1.
Magazine
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A magazine is a publication, usually a periodical publication, which is printed or electronically published. Magazines are generally published on a schedule and contain a variety of content. They are generally financed by advertising, by a price, by prepaid subscriptions. At its root, the magazine refers to a collection or storage location. In the case of written publication, it is a collection of written articles and this explains why magazine publications share the word root with gunpowder magazines, artillery magazines, firearms magazines, and, in French, retail stores such as department stores. By definition, a magazine paginates with each issue starting at three, with the standard sizing being 8 3/8 ×10 7/8 inches. However, in the sense a journal has continuous pagination throughout a volume. Some professional or trade publications are also peer-reviewed, an example being the Journal of Accountancy, academic or professional publications that are not peer-reviewed are generally professional magazines. That a publication calls itself a journal does not make it a journal in the technical sense, magazines can be distributed through the mail, through sales by newsstands, bookstores, or other vendors, or through free distribution at selected pick-up locations. The subscription business models for distribution fall into three main categories. In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a basis or by subscription. Paid circulation allows for defined readership statistics and this means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, airline, or included with other products or publications. Because this model involves giving issues away to unspecific populations, the statistics only entail the number of issues distributed and this is the model used by many trade magazines distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. This allows a level of certainty that advertisements will be received by the advertisers target audience. This latter model was used before the rise of the World Wide Web and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines use this model, including Computer Weekly and Computing, for the global media industry, an example would be VideoAge International. The earliest example of magazines was Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen, a literary and philosophy magazine, the Gentlemans Magazine, first published in 1731, in London was the first general-interest magazine. Edward Cave, who edited The Gentlemans Magazine under the pen name Sylvanus Urban, was the first to use the term magazine, founded by Herbert Ingram in 1842, The Illustrated London News was the first illustrated magazine
2.
Scottish Enlightenment
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The Scottish Enlightenment was the period in 18th and early 19th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By the eighteenth century, Scotland had a network of schools in the Lowlands. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, law, agriculture, chemistry, the Scottish Enlightenment of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was a natural development of this earlier engagement and advancement of knowledge. Union with England in 1707 meant the end of the Scottish Parliament, the parliamentarians, politicians, aristocrats, and placemen moved to London. Scottish law, however, was separate from English law, so the civil law courts, lawyers. The headquarters and leadership of the Church of Scotland also remained, as did the universities, at the union of 1707, England had about five times the population of Scotland and about 36 times as much wealth. Scotland experienced the beginnings of economic expansion that allowed it to close this gap, contacts with England led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their workers, enclosures led to unemployment. The major change in trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market. Glasgow particularly benefited from this new trade, initially supplying the colonies with manufactured goods, it emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, the merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy tobacco lords, who dominated the city for most of the eighteenth century. Banking also developed in this period, the Bank of Scotland, founded in 1695 was suspected of Jacobite sympathies, and so a rival Royal Bank of Scotland was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr and these made capital available for business, and the improvement of roads and trade. By the late 17th century there was a complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands. By the 17th century, Scotland had five universities, compared with Englands two, all saw the establishment or re-establishment of chairs of mathematics. Observatories were built at St. Andrews and at Kings and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen, Robert Sibbald was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh, and he co-founded the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681. These developments helped the universities to major centres of medical education. By the 18th century, access to Scottish universities was probably more open than in contemporary England, attendance was less expensive and the student body more socially representative. In the eighteenth century Scotland reaped the benefits of this system
3.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
4.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Francophone Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the Enlightenment in France and across Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution, Rousseaus novel Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction and his Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club and he was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794,16 years after his death. Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state, since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Rousseau was proud that his family, of the order, had voting rights in the city. Throughout his life, he signed his books Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Geneva, in theory, was governed democratically by its male voting citizens, the citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants, referred to as inhabitants, whose descendants were called natives and continued to lack suffrage. There was much debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, in 1707, a democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying a sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being. He was shot by order of the Little Council, Jean-Jacques Rousseaus father, Isaac, was not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacquess grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it. The trade of watchmaking had become a tradition by the time of Rousseaus father. Isaac followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the business, Isaac, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well educated and a lover of music. A Genevan watchmaker, Rousseau wrote, is a man who can be introduced anywhere, in 1699, Isaac ran into political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers, who in response drew their swords and threatened him. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, Rousseaus mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an upper-class family. She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher and he cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques died in his early thirties. In 1695, Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theater disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent Sarrasin, after a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again. She married Rousseaus father at the age of 31, isaacs sister had married Suzannes brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory
5.
Discourse on Inequality
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Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men, also commonly known as the Second Discourse, is a work by philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Rousseau first exposes in this work his conception of a state of nature, presented as a philosophical fiction, and of human perfectibility. He then explains the way, according to him, people may have established civil society, which leads him to present private property as the original source and basis of all inequality. The text was written in 1754 in response to a competition of the Academy of Dijon answering the prompt, What is the origin of inequality among people. Rousseau did not win with his treatise, a canon of Besançon by the name of François Xavier Talbert did, Rousseau published the text in 1755. Also, there is an appendix that elaborates primarily on eighteenth century anthropological research throughout the text, Rousseau discusses two types of inequality, natural, or physical inequality, and ethical, or moral inequality. Natural inequality involves differences between one body and that of another—it is a product of nature. Rousseau is not concerned with this type of inequality because he claims it is not the root of the inequality found in civil society. Instead, he argues moral inequality is unique to civil society and is evinced in differences in wealth, nobility or rank, power and this type of inequality is established by convention. Rousseau appears to take a view of civil society, where man has strayed from his natural state of individual independence and freedom to satisfy his individual needs. Natural man acts only for his own sake and avoids conflicts with other animals, Rousseaus man is a savage man. He is a loner and self-sufficient, any battle or skirmish was only to protect himself. The natural man was in condition, fast, and strong. He killed only for his own self-preservation, natural mans anthropological distinction is based on his capacity for perfectibility and innate sense of his freedom. The former, although translated as perfectibility, has nothing to do with a drive for perfection or excellence, instead, perfectibility describes how humans can learn by observing others. Since human being lacks reason, this is not a discursive reasoning, human freedom does not mean the capacity to choose, which would require reason, but instead the ability to refrain from instinct. Only with such a capacity can humans acquire new habits and practices, the most important feature of Rousseaus natural man is that he lacks reason, in contrast to most of the Western intellectual tradition. Rousseau claims natural man does not possess reason or language or society—and these three things are mutually-conditioning, such that none can come into being without the others
6.
Adam Smith
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Adam Smith FRSA was a Scottish economist, philosopher, and author. He was a philosopher, a pioneer of political economy. He is best known for two works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and An Inquiry into the Nature. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, after graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote, in his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith laid the foundations of free market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, he developed the concept of division of labour, Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by Tory writers in the moralising tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time, the minor planet 12838 Adamsmith was named in his memory. Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in the County of Fife and his father, also Adam Smith, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet, advocate, and prosecutor and also served as comptroller of the Customs in Kirkcaldy. In 1720 he married Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry and his father died two months after he was born, leaving his mother a widow. The date of Smiths baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723, and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth, Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, in 1740 Smith was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition. Adam Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, according to William Robert Scott, The Oxford of time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework. Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, near the end of his time there, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown
7.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
8.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
9.
