Mars, which its natives call Barsoom, Carter encounters both formidable alien creatures resembling the beasts of ancient myth and various humanoids and he finds his true calling in life as a warlord who strives to save the planets inhabitants. He wins the hand of a Martian princess, Dejah Thoris of Helium, awakening again after this second death he finds he has been miraculously transported back to Earth, into his original body. Carter then collects the wealth that resulted from his discovery of a vein of gold ore right before his original passage to Barsoom. Unable to return to Mars, he spends several years in a small cottage on the Hudson River in New York. He returns to Earth on a number of occasions afterward to relate his adventures to his nephew, during his adventures on Mars his earthly body reposes in a special tomb that can only be opened from the inside. John Carter and Dejah Thoris become the parents of a son, Carthoris, Carthoris plays a secondary role in The Gods of Mars and The Warlord of Mars, and is the protagonist of Thuvia, Maid of Mars. Tara is the heroine of The Chessmen of Mars, and the mother of Carters granddaughter Llana, only one other Earthman, Ulysses Paxton is able to travel to Mars via the method Carter used
13.
1875
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As of the start of 1875, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The Midland Railway of England abolishes the Second Class passenger category leaving First Class, other British railway companies follow Midlands lead during the rest of the year. January 12 – Guangxu becomes 11th Qing dynasty Emperor of China at the age of 4 in succession to his cousin, january 14 – The newly proclaimed King Alfonso XII of Spain arrives in Spain to restore the monarchy during the Third Carlist War. The Carlists take several pieces of artillery, more than 2,000 rifles,800 men of both sides are killed - mostly government troops. February 18 – The Mason County War begins as a German-American mob breaks into a prison, february 21 – Jeanne Calment is born in Arles, France. She would go on to become the worlds oldest verified person to have lived, reaching an age of 122 years and 164 days. February 24 – The SS Gothenburg sinks off Australias east coast with the loss of approximately 102 lives, including a number of civil servants. The two tribes are not allowed to return to the Verde Valley until 1900, february 27 – Newton Booth, 11th Governor of California, resigns, having been elected Senator. Lieutenant Governor of California Romualdo Pacheco becomes acting Governor and he is later replaced by elected governor William Irwin. March 1 – The United States Congress passes the Civil Rights Act, march 3 – Georges Bizets opera Carmen receives its première at the Opéra-Comique in Paris. Bizet’s Carmen is first performed at the Opéra-Comique, Paris, France, the first indoor ice hockey game is played at the Victoria Skating Rink in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. March 15 – Roman Catholic Archbishop of New York John McCloskey is named the first cardinal in the United States, april 10 – The Arya Samaj is founded in Mumbai by Swami Dayananda Saraswati. April 25 – Ten sophomores from Rutgers College steal a one-ton cannon from the campus of the College of New Jersey, may 7 – The Treaty of Saint Petersburg is signed between Japan and Russia. May 7 – German liner SS Schiller wrecks on the rocks off the Isles of Scilly with the loss of 335 lives, may 17 – Aristides wins the first Kentucky Derby. May 20 – The Metre Convention is signed in Paris, France, june – The record-setting American clipper Flying Cloud of 1851 is burned for scrap metal. June 4 – Two American colleges play each other in arguably the first game of football, Tufts University and Harvard University at Jarvis Field in Cambridge. Summer – Third Carlist War in Spain, Two government armies under General Quesada, both they and their Carlist opponent drive opposing sympathisers from their homes and burn crops in areas they can not hold. Several Carlist generals are unjustly put on trial for disloyalty, mendiri is also removed from his command, and is replaced by the Count of Caserta
14.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
15.
Oak Park, Illinois
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Oak Park is a village adjacent to the West Side of the city of Chicago in Cook County, Illinois, United States. Pace buses serve the Village for travel within its borders and connecting to neighboring suburbs, as of the 2010 United States Census the Village had a total population of 51,878. Oak Park was settled beginning in the 1830s, with rapid growth later in the 19th century and it incorporated in 1902, breaking off from Cicero. Development was spurred by railroads and street cars connecting the village to jobs in Chicago, famed architect Frank Lloyd Wright and his wife settled here in 1889. Population peaked at 66,015 in 1940, smaller families led to falling population in the same number of homes and apartments. In the 1960s, Oak Park faced the challenge of racial integration, devising many strategies to integrate rather than re-segregate the village, Oak Park includes three historic districts for the historic homes, Ridgeland, Frank Lloyd Wright and Seward Gunderson, reflecting the focus on historic preservation. In 1835, Joseph Kettlestrings, an immigrant from England, purchased 172 acres of land just west of Chicago for a farm and their home. Once their children were born, they moved to Chicago for the schools in 1843, more farmers and settlers had entered the area. Their land was called by several names locally, including Oak Ridge, by 1850, the Galena and Chicago Union Railroad was constructed as far as Elgin, Illinois, and passed through the settlement area. In the 1850s the land on which Oak Park sits was part of the new Chicago suburb, the town of Cicero. The population of the area boomed during the 1870s, with Chicago residents resettling in Cicero following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 and the expansion of railroads and street cars to the area. In 1872, when Oak Park received its own depot on the Chicago and Northwestern Railway. As Chicago grew from a center to a national metropolis Oak Park expanded – from 500 residents in 1872 to 1,812 in 1890, to 9,353 in 1900, to 20,911 in 1910. Oak Park thus emerged as a leading Chicago suburb, one of the first streetcar lines was the Chicago, Harlem, & Batavia “dummy” line, which ran approximately along the present-day route of the Eisenhower Expressway. The “dummy” trains used a steam locomotive with a false cladding designed to conceal most of the moving parts. This line first began operation in 1881, but did not provide direct service to downtown Chicago until June 1888. A more extensive network throughout Oak Park was opened in 1890. In the future village of Oak Park, this system ran east-west on Madison Street and Lake Street, streetcar service was discontinued in 1947, to be replaced by buses
16.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
17.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
18.
Colonialism
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Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory, and the subsequent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony. The term is used to describe a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous peoples. The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the century when several European powers established colonies in Asia, Africa. At first the countries followed a policy of mercantilism, designed to strengthen the economy at the expense of rivals. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including something characteristic of a colony, in the book, Osterhammel asks, How can colonialism be defined independently from colony. He settles on a definition, Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the people are made. Rejecting cultural compromises with the population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority. Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of colonialism, Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political, exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on access to resources for export, typically to the metropole. Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state, as colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies the vast majority of Dutch settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, the Other, or othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics. Othering is the creation from those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the other as an epistemological concept in social theory. For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonizing powers explained an ‘other’ who were there to dominate, civilize, political geographers explain how colonial/ imperial powers othered places they wanted to dominate to legalize their exploitation of the land. During the rise of colonialism and after, post colonialism, the Western powers perspectives of the East as the other, different and this viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/ subordinate dynamic, both being the other towards themselves. The word metropole comes from the Greek metropolis —mother city, the word colony comes from the Latin colonia—a place for agriculture
19.
Settler
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A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. Settlers are generally from a culture, as opposed to nomads who share. Settlements are often built on land already claimed or owned by another group, many times settlers are backed by governments or large countries. One can witness how settlers very often occupied land previously home to long-established peoples, the word settler was not originally usually used in relation to free labour immigrants, such as slaves, indentured labourers, or convicts. In United States history it refers to people who helped to settle new lands. In this usage, pioneers are usually among the first to an area, whereas settlers can arrive after first settlement and this correlates with the work of military pioneers who were tasked with construction of camps before the main body of troops would arrive at the designated campsite. In Imperial Russia, the government invited Russians or foreign nationals to settle in sparsely populated lands, see, e. g. articles Slavo-Serbia, Volga German, Volhynia, Russians in Kazakhstan. In the Middle East, there are a number of references to various squatter, among those, Iraq – the Arabization program of the Baath Party in the late 1970s in North Iraq, which aimed at settling Arab populations instead of Kurds following the Second Iraqi-Kurdish War. Israel – Israelis who moved to areas captured during the Six-Day War in 1967 are termed Israeli settlers, in recent Israeli settlers have been settling in Palestinian territory such as the Gaza Strip and West Bank. However, this has caused political unrest and many settlers are forcibly removed from their settlements by the Israeli government, Syria – In recent times, Arab settlers have also moved in large numbers to ethnic minority areas, such as northeast Syria. Women and children experience violence in these highly dangerous ares because of the conflict, many natives face displacement when new settlements are established. During 1948 Palestine war, in which Israel was created, over 750,000 Palestinians were displaced from their homes, oftentimes fences or walls are built preventing the natives from traveling back onto the land. Settlements make it difficult for native people to continue their work. For example, if the settlers take part of the land which the trees grow on then the natives no longer have access to those olive trees. Many are met with violence when they try to get the things they need from the land, settlers in hypothetical societies, such as on other planets, often feature in science fiction or fantasy fiction and/or video games. Mascot for Texas Womans University, more specifically called the Pioneer. The colony concerned is sometimes controlled by the government of a home country
20.
Edmund Rice (colonist)
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Edmund Rice, was an early immigrant to Massachusetts Bay Colony born in Suffolk, England. He lived in Stanstead, Suffolk and Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire before sailing with his family to America and he landed in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in summer or fall of 1638, thought to be first living in the town of Watertown, Massachusetts. Shortly thereafter he was a founder of Sudbury in 1638, and he was a Deacon in the Puritan Church, and served in town politics as a selectman and judge. He also served five years as a member of the Great and General Court, Edmund Rices rough birth date of 1594 is reckoned from a 3 April 1656 court deposition in Massachusetts in which he stated that he was 62 years old. His likely birthplace, somewhere in Suffolk in East Anglia, is found through the town of his marriage, many of the church records from 1594 in Suffolk are lost, so any record of his birth or the names of his parents or any of his forebears is unknown. Edmund Rice had a brother, Henry, who married Elizabeth Frost on 12 November 1605 at St. James Church, Stanstead. He moved from Stanstead to Berkhamsted sometime in 1626, based upon the baptismal dates of his children Thomas, under the incumbency of Rev. Newman, Rice served as a churchwarden at St. Peters Church and acted as overseer of the poor for eight years. While living in Berkhamsted, Rice acquired and was taxed on 3 acres of land in 1627, there is no record in Berkhamsted of Rice paying taxes on his land in 1638, possibly due to its sale to finance his trip to America. However, the 1638 petition to the General Court to found Sudbury did not explicitly mention Rices name, the first documented record of his presence in Massachusetts is in the Township Book of Sudbury prior to 4 April 1639 in which he was already serving as a selectman. Between 1638 and 1657, Rice resided in Sudbury where he became a leader in the community, on 3 April 1640, Rice was granted 20 acres in southeastern Sudbury near the Old Connecticut Path. He served as a selectman in Sudbury in 1639 and 1640 and he was designated a freeman on 13 May 1640, and was first elected as a deputy of the Great and General Court in October 1640. He was later appointed by the General Court on 2 June 1641 as a Judge of Small Causes for Sudbury, then from 1648 until 1654 he was elected and reelected locally in Sudbury as one of the municipal judges. He was reelected for another term as a deputy of the General Court in 1643. On 18 June 1645, Rice and his colleagues reported to the General Court on their survey, in 1648, Rice was ordained as a Deacon in the Puritan Church at Sudbury. Stone erected a gristmill on his property of Stones End in 1656 that would become the village of Saxonville. Edmund Rice was particularly successful in his own real estate transactions, within a year, Philemon Whale and Thomas Axtell, former town mates and kin from Berkhamstead, England established their homesteads on adjacent lots nearby. In October 1643 Rice sold Philemon Whale 9 acres of land, on 8 April 1657, Rice purchased the 200 acres Jennison Farm in the southeastern part of Sudbury. The General Court made grants of land to Rice in what is now Framingham,50 acres in 1652 and 80 acres in 1659 and these lands in Framingham were passed on to Rices son Henry in 1659, and became to be known as Rices End
21.
Puritans
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Puritanism in this sense was founded as an activist movement within the Church of England. The founders, clergy exiled under Mary I, returned to England shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, Puritanism played a significant role in English history during the first half of the 17th century. One of the most effective stokers of anti-Catholic feeling was John Pym, Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system and they largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism. Consequently, they became a political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War. Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the Restoration of 1660, the nature of the movement in England changed radically, although it retained its character for a much longer period in New England. Puritans by definition were dissatisfied with the extent of the English Reformation. They formed and identified with various groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal. Puritans adopted a Reformed theology and, in sense, were Calvinists. In church polity, some advocated separation from all other established Christian denominations in favor of autonomous gathered churches. The Puritans were never a formally defined sect or religious division within Protestantism, the Congregationalist tradition, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, claims descent from the Puritans. Historically, the word Puritan was considered a term that characterized Protestant groups as extremists. According to Thomas Fuller in his Church History, the dates to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that used it and precisian with the sense of the modern stickler. In modern times, the word puritan is often used to mean against pleasure, in this sense, the term Puritan was coined in the 1560s, when it first appeared as a term of abuse for those who found the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 inadequate. The term Puritan, therefore, was not intended to refer to strict morality, a common modern misunderstanding, the word Puritan was applied unevenly to a number of Protestant churches from the late 16th century onwards. Puritans did not originally use the term for themselves, the practitioners knew themselves as members of particular churches or movements, and not by a single term. Precise men and Precisians were other early derogatory terms for Puritans, seventeenth century English Puritan preacher Thomas Watson used the godly to describe Puritans in the title of one of his more famous works The Godly Mans Picture
22.