Whigs (British political party)
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The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Whigs origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy. The Whigs played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760. The Whig Supremacy was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714, the Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession, and local offices. The Partys hold on power was so strong and durable, historians call the period from roughly 1714 to 1783 the age of the Whig Oligarchy. The first great leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government through the period 1721–1742, his protégé was Henry Pelham, who led from 1743 to 1754. Both parties were founded on rich politicians, more than on votes, there were elections to the House of Commons. The Whig Party slowly evolved during the 18th century, later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the royal family. The term Whig was originally short for whiggamor, a term meaning cattle driver used to describe western Scots who came to Leith for corn. In the reign of Charles I the term was used during Wars of the Three Kingdoms to refer derisively to a faction of the Scottish Covenanters who called themselves the Kirk Party. It was then applied to Scottish Presbyterian rebels who were against the Kings Episcopalian order in Scotland, Whig was a term of abuse applied to those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. The fervent Tory Samuel Johnson often joked that the first Whig was the Devil, the Whigs, under Lord Shaftesburys leadership, wished to exclude the Duke of York from the throne due to his Catholicism, his favouring of monarchical absolutism and his connections to France. They believed the Duke, if allowed to inherit the throne, would endanger the Protestant religion, liberty, the first Exclusion Bill was supported by a substantial majority on its second reading in May 1679. In response, King Charles prorogued Parliament and then dissolved it and this new parliament did not meet for thirteen months, because Charles wanted to give passions a chance to die down. When it met in October 1680, an Exclusion Bill was introduced and passed in the Commons without major resistance, Charles dissolved Parliament in January 1681, but the Whigs did not suffer serious losses in the ensuing election. The next Parliament first met in March, at Oxford, but Charles dissolved it only after a few days, when he made an appeal to the country against the Whigs, and determined to rule without Parliament. In February, Charles had made a deal with the French King Louis XIV, without Parliament, the Whigs gradually crumbled, mainly due to the Rye House Plot
10.
Francis Jeffrey
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Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey was a Scottish judge and literary critic. He was born in Edinburgh, the son of George Jeffrey, after attending the Royal High School for six years, he studied at the University of Glasgow from 1787 to May 1789, and at Queens College, Oxford, from September 1791 to June 1792. He had begun the study of law at Edinburgh before going to Oxford and he became a member of the Speculative Society, where he measured himself in debate with Sir Walter Scott, Lord Brougham, Francis Horner, the Marquess of Lansdowne, Lord Kinnaird and others. He was admitted to the Scottish bar in December 1794, but, having abandoned the Tory principles in which he had been educated, he found that his Whig politics hampered his legal prospects. In consequence of his lack of success at the bar he went to London in 1798 to try his hand at journalism and his marriage to Catherine Wilson in 1801 made the question of a settled income even more pressing. At the outset the Review did not have an editor, the first three numbers were effectively edited by Sydney Smith. On his leaving for England the work devolved chiefly on Jeffrey, who, by an arrangement with Archibald Constable and this article expressed despair of the success of the British arms in Spain, and Scott at once withdrew his subscription, the Quarterly being soon afterwards started in opposition. According to Lord Cockburn the effect of the first number of the Edinburgh Review was electrical, the English reviews were at that time practically publishers organs, with articles by hack writers instructed to obey the publishers interests. The Edinburgh Review, on the hand, enlisted a brilliant and independent staff of contributors, guided by the editor. They received sixteen guineas a sheet, increased subsequently to twenty-five guineas in many cases, the review was not limited to literary criticism but became the accredited organ of moderate Whig public opinion. These general principles and the novelty of the method ensured the success of the undertaking even after the circle of exceptionally able men who founded it had been dispersed. It had a circulation of 12,000, Jeffreys editorship lasted about twenty-six years, ceasing with the ninety-eighth number, published in June 1829, when he resigned in favour of Macvey Napier. Jeffreys own contributions numbered two hundred, all six being written before his resignation of the editorship. He wrote quickly, at odd moments of leisure and with special preparation. A criticism in the number of the Review on the morality of Thomas Moores poems led in 1806 to a duel between the two authors at Chalk Farm. The proceedings were stopped by the police, and Jeffreys pistol was found to contain no bullet, the affair led to a warm friendship, and Moore contributed to the Review, while Jeffrey made ample amends in a later article on Lalla Rookh. Jeffreys wife had died in 1805, and in 1810 he became acquainted with Charlotte, daughter of Charles Wilkes of New York, when she returned to the United States, Jeffrey followed her, and they were married in 1813. Before returning to Scotland, they visited several of the chief American cities, notwithstanding the increasing success of the Review, Jeffrey continued to look to the bar as the chief field of his ambition
11.
Sydney Smith
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Sydney Smith was an English wit, writer and Anglican cleric. Born in Woodford, Essex, England, Smith was the son of merchant Robert Smith and Maria Olier, who suffered from epilepsy. His father, described as a man of ingenuity and activity, very clever, odd by nature. Smith himself attributed much of his own personality to his French blood. He was the second of four brothers and one sister, all remarkable for their talents. Two of the brothers, Robert Percy and Cecil, were sent to Eton, but he was sent with the youngest to Winchester College, where he rose to be captain of the school. He and his brother so distinguished themselves that their school-fellows signed a round-robin refusing to try for the college if the Smiths were allowed to contend for them any more. In 1789, Smith became a scholar of New College, Oxford and he planned to read for the bar, but his father disagreed and he was reluctantly compelled to take holy orders. He was ordained at Oxford in 1796 and became curate of the village of Netheravon, Smith did much for the inhabitants, providing the means for the rudiments of education and thus making better things possible. The squire of the parish, Michael Hicks-Beach, invited the new curate to dine and it was arranged that they should go to the University of Weimar in Germany, but war prevented them and in stress of politics said Smith, we put into Edinburgh in 1798. While his pupil attended lectures, Smith studied moral philosophy under Dugald Stewart as well as medicine and he also preached in the Episcopal chapel, attracting large audiences. In 1800, Smith published his first book, Six Sermons, preached in Charlotte Street Chapel, Edinburgh and they settled at 46 George Street, Edinburgh, where Smith made numerous friends, among them the future Edinburgh Reviewers. Towards the end of his five years residence in Edinburgh, in a house in Buccleuch Place, I was appointed editor, he says in the preface to the collection of his contributions, and remained long enough in Edinburgh to edit the first number of the Edinburgh Review. The motto I proposed for the Review was Tenui musam meditamur avena. —We cultivate literature on a little oatmeal. But this was too near the truth to be admitted, and so we took our present grave motto✱ from Publius Syrus, of whom, none of us, I am sure, had ever read a single line. He continued to write for the Review for the quarter of a century. Smith left Edinburgh for good in 1803, and settled in London, where he became known as a preacher, a lecturer. His success as a preacher was such there was often not standing-room in Berkeley Chapel, Mayfair
12.
Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux
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Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux PC QC FRS, was a British statesman who became Lord Chancellor of Great Britain. As a young lawyer in Scotland, Brougham helped to found the Edinburgh Review in 1802 and he went to London, and was called to the English bar in 1808. In 1810 he entered the House of Commons as a Whig, Brougham took up the fight against the slave trade and opposed restrictions on trade with continental Europe. In 1820, he won renown as chief attorney to Queen Caroline. He not only proposed educational reforms in Parliament but also was one of the founders of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1825, as Lord Chancellor from 1830 to 1834 he effected many legal reforms to speed procedure and established the Central Criminal Court. In later years he spent much of his time in Cannes, Brougham was born and grew up in Edinburgh, the eldest son of Henry Brougham, of Brougham Hall in Westmorland, and Eleanora, daughter of Reverend James Syme. The Broughams had been an influential Cumberland family for centuries, Brougham was educated at the Royal High School and the University of Edinburgh, where he chiefly studied natural science and mathematics, but also law. He published several scientific papers through the Royal Society, notably on light and colours and on prisms, however, Brougham chose law as his profession, and was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1800. He practised little in Scotland, and instead entered Lincolns Inn in 1803, five years later he was called to the Bar. Not a wealthy man, Brougham turned to journalism as a means of supporting himself financially through these years, another example of Lord Broughams scientific incompetence is his attack against Sir William Herschel. The story is described by Pustiĺnik and Din, Herschel, as Royal Astronomer, found a correlation between the observed number of sunspots and wheat prices. This met with strong and widespread rejection, even ridicule – as a grand absurdity – by Lord Brougham, Herschel had to cancel his next publications of these results. 70 years later, the English economist W. S. Jevons discovered 10-to-11-year intervals between high prices – in agreement with the 11-year cycle of solar activity, discovered at those times. Pustiĺnik and Din believe they have found a direct evidence of the connection between wheat price bursts and solar activity. The success of the Edinburgh Review made Brougham a man of mark from his first arrival in London and he quickly became a fixture in London society and gained the friendship of Lord Grey and other leading Whig politicians. The aim of the mission was to counteract the anticipated French invasion of Portugal, during these years he became a close supporter of the movement for the abolition of slavery, a cause to which he was to be passionately devoted for the rest of his life. Despite being a well-known and popular figure, Brougham had to wait before being offered a seat to contest. However, in 1810 he was elected for Camelford, a rotten borough controlled by the Duke of Bedford
13.
Francis Horner
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Francis Horner FRSE was a Scottish Whig politician, journalist, lawyer and political economist. He was born in Edinburgh the son of John Horner a linen merchant, the family lived originally on Princes Street then moved to 19 York Place. His younger brother was Leonard Horner and he studied at University of Edinburgh, where he was praised by Professor Dugald Stewart as an intellectual all-rounder. He left the university in 1795 and went with Rev. John Hewlett to Middlesex and he qualified as an advocate in Scotland in 1800 and in England in 1807. In 1802, Horner was one of the founders of the Edinburgh Review, here he became acquainted with fellow Whig journalists. In June 1804 he wrote. in the general maxims and principles of Mr, into that party, there, I resolve to enlist myself. In 1807 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and his proposers were Sir James Hall, John Playfair and Thomas Allan. Horner was MP for St. Ives in 1806, Wendover in 1807 and he translated Leonhard Eulers Elements of Algebra in 1797 and revised Henry Bennets Short Account of a late Short Administration for publication in 1807. A believer in political economy, he criticised the Corn Laws, on 20 March 1815 the City of London voted thanks to him for his critique of protectionism. On 1 February 1810 he moved for a committee on inquiry into the price of bullion. He subsequently was appointed chairman of the Bullion Committee, where he extended and confirmed his fame as a political economist by his share in the famous Bullion Report, the committee produced its report on 8 June. Horner believed the two-party system hindered the rational debate of policy solutions which prevented ideas being debated on their merits. In 1808 he supported the Spanish uprising against Napoleon, writing in July 1808, Spain. I am in a fever till I hear more about Dupont and it is idle to sigh for peace, if it cannot be had upon system, and for a period to be sure of, England forms a part of Europe, and must share its vicissitudes and agitations. After Napoleons defeat in 1814, he criticised the settlement as the plunder of Europe by the robbers of Vienna. After Napoleon escaped from Elba and became ruler of France again, Horner was against the resumption of war and he also opposed the Bourbon restoration in France and Naples. This led to disagreements with the Grenvillite faction and on 8 April he offered to resign his seat but was persuaded not to by Lord Grenville, on 28 April he voted for Samuel Whitbreads peace motion and again considered resignation but decided not to. After Napoleons defeat he again opposed a conservative peace settlement, the military establishment
14.
Archibald Constable
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Archibald David Constable was a Scottish publisher, bookseller and stationer. Constable was born at Carnbee, Fife, son of the steward to the Earl of Kellie. In 1788 Archibald was apprenticed to Peter Hill, an Edinburgh bookseller and he bought the Scots Magazine in 1801, and John Leyden, the orientalist, became its editor. Constable made a new departure in publishing by the generosity of his terms to authors, writers for the Edinburgh Review were paid at an unprecedented rate, and Constable offered Scott 1000 guineas in advance for Marmion. Hunter joined Constable as partner, bringing considerable capital into the firm, in 1805, jointly with Longman & Co. Constable published Scotts Lay of the Last Minstrel, and in 1807 Marmion, in 1808 a split took place between Constable and Sir Walter Scott, who transferred his business to the publishing firm of John Ballantyne & Co. for which he supplied most of the capital. In 1813, however, a reconciliation took place, in 1814 he bought the copyright of Waverley. This was issued anonymously, but in a short time 12,000 copies were disposed of, the firm also published the Annual Register. Through over-speculation, complications arose, and in 1826 a crash came, Constables London agents stopped payment, and he failed for over £250,000, while James Ballantyne & Co. also went bankrupt for nearly £90,000. Sir Walter Scott was affected by the failure of both firms, Constable died on 21 July 1827, but his firm survived, and the Constable publishing business continued in the twentieth century, issuing a wide range of fiction and non-fiction books. It continues today as Constable & Robinson, Constable was married to Mary Willison. They lived in Craigcrook House in western Edinburgh and their son, Thomas Constable FRSE took over his printing business on his fathers death. In 1839 he was appointed printer and publisher in Edinburgh to Queen Victoria, and issued, among other series, Constables Educational Series. In 1865 his son Archibald David Constable became a partner, Thomas married Lucia Anne Cowan, daughter of Alexander Cowan paper-maker. They lived at 11 Thistle Street in Edinburghs First New Town and their son was also Archibald David Constable FRSE LLD, named after his grandfather, and followed in the family tradition as a printer. His daughter, Elizabeth Constable married his junior publishing partner, Robert Cadell of Ratho, Constable, Archibald, Encyclopædia Britannica,6, Cambridge University Press, pp. 981–982 Henderson, Thomas Finlayson. London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 32–33, Edinburgh, A. Constable & Co.1822
15.