Massachusetts Bay Colony
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Territory claimed but never administered by the colonial government extended as far west as the Pacific Ocean. The earlier Dutch colony of New Netherlands disputed many of these claims, arguing that they held rights to lands beyond Rhode Island up to the side of Cape Cod. The Massachusetts Bay Colony began in 1628 and was the second attempt at colonization. The colony was successful, with about 20,000 people migrating to New England in the 1630s, the population was strongly Puritan, and its governance was dominated by a small group of leaders who were strongly influenced by Puritan religious leaders. Its governors were elected, and the electorate were limited to freemen who had been examined for their religious views, as a consequence, the colonial leadership exhibited intolerance to other religious views, including Anglican, Quaker, and Baptist theologies. The colonists initially had decent relationships with the local Indian populations and these led first to the Pequot War and then to King Philips War, after which most of the Indians in southern New England made peace treaties with the colonists. The colony was successful, engaging in trade with England. A shortage of currency in the colony prompted it to establish a mint in 1652. Political differences with England after the English Restoration led to the revocation of the charter in 1684. King James II established the Dominion of New England in 1686 to bring all of the New England colonies under firmer crown control, Sir William Phips arrived in 1692 bearing the charter and formally took charge of the new province. The political and economic dominance of New England by the state of Massachusetts was made possible in part by the early dominance in these spheres by the Massachusetts Bay colonists. The total Indian population in 1620 has been estimated to be 7,000 with the population of New England at 15–18,000, the land-use patterns of the natives included plots cleared for agricultural purposes, and woodland territories for the hunting of game. Land divisions between the tribes were well understood, during the early 17th century, several European explorers charted the area, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith. Plans began in 1606 for the first permanent British settlements on the east coast of North America, on April 10,1606, King James I of England granted a charter forming two joint-stock companies. Under this charter, the first Colony and the second Colony were to be ruled by a Council composed of 13 individuals in each colony, the charter provided for an additional council of 13 persons to have overarching responsibility for the combined enterprise. No name was given to either the company or council governing the respective colonies, the first Colony ranged from the 34th- to 41st-degree latitude north, the second Colony ranged from the 38th- to 45th-degree latitude. The London Company proceeded to establish Jamestown, the Plymouth Company under the guidance of Sir Ferdinando Gorges covered the more northern area, including present-day New England, and established the Sagadahoc Colony in 1607 in present-day Maine. The experience proved exceptionally difficult for the 120 settlers, however, Gorges noted that there was no more speech of settling plantations in those parts for a number of years
23.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
24.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
25.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
26.
Phillips Academy
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Phillips Academy Andover is a co-educational university-preparatory school for boarding and day students in grades 9–12, along with a post-graduate year. The school is located in Andover, Massachusetts, United States,25 miles north of Boston, Phillips Academy has 1,122 students, and is a selective school, accepting 13% of applicants. It is part of the Ten Schools Admissions Organization as well as the G20 Schools Group, originally a boarding school for boys, it turned coeducational in 1973, the year in which it merged with its neighbor girls school Abbot Academy. Phillips Academys endowment stood around $800 million in June 2011, the fourth-highest of any American secondary school. On November 14,2012, John G. Palfrey, Jr. Henry N. Ess III Professor of Law and Vice Dean for Library and Information Resources at Harvard Law School, was named the 15th Head of School. Phillips Academy admitted only boys until the school coeducational in 1973, the year of Phillips Academys merger with Abbot Academy. Abbot Academy, founded in 1828, was the first incorporated school for girls in New England, then-headmaster Theodore Sizer oversaw the merger. Andover traditionally educated its students for Yale, just as Phillips Exeter Academy educated its students for Harvard, the Phillipian was first published on July 28,1857, and has been published regularly since 1878. It retains financial and editorial independence from Phillips Academy, having completed a $500,000 endowment drive in 2014, students comprise the editorial board and make all decisions for the paper, consulting with two faculty advisors at their own discretion. The Philomathean Society is the oldest high school debate society in the nation, Phillips Academy also runs a five-week summer session for approximately 600 students entering grades 8 through 12. The two schools maintain a rivalry. The football teams have met every year since 1878, making it the oldest high school rivalry in the country. In 1882, the first high school teams were formed at Phillips Academy, Phillips Exeter Academy. Several figures from the period are associated with the school. George Washington spoke at the school in its first year, John Hancock signed the schools articles of incorporation. The great seal of the school was designed by Paul Revere, the Andover Theological Seminary was independent from Phillips Academy but shared the same board of directors. In 1908, the seminary departed Phillips Academy, leaving behind its key buildings, academic building Pearson Hall, small portions of Andovers campus were laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted, designer of Central Park and himself a graduate of the school. Reveres design of the seal incorporated bees, a beehive
27.
Andover, Massachusetts
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Andover is a town in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States. It was settled in 1642 and later incorporated in 1646, as of the 2010 census, the population was 33,201. It is part of the Boston-Cambridge-Quincy, Massachusetts-New Hampshire metropolitan statistical area, part of the town comprises the census-designated place of Andover. In order to encourage settlement, early colonists were offered three years immunity from taxes, levies and services, the first permanent settlement in the Andover area was established in 1642 by John Woodbridge and a group of settlers from Newbury and Ipswich. Rogers Brook, a stream which cuts through the eastern part of town, is named in his honor. In May 1646 the settlement was incorporated as a town and was named Andover and this name was likely chosen in honor of the town of Andover in England, which was near the original home of some of the first residents. The first recorded meeting was held in 1656 in the home of settler John Osgood in what is now the town of North Andover. The old burying ground in what is now North Andover marks the center of the early town, contrary to popular belief, the towns split due to the location of the Old North Church, also located in what is now North Andover. King Philip was an Indian who organized a revolt against the white settlers throughout most of New England, six Indian raids occurred between 1676 and 1698 until ever-increasing numbers of white settlers established control of the land. Brown was arrested in Andover, Massachusetts but because he could not afford the $4,000 bail, brown was tried in June 1799. Brown wanted to plead guilty but Justice Samuel Chase wanted him to everybody who had helped him or who subscribed to his writings. Brown refused, was fined $480, and sentenced to eighteen months in prison, during the Salem witch trials in 1692, Andover resident Joseph Ballard asked for help for his wife from several girls in the neighboring Salem Village who were already identifying witches there. After visiting Elizabeth Ballard, the claimed that several people in Andover had bewitched her, Ann Foster, her daughter Mary Lacey Sr. During the course of the proceedings, more than 40 Andover citizens, mostly women. Three Andover residents, Martha Carrier, Mary Parker, and Samuel Wardwell, were convicted and executed and those who were not executed were granted reprieves by Gov. William Phips, but the convictions remained on their records. By 1705, Andovers population had begun to move southward and the idea of a new meeting house in the end of town was proposed. But despite this split, the town remained politically one unit, in 1854, a measure was passed to divide the town into two separate political units according to the old parish boundaries. The name Andover was assumed by the populous and wealthy West and South parishes
28.