Quarterly Review
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The Quarterly Review was a literary and political periodical founded in March 1809 by the well known London publishing house John Murray. Initially, the Quarterly was set up primarily to counter the influence on public opinion of the Edinburgh Review and its first editor, William Gifford, was appointed by George Canning, at the time Foreign Secretary, later Prime Minister. Under Gifford, the journal took the Canningite liberal-conservative position on matters of domestic and foreign policy and it opposed major political reforms, but it supported the gradual abolition of slavery, moderate law reform, humanitarian treatment of criminals and the insane, and the liberalizing of trade. In a series of brilliant articles in its pages, Southey advocated a philosophy of social reform. Because two of his key writers, Scott and Southey, were opposed to Catholic emancipation, Gifford did not permit the journal to take a position on that issue. Reflecting divisions in the Tory party itself, under its editor, John Gibson Lockhart. While Croker continued to represent the Canningites and Peelites, the liberal wing. During its early years, reviews of new works were sometimes remarkably long and that of Henry Kosters Travels in Brazil ran to forty-three pages. Typical of early nineteenth-century journals, reviewing in the Quarterly was highly politicized, writers and publishers known for their Unitarian or radical views were among the early journals main targets. In an 1817 article, John Wilson Croker attacked John Keats in a review of Endymion for his association with Leigh Hunt, shelley blamed Crokers article for bringing about the death of the seriously ill poet, snuffed out, in Byrons ironic phrase, by an article. The Quarterly Review stopped publication in 1967, a publication taking this name was founded in 2007. Other members of the Editorial Board include philosophers Antony Flew and Thomas Molnar, ecologist Edward Goldsmith, economist Ezra Mishan, columnists include socialite Taki Theodoracopulos, ecologist Rev John Papworth and Roy Kerridge. The deputy editor is Dr Leslie Jones, and the editor is Luise Hemmer Pihl. Each issue of the new Quarterly Review includes an article from the original publication, in 2007, the archive was purchased by the National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. The Quarterly Review Archive This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Wood, James. London and New York, Frederick Warne
16.
Tories
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A Tory holds a political philosophy based on a British version of traditionalism and conservatism, which upholds the supremacy of social order as it has evolved throughout history. The Tory ethos has been summed up with the phrase God, King, Tories generally advocate monarchism, are usually of a high church Anglican religious heritage, and are opposed to the liberalism of the Whig faction. In Britain, the Tory political faction originated with the Cavaliers during the English Civil War and this political philosophy remains prominent in the politics of the United Kingdom, and also appears in parts of the Commonwealth realms, particularly in Canada. It also had exponents in other parts of the former British Empire, under the Corn Laws a majority of Tories supported protectionist agrarianism with tariffs being imposed at the time for higher food prices, self-sufficiency, and enhanced wages in rural employment. There were two Tory ministries after James II came to the throne, the first led by the Earl of Rochester, a significant faction took part in the ousting of James II with the Whigs to defend the Church of England and definitive protestantism. Although only a minority of Tories gave their adhesion to the Jacobite risings, after the advent of the Prime Ministerial system under the Whig Robert Walpole, Lord Butes premiership in the reign of George III marked a revival. Edmund Burke and William Pitt the Younger led the way in this, interventionism and strong armed forces were to prove a hallmark of Toryism under subsequent Prime Ministers. Due to these Tories leading the formation of the Conservative Party, members of that party are referred to as Tories. The word Tory derives from the Middle Irish word tóraidhe, modern Irish tóraí, outlaw, robber or brigand, from the Irish word tóir, meaning pursuit and it was originally used to refer to a Rapparee and later applied to Confederates or Cavaliers in arms. The term was originally a term of abuse, an Irish rebel. Towards the end of Charles IIs reign there was debate about whether or not his brother, James, Duke of York. Whigs, originally a reference to Scottish cattle-drivers, was the term directed at those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. Those who were not prepared to exclude James were labelled Abhorrers, the suffix -ism was quickly added to both Whig and Tory to make Whiggism and Toryism, meaning the principles and methods of each faction. Historically, the term Tory has been applied in ways to loyalists of the British monarchy. During the Exclusion Crisis, the word Tory was applied in Kingdom of England as a nickname to the opponents of the bill, the word Tory had connotations of Papist and outlaw derived from its previous use in Ireland. Since 1832, the term Tory is commonly used to refer to the Conservative Party, the term Tory or Loyalist was used in the American Revolution for those who remained loyal to the British Crown. Since early in the 18th century, Tory had described those upholding the right of the King over Parliament, during the war of independence, particularly after the Declaration of Independence in 1776 this use was extended to cover anyone who remained loyal to the British Crown. About 80% of the Loyalists remained in the United States after the war, the 60,000 or so Loyalists who settled in Quebec, the Bahamas, or returned to Great Britain after the American War of Independence are known as United Empire Loyalists
17.
Lake Poets
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The Lake Poets were a group of English poets who all lived in the Lake District of England, United Kingdom, at the turn of the nineteenth century. As a group, they followed no single school of thought or literary practice then known and they were named, only to be uniformly disparaged, by the Edinburgh Review. They are considered part of the Romantic Movement, the three main figures of what has become known as the Lakes School were William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Robert Southey. They were associated with other poets and writers, including Dorothy Wordsworth, Charles Lamb, Charles Lloyd, Hartley Coleridge, John Wilson. The Lake Poet School was initially a derogatory term that was also a misnomer, as it was neither particularly born out of the Lake District, the principal members of the group were William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey. Although Dorothy Wordsworth wrote no poetry of her own, she provided much of the inspiration for her brother Williams, in addition, many of the first and second generation practitioners of Romantic poetry had a complex and not entirely easy relationship with the Lakes. For the most part other Romantic poets either struggle with a Lake Poet identity or come to define themselves against what the Lakes seem to offer in poetic terms. For Wordsworth, who settled at Dove Cottage, Grasmere, with his sister Dorothy after some years of wandering, the Lakes became bound up with his identity as a poet. Born and brought up on the fringes of the Lake District, Wordsworth came back to the area in December 1799, not just a nature poet, his poetry is about the organic relationship between human beings and the natural world. Wordsworths early radical political ideas led him to his second poetic innovation, in 1810 he published his Guide to the Lakes, tellingly subtitled for the Use of Tourists and Residents, and with a Section Three entitled Changes, and Rules of Taste for Preventing their Bad Effects. Another aspect of it was the link to the ideas of Uvedale Price, whom Wordsworth knew, the Guide ran to five editions during Wordsworths lifetime and proved to be very popular. Indeed, it has said that the architectural axioms of building and gardening in the Lake District for the next hundred years were established by the Guide. For other writers, the pull was more uncertain. Coleridge followed Wordsworth to the Lakes and moved into Greta Hall in 1800. and this led him to resort to the Kendal Black Drop, making matters desperate. Coleridge moved out of the area in 1804, Robert Southey, it has been argued, although becoming identified as the central Lake Poet, was mostly a prose writer and did not particularly subscribe to the Wordsworthian vision of the Lakes. Keats, in the Summer of 1818, had a response to that of Shelley, finding his heros house full of fashionable people. Keats moved on to Scotland which provided him with the inspiration he sought, byron did not visit the Lakes, but he ridiculed the isolation and narrowness of mind of the older Lake Poets, as well as of their abandonment of radical politics. The hale and hearty John Wilson provided an alternative take on the role of Lake Poet and he lived near Windermere between 1808 and 1815 and knew the older Lake Poet trio well
18.
William Wordsworth
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William Wordsworth was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads. Wordsworths magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published, before which it was known as the poem to Coleridge. Wordsworth was Britains Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850 and his sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. Wordsworths father was a representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale and, through his connections. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783. However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit to memory large portions of verse, including works by Milton, Shakespeare, William was also allowed to use his fathers library. William also spent time at his mothers house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide, Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the Spectator, but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, after the death of his mother, in 1778, Wordsworths father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for nine years. Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in The European Magazine and that same year he began attending St Johns College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791 and he returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland. In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement and he fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who in 1792 gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britains tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year. The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his wish to marry Annette. With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette, the purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson
19.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them
20.
Newington Academy for Girls
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The Newington Academy for Girls, also known as Newington College for Girls, was a Quaker school established in 1824 in Stoke Newington, then north of London. In a time when educational opportunities were limited, it offered a wide range of subjects on a plan in degree differing from any hitherto adopted. It was also innovative in commissioning the worlds first school bus, one of its founders was William Allen, a scientist and businessman active with the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade. Stoke Newington had a Quaker presence from the days of the Society of Friends. Samuel Hoare Jr, founding member of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, was there, as was his brother Jonathan. Nearby Newington Green was populated by Rational Dissenters of another denomination who were drawn to its Unitarian chapel and that village was known for its dissenting academies, establishments only open to boys and young men. Education for girls was limited, but the English Enlightenment of the previous half-century had begun to push those boundaries. These villages north of London had been part of that movement, Quaker views on women had from the beginning tended towards equality, with women allowed to minister. Newington Academy for Girls was established in Fleetwood House, which had built in the 1630s for Sir Edward Hartopp. By marriage the estate passed to Charles Fleetwood, one of Oliver Cromwells generals, from whom it got its name, Fleetwood House served as a meeting place for Dissenters. Elizabeth Crisp ran a school for young ladies there in the 1770s. Its immediate neighbour to the west on what is now Stoke Newington Church Street was Abney House, which had been built for Thomas Gunston. He died as it was being completed and the passed to his sister, who married Sir Thomas Abney. The two mansions shared parkland, which was out by the lady of the manor, Lady Mary Abney, and her companion, Dr Isaac Watts. They were neither Quakers nor members of the church. The school made use of Abney Park. In the grounds was a building, called the Summerhouse. Although not a Quaker, he grew up to be involved in a cause associated with them
21.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
22.
Thomas Arnold
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Thomas Arnold was an English educator and historian. Arnold was a supporter of the Broad Church Anglican movement. He was the headmaster of Rugby School from 1828 to 1841, Arnold was born on the Isle of Wight, the son of William Arnold, a Customs officer, and his wife Martha Delafield. William Arnold was related to the Arnold family of gentry from Lowestoft, Thomas was educated at Lord Weymouths Grammar School, Warminster, Winchester, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford. There he excelled at Classics and was made a fellow of Oriel in 1815 and he was headmaster of a school in Laleham before moving to Rugby. Though he introduced history, mathematics and modern languages, he based his teaching on the classical languages, physical science was not taught because, in Arnolds view, it must either take the chief place in the school curriculum, or it must be left out altogether. Arnold was also opposed to the tendency of physical science. Surely the one thing needful for a Christian and an Englishman to study is Christian, Arnold developed the Praepostor system in which the sixth-form students were given powers over every part of the school and kept order in the establishment. Arnold was not a great enthusiast for sport, which was permitted as an alternative to poaching or fighting with local boys and he described his educational aims as being the cure of souls first, moral development the second, and intellectual development the third. However, this did not prevent Baron de Coubertin from considering him the father of the sport he admired when he visited English public schools. When looking at Arnolds tomb in the chapel he recalled he felt, suddenly. Coubertin is thought to have exaggerated the importance of sport to Thomas Arnold, Thomas Arnold, the leader and classic model of English educators, wrote Coubertin, gave the precise formula for the role of athletics in education. Playing fields sprang up all over England, Arnold was involved in many controversies, educational and religious. As a churchman he was a decided Erastian, and strongly opposed to the High Church party and his 1833 Principles of Church Reform is associated with the beginnings of the Broad Church movement. In 1841, he was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, Arnolds chief literary works are his unfinished History of Rome, and his Lectures on Modern History. Far more often read were his five books of sermons, which were admired by a circle of pious readers including Queen Victoria. Arnold married Mary Penrose, daughter of the Rev. John Penrose of Penryn and they had five daughters and five sons, including the poet Matthew Arnold, the literary scholar Tom, the author William Delafield Arnold and Edward Penrose Arnold, the inspector of schools. One of these children was Hugh Oakeley Arnold-Forster, a Liberal Unionist MP, another of the children was Florence Vere OBrien, a diarist, philanthropist, and craftswoman who lived in Ireland
23.
Richard Harris Barham
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Richard Harris Barham was an English cleric of the Church of England, novelist, and humorous poet. He was known better by his nom de plume Thomas Ingoldsby, Richard Harris Barham was born in Canterbury. At the age of nine he was sent to St Pauls School, thus deprived of the power of vigorous bodily activity, he became a great reader and diligent student. During 1807 he entered Brasenose College, Oxford, intending at first to study for the Law, circumstances, however, induced him to decide on a religious profession. Three years later he became one of the priests in ordinary of the Kings Chapel Royal, in 1826 Barham first contributed to Blackwoods Magazine, and in 1837 he began to write for a recently initiated magazine, Bentleys Miscellany, a series of tales known as The Ingoldsby Legends. They were published in a form in three volumes between 1840 and 1847, and have since appeared in numerous editions. They may perhaps be compared to Hudibras, the stories are generally whimsical, but based on antiquarian learning. Barham was a Tory politically, yet he was a friend of the liberal Sydney Smith. Theodore Hook was one of his most intimate friends, Barham was a contributor to the Edinburgh Review and the Literary Gazette, he wrote articles for John Gortons Biographical Dictionary, and a novel, My Cousin Nicholas. He died in London on 17 June 1845, after a long, Barham is a character in George MacDonald Frasers historical novel Flashmans Lady. His last poem As I laye a-thynkynge, was set to music by the English composer Edward Elgar, there is a pub in Burgate, Canterbury, near the cathedral, named The Thomas Ingoldsby. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Barham, Richard Harris, Works by or about Richard Barham at Internet Archive Works by Richard Barham at LibriVox
24.
Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux
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Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux PC QC FRS, was a British statesman who became Lord Chancellor of Great Britain. As a young lawyer in Scotland, Brougham helped to found the Edinburgh Review in 1802 and he went to London, and was called to the English bar in 1808. In 1810 he entered the House of Commons as a Whig, Brougham took up the fight against the slave trade and opposed restrictions on trade with continental Europe. In 1820, he won renown as chief attorney to Queen Caroline. He not only proposed educational reforms in Parliament but also was one of the founders of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1825, as Lord Chancellor from 1830 to 1834 he effected many legal reforms to speed procedure and established the Central Criminal Court. In later years he spent much of his time in Cannes, Brougham was born and grew up in Edinburgh, the eldest son of Henry Brougham, of Brougham Hall in Westmorland, and Eleanora, daughter of Reverend James Syme. The Broughams had been an influential Cumberland family for centuries, Brougham was educated at the Royal High School and the University of Edinburgh, where he chiefly studied natural science and mathematics, but also law. He published several scientific papers through the Royal Society, notably on light and colours and on prisms, however, Brougham chose law as his profession, and was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1800. He practised little in Scotland, and instead entered Lincolns Inn in 1803, five years later he was called to the Bar. Not a wealthy man, Brougham turned to journalism as a means of supporting himself financially through these years, another example of Lord Broughams scientific incompetence is his attack against Sir William Herschel. The story is described by Pustiĺnik and Din, Herschel, as Royal Astronomer, found a correlation between the observed number of sunspots and wheat prices. This met with strong and widespread rejection, even ridicule – as a grand absurdity – by Lord Brougham, Herschel had to cancel his next publications of these results. 70 years later, the English economist W. S. Jevons discovered 10-to-11-year intervals between high prices – in agreement with the 11-year cycle of solar activity, discovered at those times. Pustiĺnik and Din believe they have found a direct evidence of the connection between wheat price bursts and solar activity. The success of the Edinburgh Review made Brougham a man of mark from his first arrival in London and he quickly became a fixture in London society and gained the friendship of Lord Grey and other leading Whig politicians. The aim of the mission was to counteract the anticipated French invasion of Portugal, during these years he became a close supporter of the movement for the abolition of slavery, a cause to which he was to be passionately devoted for the rest of his life. Despite being a well-known and popular figure, Brougham had to wait before being offered a seat to contest. However, in 1810 he was elected for Camelford, a rotten borough controlled by the Duke of Bedford
25.