Michigan Military Academy
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The Michigan Military Academy, also known as the M. M. A. was an all-boys military prep school in Orchard Lake Village, Oakland County, Michigan. It was founded in 1877 by Captain J. Sumner Rogers, some journalists have referred to the school as the Second West Point. The property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 as the Orchard Lake Schools Historic District, most of the 90 acres he owned were used for agricultural purposes, and he was slowly selling tracts of land for profit. The area was popular with tourists, so in 1871 Gen. Copeland converted his residence, business was good for a few years but development in the area forced many vacationers to seek seclusion farther north and the Panic of 1873 forced Copeland to find profit elsewhere. In 1877 Gen. Copeland sought to sell his home and the land around it. Captain J. Sumner Rogers, who was a professor of Military Science, seeing the opportunity at hand, Rogers bought the land with the help of some wealthy Detroiters, and later that year he established the Michigan Military Academy. He modeled the academy after West Point and its success was immediate, over the course of its 30-year history, the Michigan Military Academy had 2,558 enrollments and 458 graduates. The graduating class of 1893 played a prominent role in the World Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and many of the classes won National Drill Competitions. On June 19,1879, William Tecumseh Sherman, General in Chief of the U. S. Army, delivered a variant of his famous War Is Hell speech to the graduating class. A total of 10,000 people arrived to listen to Shermans speech, and the press reported that it was the largest number of people ever to gather within the townships boundaries. Some claim that he said, There is many a boy here today who looks upon war as all glory, but, boys, it is all hell, however, future City of Detroit Mayor, Cadet John C. Lodge, recorded his memories of the Sherman speech, At one of our graduation exercises the speaker was General William T. Sherman and he was not eloquent, and he didnt have a very pleasant voice, it was somewhat shrill. With a tuition of $500 per year in the 1800s, the M. M. A, attracted mostly sons of wealthy upper class businessmen. There were three levels of training at the school, Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry, the cadets wore gray and white uniforms, modeled after those that were worn at West Point. Students with musical abilities were encouraged to join the marching band, all cadets were taught to use a.45 caliber Springfield rifle, and the academy had an 8-inch siege mortar and Gatling guns at its disposal for military drills. There were a few accidents, in 1884, a cadet drowned during an exercise in the lake. In 1889, another cadet drowned during a midnight swim, the cadets had a busy schedule, even on weekends. Rogers and his staff allowed for holiday parties and arranged dances with nearby all-girls schools, discipline was harsh and there were many athletic and extracurricular activities and the students were encouraged to participate
29.
United States Military Academy
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It sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River,50 miles north of New York City. It is one of the four U. S. military service academies, the entire central campus is a national landmark and home to scores of historic sites, buildings, and monuments. The majority of the campuss Norman-style buildings are constructed from gray, the campus is a popular tourist destination complete with a large visitor center and the oldest museum in the United States Army. Candidates for admission must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a member of Congress or Delegate/Resident Commissioner in the case of Washington, puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands. Other nomination sources include the President and Vice President of the United States, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as cadets or collectively as the United States Corps of Cadets. Tuition for cadets is fully funded by the Army in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,300 cadets enter the Academy each July, with about 1,000 cadets graduating. Cadets are required to adhere to the Cadet Honor Code, which states that a cadet will not lie, cheat, steal, the academy bases a cadets leadership experience as a development of all three pillars of performance, academics, physical, and military. Most graduates are commissioned as lieutenants in the Army. Foreign cadets are commissioned into the armies of their home countries, since 1959, cadets have also been eligible to cross-commission, or request a commission in one of the other armed services, provided that they meet that services eligibility standards. Every year, a small number of cadets do this. The academys traditions have influenced other institutions because of its age and it was the first American college to have an accredited civil-engineering program and the first to have class rings, and its technical curriculum was a model for later engineering schools. West Points student body has a rank structure and lexicon. All cadets reside on campus and dine together en masse on weekdays for breakfast, the academy fields fifteen mens and nine womens National Collegiate Athletic Association sports teams. Cadets compete in one sport every fall, winter, and spring season at the intramural, club and its football team was a national power in the early and mid-20th century, winning three national championships. The Continental Army first occupied West Point, New York, on 27 January 1778, between 1778 and 1780, the Polish engineer and military hero Tadeusz Kościuszko oversaw the construction of the garrison defenses. While the fortifications at West Point were known as Fort Arnold during the war, as commander, Benedict Arnold committed his act of treason, after Arnold betrayed the patriot cause, the Army changed the name of the fortifications at West Point, New York, to Fort Clinton. With the peace after the American Revolutionary War, various ordnance, Cadets underwent training in artillery and engineering studies at the garrison since 1794. In 1801, shortly after his inauguration as president, Thomas Jefferson directed that plans be set in motion to establish at West Point the United States Military Academy and he selected Jonathan Williams to serve as its first superintendent
30.