Thomas Brown (philosopher)
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Thomas Brown FRSE was a Scottish philosopher and poet. Brown was born at Kirkmabreck, Wigtownshire, the son of Rev. Samuel Brown and their son was a wide reader and an eager student. Educated at several schools in London, he went to the University of Edinburgh in 1792, where he attended Dugald Stewarts moral philosophy class, after studying law for a time he took up medicine, his graduation thesis De Somno was well received. But his strength lay in metaphysical analysis, Brown set an answer to the objections raised against the appointment of Sir John Leslie to the mathematical professorship. His defence, at first only a pamphlet, became in its third edition a lengthy treatise entitled Inquiry into the Relation of Cause and Effect, in 1806, Brown became a medical practitioner in partnership with James Gregory, but, though successful, preferred literature and philosophy. The students received him with enthusiasm, due partly to his splendid rhetoric, in 1810 he was appointed as colleague to Stewart, a position which he held for the rest of his life. Brown was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815 and he wrote his lectures at high pressure, and devoted much time to the editing and publication of the numerous poems which he had written at various times during his life. He was also preparing an abstract of his lectures as a handbook for his class and his health, never strong, gave way under the strain of his work. He was advised to take a trip to London, where he died in 1820 aged 42 and his body was returned to Kirkmabreck for burial. One of Browns notable works included a critique of Erasmus Darwins theory of transmutation, the philosopher published it in the form of a detailed study Observations on the zoonomia of Erasmus Darwin, which was recognized as a mature work of criticism. A body can increase in bulk, only by the separation of its parts, in expansion. In the former case, no addition is made to the quantity of matter, and it will surely be admitted, that nothing can accresce. To say, that the filament is living, and that it possesses these powers, is to say, that it possess sensorial power, Dr. Darwin seems to consider the animals of former times, as possessing powers, much superior to those of their posterity. They reasoned on their wants, they wished, and it was done, the stag, in like manner, formed to himself horns, at once sharp, and branched, for the different purposes of offence, and defence. Some animals obtained wings, others fins, and others swiftness of foot, while the vegetables exerted themselves, in inventing various modes of concealing, and defending their feeds, and honey. If we admit the supposed capacity of producing organs, by the feeling of a want, man must have been greatly degenerated, or been originally inferior. He may \Nash for wings, as the other bipeds are supposed to have done with success and it is not, however, to man that the observation must be confined. Noteworthy, Browns criticism of the Darwinian thesis, like that of Rudolf Virchow, Browns philosophy occupies an intermediate place between the earlier Scottish school and the later analytical or associational psychology, to which he really belonged
26.
Thomas Carlyle
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Thomas Carlyle was a Scottish philosopher, satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher. Considered one of the most important social commentators of his time, a respected historian, his 1837 book The French Revolution, A History was the inspiration for Charles Dickens 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities, and remains popular today. Carlyles 1836 Sartor Resartus is a philosophical novel. A great polemicist, Carlyle coined the term the dismal science for economics and he also wrote articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, and his Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question remains controversial. Once a Christian, Carlyle lost his faith while attending the University of Edinburgh, in mathematics, he is known for the Carlyle circle, a method used in quadratic equations and for developing ruler-and-compass constructions of regular polygons. Carlyle was born in Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire and his parents determinedly afforded him an education at Annan Academy, Annan, where he was bullied and tormented so much that he left after three years. His father was a member of the Burgher secession church, in early life, his familys strong Calvinist beliefs powerfully influenced the young man. After attending the University of Edinburgh, Carlyle became a teacher, first in Annan and then in Kirkcaldy. His prose style, famously cranky and occasionally savage, helped cement an air of irascibility, Carlyles thinking became heavily influenced by German idealism, in particular the work of Johann Gottlieb Fichte. He established himself as an expert on German literature in a series of essays for Frasers Magazine and he also wrote a Life of Schiller. In 1826, Thomas Carlyle married fellow intellectual Jane Baillie Welsh, in 1827, he applied for the Chair of Moral Philosophy at St Andrews University but was not appointed. A residence provided by Janes estate was a house on Craigenputtock and he often wrote about his life at Craigenputtock – in particular, It is certain that for living and thinking in I have never since found in the world a place so favourable. Here Carlyle wrote some of his most distinguished essays, and began a friendship with the American essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson. In 1831, the Carlyles moved to London, settling initially in lodgings at 4 Ampton Street, in 1834, they moved to 5 Cheyne Row, Chelsea, which has since been preserved as a museum to Carlyles memory. He became known as the Sage of Chelsea, and a member of a circle which included the essayists Leigh Hunt. Here Carlyle wrote The French Revolution, A History, a study concentrating both on the oppression of the poor of France and on the horrors of the mob unleashed. By 1821, Carlyle abandoned the clergy as a career and focused on making a life as a writer and his first fiction was Cruthers and Jonson, one of several abortive attempts at writing a novel. Following his work on a translation of Goethes Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, he came to distrust the form of the realistic novel and so worked on developing a new form of fiction
27.
Ugo Foscolo
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Ugo Foscolo, born Niccolò Foscolo, was an Italian writer, revolutionary and poet. He is remembered especially for his 1807 poetry book, Dei Sepolcri, Foscolo was born on Zakynthos in the Ionian Islands. His father was Andrea Foscolo, an impoverished Venetian nobleman, and his literary ambition revealed itself by the appearance in 1797 of his tragedy Tieste—a production which obtained a certain degree of success. He was a prominent member of the committees, and addressed an ode to Napoleon, expecting Napoleon to overthrow the Venetian oligarchy. The Treaty of Campo Formio, by which Napoleon handed Venice over to the Austrians, gave a shock to Foscolo. The story of Foscolo, like that of Goethe, had a groundwork of melancholy fact, jacopo Ortis had been a real person, he was a young student of Padua, and committed suicide there under circumstances akin to those described by Foscolo. Foscolo, like many of his contemporaries, had thought much about suicide, in the case of Foscolo, as in that of Goethe, the effect produced on the writers mind by the composition of the work seems to have been beneficial. He had seen the ideal of a great national future rudely shattered, but he did not despair of his country, and sought relief in now turning to gaze on the ideal of a great national poet. After the fall of Venice Foscolo moved to Milan, where he formed a friendship with the older poet Giuseppe Parini, in Milan, he published a choice of 12 Sonnets, where he blends the passionate sentiments shown in Ortis with classical control of language and rhythm. Still hoping that his country would be freed by Napoleon, he served as a volunteer in the French army, took part in the battle of the Trebbia and he also took part in a failed memorandum intended to present a new model of unified Italian government to Napoleon. In 1807, Foscolo wrote his Dei Sepolcri, which may be described as an effort to seek refuge in the past from the misery of the present. The mighty dead are summoned from their tombs, as ages before they had been in the masterpieces of Greek oratory, to fight again the battles of their country. The inaugural lecture On the origin and duty of literature, delivered by Foscolo in January 1809 when appointed to the chair of Italian eloquence at Pavia, was conceived in the same spirit. In this lecture Foscolo urged his countrymen to study literature, not in obedience to academic traditions. The sensation produced by this lecture had no share in provoking the decree of Napoleon by which the chair of national eloquence was abolished in all the Italian universities. Soon afterwards, Foscolos tragedy of Ajax was presented, with success, at Milan. The chief fruits of his stay in Florence are the tragedy of Ricciarda, the Ode to the Graces, left unfinished, and his version of Sterne is an important feature in his personal history. However, he was accused of financial sloppiness, and ended up spending time in debtors prison
28.