7th Cavalry Regiment
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The 7th Cavalry Regiment is a United States Army cavalry regiment formed in 1866. Its official nickname is Garryowen, after the Irish air Garryowen that was adopted as its march tune, following its activation, the Seventh Cavalry Regiment patrolled the Western plains for raiding Native Americans and to protect the westward movement of pioneers. From 1866 to 1881, the regiment marched a total of 181,692 miles across Kansas, Montana, the regiment was constituted on 28 July 1866 in the regular army as the 7th United States Cavalry. It was organized on 21 September 1866 at Fort Riley, Kansas as part of an expansion of the army following the demobilization of the wartime volunteer. From 1866 through 1871, the regiment was posted to Fort Riley, in the Battle of the Washita in 1868, the regiment sustained 22 losses, while inflicting more that 150 deaths on a Cheyenne encampment, mostly women and children. This attack was led by George Armstrong Custer, who led the 7th Cavalry to the most calamitous defeat of U. S. forces in the Indian Wars. Typical of post-Civil War cavalry regiments, the 7th Cavalry was organized as a regiment without a formal battalion organization. Battalions at this time were flexible tactical organizations, with companies being assigned and removed as the field commander desired or felt necessary. Throughout this period, the cavalryman was armed with the Colt Single Action Army.45 caliber revolvers and trapdoor Springfield carbines, the regiment used the McClellan saddle, and sabres were also issued but not often carried on campaign. The 7th Cavalry, like the other U. S. Army regiments of the time, had a band, which performed mounted as well as on foot, and seated for concerts. Initially established with the support of Major Alfred Gibbs, the 7ths band adopted Garryowen as their favorite tune and thus gave the Seventh their nickname among the rest of the Army. From 1871 through 1873, 7th Cavalry companies participated in constabulary duties in the deep South in support of the Reconstruction Act, in 1873, the 7th Cavalry moved its garrison post to Fort Abraham Lincoln, Dakota Territory. From here, the regiment carried out Custers 1874 Black Hills Expedition and this led to the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, starting a gold rush in 1874 that precipitated the Great Sioux War of 1876–77. In June,1876, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer was killed in the Battle of the Little Bighorn, on 29 December 1890, the regiment instigated the Wounded Knee Massacre in South Dakota, an event that signaled the end of the American Indian Wars. November 1866 – April 1869 Col. Andrew J. Smith May 1869 – June 1886 Col. Samuel D. Sturgis July 1886 – November 1894 Col. James W. From 1895 until 1899, the regiment served in New Mexico and Oklahoma, an enlisted trooper with the Seventh Cavalry, B Company, from May 1896 until March 1897 at Fort Grant Arizona Territory was author Edgar Rice Burroughs. The regiment served in the Philippines during the Philippine-American War from 1904 through 1907, in December 1917, 7th Cavalry was assigned to the 15th Cavalry Division, an on-paper organization designed for service in France during World War I that was never more than a simple headquarters. This was because no significant role emerged for mounted troops on the Western Front during the 19 months between the entry of the United States into the war and the Armistice of 11 November 1918, the 7th Cavalry was released from this assignment in May 1918
31.
Fort Grant, Arizona
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Fort Grant, located in the U. S. state of Arizona, is a state prison and a former United States Army fortification. Fort Grant is located on the slope of Mount Graham in what is now Graham County. The post is named for Ulysses S. Grant, 18th President of the United States. Fort Grant began its life as Camp Grant, Arizona (formerly Fort Breckinridge in August 1860 as an Old West outpost in Arizona Territory, at the junction of Aravaipa Creek and the San Pedro River. Fort Breckinridge was destroyed and the site abandoned in 1861, following removal of the Union garrison at the start of the American Civil War, the site of Fort Breckinridge was reoccupied as Fort Stanford, or Camp Stanford, from 1862 to 1865 by troops of the California Column. When the U. S. Army reoccupied the site it was renamed Camp Grant, the new fort was strategically placed so as to protect settlers who were constantly harassed by Apache warriors. It played a prominent role in the Apache Wars of the 1880s and it was repurposed in 1900 as a staging point for soldiers going to the Philippines to fight in the Philippine–American War. In 1877 McCarty killed a local blacksmith at a saloon and gambling house that is now called the Bonita Store, McCarty was taken into custody at the Fort Grant stockade, but escaped to New Mexico before he could be tried. Edgar Rice Burroughs was stationed at Fort Grant in 1896 as a man after failing the exam for entrance to West Point. He was discharged in 1897 after being diagnosed with a condition that made him ineligible for a commission. Fort Grant was abandoned in 1905 by the Army, which transferred all troops to Fort Huachuca, in 1912, Arizona gained statehood, and the fort was occupied by the State Industrial School for Wayward Boys and Girls, which modernized most of the buildings. In 1968, the state of Arizona officially assigned the site to the Department of Corrections, in 1997 the prison became a unit of an Arizona State Prison complex headquartered in Safford. The main road to and from Fort Grant is Arizona State Route 266, there is an abandoned general-aviation airport, Angel Field, immediately south of the prison. The Fort Grant Historical Museum is located in the lobby of the administration building, the museum features artifacts and photos about the forts military history up through its history as a state reformatory and later as a state prison. UPDATE, Fort Grant no longer has an area or museum. Visitors are not allowed on prison property unless it is to visit an incarcerated inmate, the administration building has been closed and has no known plans to reopen. Camp Grant, Arizona According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Fort Grant has a semi-arid climate, historic Forts Fort Grant History Angel Field, Fort Grant, AZ Aerial View, Google Maps Fort Grant Historical Museum - visiting information
32.
Arizona Territory
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It was created from the western half of the New Mexico Territory during the American Civil War. These proposals arose from concerns about the ability of the government in Santa Fe to effectively administer the newly acquired southern portions of the territory. The first proposal dates from a conference held in Tucson that convened on August 29,1856. The conference issued a petition to the U. S. Congress, signed by 256 people, requesting organization of the territory, later a similar proposal was defeated in the Senate. In April 1860, impatient for Congress to act, a convention of 31 delegates met in Tucson, the delegates elected Lewis Owings as provisional governor. At the outbreak of the Civil War, sentiment in the territory was in favor of the Confederacy, the Confederacy regarded the territory as a valuable route for possible access to the Pacific Ocean, with the specific intention of capturing California. In July 1861, a small Confederate force of Texans under the command of Lieutenant Colonel John R. Baylor assaulted Fort Fillmore at Mesilla in the part of the territory. After the fort was abandoned by the Union garrison, Baylors force cut off the fleeing Union troops and forced them to surrender. On August 1, Baylor issued a Proclamation to the People of the Territory of Arizona, taking possession of the territory for the Confederacy, with Mesilla as the capital and himself as the governor. On August 28, a convention met again in Tucson and declared that the formed the previous year was part of the Confederacy. Granville H. Oury was elected as delegate to the Confederate Congress, Oury drafted legislation authorizing the organization of the Confederate Territory of Arizona. The legislation passed on January 13,1862, and the territory was created by proclamation of President Jefferson Davis on February 14. The following month, in March 1862, the U. S, the use of a north-south border rather than an east-west one had the effect of denying a de facto ratification of the Confederate Arizona Territory. The house bill stipulated that Tucson was to be the capital, the first capital was at Prescott, in the northern Union-controlled area. The boundaries for the territory, if they had kept their same size. However, in 1866, the section was annexed to the state of Nevada. The following year, the capital was moved to Tucson, the territory was admitted to the Union as the 48th state on February 14,1912. Proclamation To The People Of Arizona, the Worlds Work, A History of Our Time
33.