Henry Hallam
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Henry Hallam FRS FRSE FSA was an English historian. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, he practised as a barrister on the Oxford circuit for years before turning to history. Although he took no part in politics himself, he was acquainted with the band of authors. In an 1828 review of Constitutional History, Robert Southey claimed that the work was biased in favour of the Whigs, Hallam was a fellow of the Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum. In 1830 he received the medal for history founded by George IV. The only son of Rev John Hallam, canon of Windsor and dean of Bristol, Henry Hallam was born on 9 July 1777 and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, graduating in 1799. He was, however, a supporter of many popular movements—particularly of that which ended in the abolition of the slave trade. Hallams earliest literary work was undertaken in connection with the Whig periodical, the Edinburgh Review and his first major work, View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, was published in 1818, and was followed nine years later by The Constitutional History of England. Introduction to the Literature of Europe, in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries appeared in 1837. A volume of notes to his Middle Ages was published in 1843. These works represent nearly all of Hallams career, Hallam was a fellow of the Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum. In 1830 he received the medal for history founded by George IV. Hallam described his work Middle Ages as a series of dissertations for the period from the 5th to the 15th century. The work consists of nine chapters, the histories of France, Italy, Spain, Germany. Others deal with major features of medieval society, the feudal system, the ecclesiastical system. The last chapter sketches society, commerce, manners, and literature in the Middle Ages. The Quarterly Review for 1828 contains an article on the Constitutional History, written by Robert Southey, full of reproach. It was his distant treatment of Charles I, Thomas Cranmer, Hallam, like Thomas Babington Macaulay, ultimately referred political questions to the standard of Whig constitutionalism
29.
William Hamilton (metaphysician)
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Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet FRSE DD FSAS was a Scottish metaphysician. He is often referred to as William Stirling Hamilton of Preston, in reference to his mother and he was born in rooms at the University of Glasgow He was from an academic family, his younger brother being Robert Hamilton, the economist. William Hamilton and a brother, Thomas Hamilton, were brought up by their mother. He obtained a first class in lit ens humanioribus and took his B. A. in 1811. He had been intended for the profession, but soon after leaving Oxford he gave up this idea. His life continued to be that of a student, and the years that followed were filled by researches of all kinds, while at the same time he was gradually forming his philosophic system. Two visits to Germany in 1817 and 1820 led to Williams taking up the study of German and later on that of contemporary German philosophy, which was almost entirely neglected in British universities. Soon afterwards he was appointed professor of history, and as such delivered several courses of lectures on the history of modern Europe. The salary was £100 a year, derived from a beer tax. No pupils were compelled to attend, the class dwindled, in January 1827 his mother, to whom he had been devoted, died. In March 1828 he married his cousin, Janet Marshall, around this time he moved to live in a recently built townhouse at 11 Manor Place, in Edinburghs west end. Much about the time he began the preparation of an annotated edition of Thomas Reids works. Before, however, this design had been carried out, he was struck with paralysis of the right side, the edition of Reid appeared in 1846, but with only seven of the intended dissertations, one unfinished. At his death he had not completed the work, notes on the subjects to be discussed were found among his manuscripts. But the elaboration of the scheme in its details and applications continued during the few years to occupy much of his leisure. Out of this arose a controversy with Augustus de Morgan. The essay did not appear, but the results of the labour gone through are contained in the appendices to his Lectures on Logic, Hamilton also prepared extensive materials for a publication which he designed on the personal history, influence and opinions of Martin Luther. Here he advanced so far as to have planned and partly carried out the arrangement of the work, but it did not go further, and still remains in manuscript
30.
Abraham Hayward
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Abraham Hayward was an English man of letters. He was son of Joseph Hayward, and was born in Wilton, near Salisbury, after education at Blundells School, Tiverton, he entered the Inner Temple in 1824, and was called to the bar in June 1832. He took part as a conservative in the discussions of the London Debating Society, in 1833 he travelled abroad, and on his return began contributing to the New Monthly, the Foreign Quarterly, the Quarterly Review and the Edinburgh Review. In February 1835 he was elected to the Athenaeum Club under Rule II and he was also a subscriber to the Carlton, but ceased to frequent it when he became a Peelite. At the Athenaeum and in society he to some extent succeeded to the position of Croker. He and Macaulay were commonly said to be the two men in town. Political ladies first, and statesmen afterwards, came to recognise the advantage of obtaining Haywards good opinion, the old reviewing hand became an acknowledged link between society, letters and politics. His enemies prevented him from enjoying a well-selected quasisinecure, which both Palmerston and Aberdeen admitted to be his due. Samuel Warren attacked him as Venom Tuft in Ten Thousand a Year, but he had little sympathy with modern ideas. He used to say that he had outlived everyone that he could look up to. He died, a bachelor, in his rooms at 8 St Jamess Street and he printed privately a translation of Goethes Faust into English prose. In 1878 he contributed the volume on Goethe to Blackwoods Foreign Classics and his first successes as reviewer were in 1835–1836 by articles on Walkers Original and on Gastronomy. The essays were reprinted to form The Art of Dining, in 1852, Hayward got up every important subject of discussion immediately it came into prominence, and concentrated his information in such a way that he habitually had the last word to say on a topic. He followed up his paper by giving his acquaintances no rest until they either assimilated or undertook to combat his views, in February 1848 he became one of the chief leader-writers for the Peelite organ, the Morning Chronicle. The morbid activity of his memory, however, continued to him many enemies. He alienated Disraeli by tracing a purple patch in his eulogy of the Duke of Wellington to a newspaper translation from Thierss funeral panegyric on General St Cyr. His sharp tongue had already made him an enemy of Roebuck and he broke with Henry Reeve in 1874 by a venomous review of the Greville Memoirs, in which Reeve was compared to the beggarly Scot deputed to let off the blunderbuss which Bolingbroke had charged. After his break with Reeve, Hayward devoted himself exclusively to the Quarterly
31.