Bookplate
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A bookplate, also known as ex-librīs, is usually a small print or decorative label pasted into a book, often on the inside front cover, to indicate its owner. Simple typographical bookplates are termed booklabels, Bookplates typically bear a name, motto, device, coat-of-arms, crest, badge, or any motif that relates to the owner of the book, or is requested by him or her from the artist or designer. The name of the owner usually follows an inscription such as from the books of, Bookplates are important evidence for the provenance of books. In the United States, bookplates replaced book rhymes after the 19th century, the earliest known marks of ownership of books or documents date from the reign of Amenophis III in Egypt. However, in their form, they evolved from simple inscriptions in books which were common in Europe in the Middle Ages. The earliest known examples of printed bookplates are German, and date from the 15th century, the woodcut, in imitation of similar devices in old manuscripts, is hand-painted. An example of this bookplate can be found in the Farber Archives of Brandeis University, in France the most ancient ex-libris as yet discovered is that of one Jean Bertaud de la Tour-Blanche, the date of which is 1529. Holland comes next with the plate of Anna van der Aa, in 1597, the earliest known American example is the plain printed label of Stephen Daye, the Massachusetts printer of the Bay Psalm Book,1642. A sketch of the history of the bookplate, as a symbolical and decorative print used to mark ownership of books, begins in Germany. The earliest examples known are German, but also they are found in great numbers long before the spread to other countries. Albrecht Dürer is known to have engraved at least six plates between 1503 and 1516, and to have supplied designs for several others, notable plates are ascribed to Lucas Cranach and to Hans Holbein, and to the so-called Little Masters. It was not before the 17th century that printed ex-libris became common in France, up to that time, the more luxurious habit of blind or gold-stamping the books binding with a personal device had been more widespread, the supralibros. From the middle of the century, however, the ex-libris proper became quite popular, examples of that period are numerous and it may be here pointed out that the term ex-libris, used as a substantive found its origin in France. In many ways the consideration of the English bookplate, in its numerous styles, in all its varieties it reflects with great fidelity the prevailing taste in decorative art at different epochs—as bookplates do in all countries. The next is that of Sir Thomas Tresham, dated 1585, until the last quarter of the 17th century the number of authentic English plates is very limited. Their composition is remarkably simple, and displays nothing of the German elaborateness. They are as a very plainly armorial, and the decoration is usually limited to a symmetrical arrangement of mantling. Soon after the Restoration, however, a bookplate seems to have become an established accessory to most well-ordered libraries
34.
Raft River
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The Raft River is a 108-mile-long tributary of the Snake River located in northern Utah and southern Idaho in the United States. It is part of the Columbia River Basin, the Raft Rivers headwaters are mostly on the east side of the Albion Mountains, southeast of Oakley, Idaho. But its Clear Creek tributary also drains the north side of the Raft River Mountains in Utah, portions of the Black Pine and Sublett mountains are also in the rivers watershed. The river flows north to join the Snake River in Cassia County. The Raft Rivers drainage basin includes four divisions of Sawtooth National Forest, the river is named after a crossing of the Oregon Trail where pioneers built rafts out of whatever was available to aid in crossing the river. The river is dry for much of the year, the Oregon Trail crossed the Raft River approximately 2 miles south of Interstate 86. At the top of the bluff above Raft River the Parting of the Ways took place, the Oregon Trail continued west and the California Trail headed south. Graves of those who died from being wounded at Massacre Rocks can be found in the same area along the river. The Clark Massacre of 1851 took place near the Raft River itself, the Raft River also was a turning point for the Emigrants. They would see the Raft as a separating place, List of rivers of Idaho List of longest streams of Idaho List of rivers of Utah Tributaries of the Columbia River U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Raft River
35.
Idaho
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Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
36.
Cowboy
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A cowboy is an animal herder who tends cattle on ranches in North America, traditionally on horseback, and often performs a multitude of other ranch-related tasks. The historic American cowboy of the late 19th century arose from the traditions of northern Mexico and became a figure of special significance. A subtype, called a wrangler, specifically tends the horses used to work cattle, in addition to ranch work, some cowboys work for or participate in rodeos. There are also cattle handlers in many parts of the world, particularly South America and Australia. The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest European settlers of the Americas, over the centuries, differences in terrain, climate and the influence of cattle-handling traditions from multiple cultures created several distinct styles of equipment, clothing and animal handling. As the ever-practical cowboy adapted to the world, the cowboys equipment and techniques also adapted to some degree. The English word cowboy has an origin from several earlier terms that referred to both age and to cattle or cattle-tending work, the word cowboy appeared in the English language by 1725. It appears to be a direct English translation of vaquero, a Spanish word for an individual who managed cattle while mounted on horseback and it was derived from vaca, meaning cow, which came from the Latin word vacca. Another English word for a cowboy, buckaroo, is an anglicization of vaquero, originally, the term may have been intended literally—a boy who tends cows. By 1849 it had developed its sense as an adult cattle handler of the American West. Variations on the word cowboy appeared later, cowhand appeared in 1852, and cowpoke in 1881, originally restricted to the individuals who prodded cattle with long poles to load them onto railroad cars for shipping. Names for a cowboy in American English include buckaroo, cowpoke, cowhand, the word cowboy also had English language roots beyond simply being a translation from Spanish. Originally, the English word cowherd was used to describe a cattle herder, and often referred to a preadolescent or early adolescent boy and this word is very old in the English language, originating prior to the year 1000. In antiquity, herding of sheep, cattle and goats was often the job of minors, on western ranches today, the working cowboy is usually an adult. Responsibility for herding cattle or other livestock is no longer considered a job suitable for children or early adolescents. However, both boys and girls growing up in a ranch environment often learn to ride horses and perform basic ranch skills as soon as they are physically able, such youths, by their late teens, are often given responsibilities for cowboy work on the ranch. The term cowboy was used during the American Revolution to describe American fighters who opposed the movement for independence, in the same period, a number of guerilla bands operated in Westchester County, which marked the dividing line between the British and American forces. These groups were made up of local farmhands who would ambush convoys, there were two separate groups, the skinners fought for the pro-independence side, the cowboys supported the British
37.
Snake River
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The Snake River is a major river of the greater Pacific Northwest in the United States. At 1,078 miles long, it is the largest tributary of the Columbia River and its drainage basin encompasses parts of six U. S. states, and its average discharge is over 54,000 cubic feet per second. Rugged mountains divided by rolling plains characterize the physiographically diverse watershed of the Snake River, the Snake River Plain was created by a volcanic hotspot which now lies underneath Yellowstone National Park, where the headwaters of the Snake River arise. Two of these flooding events significantly affected the river and its surrounds. More than 11,000 years ago, prehistoric Native Americans lived along the Snake, Salmon from the Pacific Ocean spawned by the millions in the river. These fish were central to the lives of the people along the Snake below Shoshone Falls, by the time Lewis and Clark crossed the Rockies and sighted the valley of a Snake tributary, the Nez Perce and Shoshone were the most powerful peoples in the region. Some tribes adopted use of horses after contact with Europeans, which reshaped their hunting, later explorers and fur trappers further changed and used the resources of the Snake River basin. At one point, a sign made by the Shoshones representing fish was misinterpreted to represent a snake. By the middle 19th century, the Oregon Trail, a trail of which a major portion followed the Snake River, had been established by aspiring settlers and traders. Steamboats and railroads moved agricultural products and minerals along the river throughout the 19th, several of these have been proposed for removal in order to restore some of the rivers once-tremendous salmon runs. Its first 50-mile run through the valley of Jackson Hole, which cuts between the Teton Range and the Continental Divide, there it is also met by the Salt River at the mouth of Star Valley. Southwest of the city of Rexburg, the Snake receives from the right the Henrys Fork, the confluence with the Henrys Fork takes the river southwards through downtown Idaho Falls, rounding the Fort Hall Indian Reservation and into American Falls Reservoir, receiving the Portneuf River. Close to Twin Falls, the Snake approaches the southernmost point in its entire course, after which it starts to flow generally northwest. Shortly after it passes within 30 miles of the Idaho state capital of Boise, there were hundreds of rapids in Hells Canyon, some of which have been stilled by the three dams of the Hells Canyon Hydroelectric Project, Hells Canyon, Oxbow, and Brownlee. The Salmon River, the largest tributary of the Snake River, meets it in one of the most remote areas of its entire course, the confluence of the Snake and Columbia rivers has been submerged in Lake Wallula, the reservoir of McNary Dam. The Columbia River flows about 325 miles further west to the Pacific Ocean, as recently as 165 million years ago, most of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean. Even larger lava flows of Columbia River basalts issued over eastern Washington, forming the Columbia Plateau southeast of the Columbia River, separate volcanic activity formed the northwestern portion of the plain, an area far from the path of the hotspot which now lies beneath Yellowstone National Park. At this point, the Snake River watershed was beginning to take shape, the Snake River Plain and the gap between the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range formed a moisture channel, running as far inland as the headwaters of the Snake River
38.
Gold dredge
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A gold dredge is a placer mining machine that extracts gold from sand, gravel, and dirt using water and mechanical methods. The original gold dredges were large, multi-story machines built in the first half of the 1900s, small suction machines are currently marketed as gold dredges to individuals seeking gold, just offshore from the beach of Nome, Alaska, for instance. A large gold dredge uses a method to excavate material using steel buckets on a circular. The material is then sorted/sifted using water, the cylinder has many holes in it to allow undersized material to fall into a sluice box. The material that is washed or sorted away is called tailings, the rocks deposited behind the dredge are called tailing piles. The holes in the screen were intended to screen out rocks, the basic concept of retrieving gold via placer mining has not changed since antiquity. The concept is that the gold in sand or soil will settle to the bottom because gold is heavy/dense, the original methods to perform placer mining involved gold panning, sluice boxes, and rockers. Each method involves washing sand, gravel and dirt in water, gold then settles to the bottom of the pan, or into the bottom of the riffles of the sluice box. The gold dredge is the concept but on a much larger scale. Gold dredges are an important tool of gold miners around the world. They allow profitable mining at relatively low operational costs, even though the concept is simple in principle, dredges can be engineered in different ways allowing to catch different sizes of gold specimen. Hence the efficiency of gold dredges differs greatly depending on its specifications, by the mid to late 1850s the easily accessible placer gold in California was gone, but much gold remained. The challenge of retrieving the gold took a professional mining approach to make it pay, giant machines, massive floating dredges scooped up millions of tons of river gravels, as steam and electrical power became available in the early 1900s. Gold dredges were used in New Zealand from the 1860s, in Otago rivers like the Clutha River and the Molyneaux River, in the late 1990s and through today, dredging has returned as a popular form of gold mining. Today dredges are versatile and popular consisting of both floating surface dredges that use a vacuum to suck gravel from the bottom and submersible dredges, large dredges are still operating in several countries of South America, Asia and Africa. In 2015, gold miner Tony Beets reconstructed a 70-year-old dredge, as of 2016, this is the only operating large dredge in the Klondike. However, he is working on fixing up a second dredge 33% larger than the first one. Environmental impact studies show no clear positive benefits from suction dredging, small scale suction dredging in rivers and streams remains a controversial land management topic and the subject of much political turmoil
39.
Kate Rice
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Kate Rice was a Canadian prospector, adventurer, and writer who lived in northern Manitoba. She garnered widespread attention for her life and for succeeding in the mineral industry which had few women at the time. Her grandfather was a progressive Methodist Minister who founded a college for women in Hamilton. Her father taught her to canoe and camp along the St. Mary’s River at the age of six, regaled her with tales of Daniel Boone and gave her a taste for adventure. Rice attended the University of Toronto, winning the Edward Blake Scholarship twice and she studied Mathematics, Physics and Astronomy, graduating in 1906. In 1908, Rice moved west to Tees, Alberta where she taught at a summer school and she then took up a position at Professor of Mathematics at Albert College in Belleville, Ontario and taught in Yorkton, Saskatchewan in 1911 and 1912. During this period she began to time in the Canadian Rockies. This became a passion and she joined the Alpine Club Of Canada. At the age of 29, Rice decided she wanted to homestead and participate in the opening of Canada’s “new frontier” in the north. At that time, women were prevented from holding title of homesteads, so Rice used her brother Lincoln’s name to purchase land 6 km north of The Pas, Manitoba. Soon after Rice moved to The Pas, there was word of gold being discovered 90 km north on Beaver Lake, Rice began studying prospecting and read everything she found on geology. She befriended local Cree, and learned their language and to hunt, in 1914 Rice borrowed money, a “grubstake”, from an old college friend and hired a Cree guide to take her north to Beaver Lake by dogsled. She then travelled north by canoe to Brochet to begin prospecting. On this first foray, Rice discovered zinc showings at Reindeer Lake but didn’t stake the claim as there was no railway to the area, in 1915, she took her dog team to explore the Beaver Lake area where she went on to stake her first claims. During this time Rice hired “Old Isaac” a local Cree Elder, to teach her how to trap, hunt, mush dogs, the local Cree called her “Mooniasquao”. The following year, Rice entered into a partnership with Richard Woosey, Woosey was two years older, a veteran of the British 18th Royal Hussars Regiment, and had fought in the Boer War, in India, and along the Afghan border. The two built a cabin together and worked as a team until Woosey’s death in 1940. While there was frequent speculation about their relationship, Rice always insisted it was strictly professional
40.
C. Allen Thorndike Rice
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Charles Allen Thorndike Rice was a journalist and the editor and publisher of the North American Review from 1876 to 1889. C. Rice grew up in the Beacon Hill section of Boston and Baltimore, Maryland, but his parents divorced in 1859, and a child custody dispute ensued. Custody was eventually awarded to his father by a Maryland Court, in retaliation, Elizabeth Thorndike Rice arranged for a kidnapping of Charlie in the summer of 1860 when he was in Nahant, Massachusetts. The kidnapping was witnessed by nine-year-old Charlies school mate, Henry Cabot Lodge, however, Elizabeth was able to escape to Canada with Charlie disguised as a girl. They eventually moved to France and Germany and resided there for several years, in 1866, Rices mother Elizabeth died and he was able to rejoin his father in Boston. In 1869, Rices father Henry died and he returned to Europe for his education and he graduated from University of Oxford with a BA degree in 1874, and earned his MA degree there in 1878. C. Allen Thorndike Rice began his career in 1876 when he purchased the North American Review for $3000, the magazine provided an outlet for his interest in writing, as he was a frequent contributor. In 1879, he interested in international exploration, so he contributed funds to enable the Charnay Expedition to explore and photograph Mayan ruins in Mexico. On the return of the expedition, Rice wrote an account in 1880 entitled Ruined Cities of Central America that publicized and popularized the effort and that year he was awarded the Chevalier de Légion dhonneur by French President Jules Grévy. Rice ran as a Republican in the election of 1886 against General Francis Barretto Spinola for New Yorks 10th congressional district seat in the U. S. House of Representatives and he lost the race and he subsequently alleged electoral fraud in the process. Rice then dedicated himself to the cause of promoting the use of the ballot in the United States. In 1889, he was appointed as Minister to Russia by President Benjamin Harrison, Ruined Cities of Central America North American Review. Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time, the North American Review Publishing Company, New York. Works by or about C. Allen Thorndike Rice at Internet Archive
41.
Oregon Short Line Railroad
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The Oregon Short Line Railroad was a railroad in the U. S. states of Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Montana and Oregon. The line was organized as the Oregon Short Line Railway in 1881 as a subsidiary of the Union Pacific Railway, the Union Pacific intended the line to be the shortest route from Wyoming to Oregon. In 1889 the line merged with the Utah & Northern Railway, following the bankruptcy of Union Pacific, the line was taken into receivership and reorganized as the Oregon Short Line Railroad. The Oregon Short Line Railway was organized on April 14,1881, the line started from the Union Pacific main line in Granger, Wyoming, and reached Montpelier, Idaho, on August 5,1882 and then to McCammon, Idaho, in the Fall of 1882. The line from Pocatello to Huntington, Oregon, was completed in late 1884, access to Portland, Oregon, was on track leased from the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. The line was essential because the Union Pacific main line ended in Utah where it met the Central Pacific Railroad, the Southern Pacific had built tracks as far east as El Paso, Texas, and would in,1883, become a transcontinental railroad in its own right. The Southern Pacific then started routing traffic to the line, cutting off the Union Pacific. The Oregon Short Line also was meant to halt the OR&Ns continued eastward expansion at the Idaho-Oregon border, in 1889, the Oregon Short Line Railway merged with Utah & Northern Railway and 6 other smaller railroads to form the Oregon Short Line and Utah Northern Railway. In 1890 the company finished converting the original Utah & Northern line from 3 ft narrow gauge to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in standard gauge, on October 13,1893 the OSL&UN went into receivership with the rest of the Union Pacific holdings. The Oregon Short Line Railroad was incorporated in February 1897 and purchased the property of the OSL&UN later that month, on March 15 the OSL took possession of the line and started operating. The OSL was independent for a period of time until October 1898 when the newly reformed Union Pacific Railroad took control of a majority of the board of directors. During the early part of the 20th century the railroad publicized tours of Yellowstone National Park by way of a spur constructed from Idaho Falls, Idaho to West Yellowstone, Montana. In 1938, Union Pacific began consolidating operations and leased for operation a number of its subsidiaries including the Oregon Short Line, the railroad operated under the lease until December 30,1987, when the OSL was fully merged into the Union Pacific Railroad. Oregon Short Line Railroad Depot, in Ontario, Oregon – listed on the National Register of Historic Places Ferrel, Hauck, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Oregon Shortline Railroad
42.
Pulp magazine
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Pulp magazines were inexpensive fiction magazines that were published from 1896 to the 1950s. The term pulp derives from the wood pulp paper on which the magazines were printed, in contrast. The typical pulp magazine had 128 pages, it was 7 inches wide by 10 inches high, the pulps gave rise to the term pulp fiction in reference to run-of-the-mill, low-quality literature. Pulps were the successors to the penny dreadfuls, dime novels, although many respected writers wrote for pulps, the magazines were best known for their lurid, exploitative, and sensational subject matter. The first pulp was Frank Munseys revamped Argosy Magazine of 1896, with about 135,000 words per issue, on paper with untrimmed edges. In six years Argosy went from a few thousand copies per month to over half a million, Street & Smith, a dime novel and boys weekly publisher, was next on the market. Seeing Argosys success, they launched The Popular Magazine in 1903, due to differences in page layout however, the magazine had substantially less text than Argosy. Haggards Lost World genre influenced several key pulp writers, including Edgar Rice Burroughs, Robert E. Howard, Talbot Mundy and Abraham Merritt. Street and Smiths next innovation was the introduction of specialized genre pulps, with each focusing on a particular genre, such as detective stories, romance. At their peak of popularity in the 1920s and 1930s, the most successful pulps could sell up to one million copies per issue, in 1934, Frank Gruber says there were some 150 pulp titles. The most successful pulp magazines were Argosy, Adventure, Blue Book and Short Stories, although pulp magazines were primarily an American phenomenon, there were also a number of British pulp magazines published between the Edwardian era and World War II. Notable UK pulps included Pall Mall Magazine, The Novel Magazine, Cassells Magazine, The Story-Teller, The Sovereign Magazine, Hutchinsons Adventure-Story and Hutchinsons Mystery-Story. The German fantasy magazine Der Orchideengarten had a format to American pulp magazines, in that it was printed on rough pulp paper. During the Second World War paper shortages had a impact on pulp production, starting a steady rise in costs. Beginning with Ellery Queens Mystery Magazine in 1941, pulp magazines began to switch to digest size, in 1949, Street & Smith closed most of their pulp magazines in order to move upmarket and produce slicks. The pulp format declined from rising expenses, but even more due to the competition from comic books, television. In a more affluent post-war America, the price gap compared to slick magazines was far less significant, in the 1950s, mens adventure magazines began to replace the pulp. The format is still in use for some lengthy serials, like the German science fiction weekly Perry Rhodan, many titles of course survived only briefly
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