William Hazlitt
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William Hazlitt was an English writer, drama and literary critic, painter, social commentator, and philosopher. He is now considered one of the greatest critics and essayists in the history of the English language, placed in the company of Samuel Johnson and he is also acknowledged as the finest art critic of his age. Despite his high standing among historians of literature and art, his work is little read. The family of Hazlitts father were Irish Protestants who moved from the county of Antrim to Tipperary in the early 18th century, also named William Hazlitt, Hazlitts father attended the University of Glasgow, receiving a masters degree in 1760. Not entirely satisfied with his Presbyterian faith, he became a Unitarian minister in England, in 1764 he became pastor at Wisbech in Cambridgeshire, where in 1766 he married Grace Loftus, daughter of a recently deceased ironmonger. Of their many children, only three survived infancy, the first of these, John, was born in 1767 at Marshfield in Gloucestershire, where the Reverend William Hazlitt had accepted a new pastorate after his marriage. In 1770, the elder Hazlitt accepted yet another position and moved with his family to Maidstone, Kent, William, the youngest of the surviving Hazlitt children, was born in Mitre Lane, Maidstone, in 1778. In 1780, when he was two, his family began a lifestyle that was to last several years. His efforts to obtain a post did not meet with success, in 1786–87 the family returned to England and settled in Wem, in Shropshire. Hazlitt would remember little of his years in America, save the taste of barberries, Hazlitt was educated at home and at a local school. In 1793 his father sent him to a Unitarian seminary on what was then the outskirts of London, the schooling he received there, though relatively brief, approximately two years, made a deep and abiding impression on Hazlitt. The curriculum at Hackney was very broad, including a grounding in the Greek and Latin classics, mathematics, history, government, science, priestley, whom Hazlitt had read and who was also one of his teachers, was an impassioned commentator on political issues of the day. This, along with the turmoil in the wake of the French Revolution, sparked in Hazlitt and his classmates lively debates on these issues, changes were taking place within the young Hazlitt as well. While, out of respect for his father, Hazlitt never openly broke with his religion, he suffered a loss of faith, although Hazlitt rejected the Unitarian theology, his time at Hackney left him with much more than religious scepticism. He had read widely and formed habits of independent thought and respect for the truth that would remain with him for life. The belief of many Unitarian thinkers in the natural disinterestedness of the mind had also laid a foundation for the young Hazlitts own philosophical explorations along those lines. I cannot sit quietly down under the claims of barefaced power, in September 1794, he had met William Godwin, the reformist thinker whose recently published Political Justice had taken English intellectual circles by storm. Hazlitt was never to feel entirely in sympathy with Godwins philosophy, from this point onwards, Hazlitts goal was to become a philosopher
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Felicia Hemans
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Felicia Dorothea Hemans was an English poet. Two of her lines, The boy stood on the burning deck. Family legend gave the Wagners a Venetian origin, family heraldry an Austrian one, the Wagners country address was North Hall near Wigan, they sent two sons to Eton College. Of three daughters, only Felicity married, her husband George Browne joined his father-in-laws business and succeeded him as Tuscan, Felicia Dorothea Browne was the fourth of six Browne children to survive infancy. Of her two sisters, Elizabeth died about 1807 at the age of eighteen and Harriett Mary Browne married first the Revd T. Hughes, Harriett collaborated musically with Felicia and later edited her complete works. Felicia was born in Liverpool, Lancashire, a granddaughter of the Venetian consul in that city and her fathers business soon brought the family to Denbighshire in North Wales, where she spent her youth. The marriage took her away from Wales, to Daventry in Northamptonshire until 1814, during their first six years of marriage, Felicia gave birth to five sons, including Charles Isidore Hemans, and then the couple separated. Tales and Historic Scenes was the collection came out in 1819. From 1831 onwards, she lived in Dublin, where her brother had settled. Her major collections, including The Forest Sanctuary, Records of Woman and Songs of the Affections were immensely popular and her last books, sacred and profane, are the substantive Scenes and Hymns of Life and National Lyrics, and Songs for Music. She was by now a literary figure, highly regarded by contemporaries such as Wordsworth, and with a popular following in the United States. When she died of dropsy, Wordsworth and Walter Savage Landor composed memorial verses in her honour and she is buried in St. Anns Church, Dawson Street. Felicia Hemans works appeared in nineteen individual books during her lifetime, after her death in 1835 they were republished widely, usually as collections of individual lyrics and not the longer, annotated works and integrated series that made up her books. To many readers she offered a womans voice confiding a womans trials, to others a lyricism apparently consonant with Victorian chauvinism and sentimentality. Among the works she valued most were the unfinished Superstition and Revelation and the pamphlet The Sceptic, in her most successful book, Records of Woman, she chronicles the lives of women, both famous and anonymous. Hemans poem The Homes of England is the origin of the stately home in English. The first line of the runs, The stately Homes of England. Despite her illustrious admirers, her stature as a serious poet gradually declined, a jocular reference by Saki in The Toys of Peace suggests simultaneously that she was a household word and that Saki did not take her seriously
33.
Leigh Hunt
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James Henry Leigh Hunt, best known as Leigh Hunt, was an English critic, essayist, poet, and writer. James Henry Leigh Hunt was born at Southgate, London, where his parents had settled after leaving the United States, Hunts father took holy orders and became a popular preacher, but he was unsuccessful in obtaining a permanent living. Hunts father was employed by James Brydges, 3rd Duke of Chandos, as tutor to his nephew, James Henry Leigh. Leigh Hunt was educated at Christs Hospital from 1791 to 1799 and he entered the school shortly after Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Charles Lamb had both left, Thomas Barnes, however, was a school friend of his. One of the current boarding houses at Christs Hospital is named after him, as a boy, he was an ardent admirer of Thomas Gray and William Collins, writing many verses in imitation of them. A speech impediment, later cured, prevented his going to university, for some time after I left school, he says, I did nothing but visit my school-fellows, haunt the book-stalls and write verses. His poems were published in 1801 under the title of Juvenilia and he began to write for the newspapers, and published in 1807 a volume of theatre criticism, and a series of Classic Tales with critical essays on the authors. Hunts early essays were published by Edward Quin, editor and owner of The Traveller, in 1809, Leigh Hunt married Marianne Kent. Marianne, who had been in ill health for most of her life, died 26 January 1857, Leigh Hunt made little mention of his family in his autobiography. Mariannes sister, Elizabeth Kent, became his amanuensis, in 1808 he left the War Office, where he had been working as a clerk, to become editor of the Examiner, a newspaper founded by his brother, John. Blakes response included Leigh Hunt, who aside from publishing the vitriolic reviews of 1808 and 1809 had added Blakes name on a list of quacks. This journal soon acquired a reputation for political independence, it would attack any worthy target, from a principle of taste. Leigh Hunts visitors in prison included Lord Byron, Thomas Moore, Lord Brougham, Charles Lamb and others, the stoicism with which Leigh Hunt bore his imprisonment attracted general attention and sympathy. His imprisonment allowed him many luxuries and access to friends and family, when Jeremy Bentham called on him, he was found playing battledore. Twelve of the essays were by Hunt, the rest by Hazlitt. In 1810–1811 he edited a magazine, the Reflector, for his brother John. He wrote The Feast of the Poets for this, a satire, in 1819–1821, Hunt edited The Indicator, a weekly literary periodical published by Joseph Appleyard. Hunt probably wrote much of the content as well, which included reviews, essays, stories, in 1828 from January to July, Hunt edited The Companion, a weekly literary periodical published by Hunt and Clarke
34.
Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey
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Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey was a Scottish judge and literary critic. He was born in Edinburgh, the son of George Jeffrey, after attending the Royal High School for six years, he studied at the University of Glasgow from 1787 to May 1789, and at Queens College, Oxford, from September 1791 to June 1792. He had begun the study of law at Edinburgh before going to Oxford and he became a member of the Speculative Society, where he measured himself in debate with Sir Walter Scott, Lord Brougham, Francis Horner, the Marquess of Lansdowne, Lord Kinnaird and others. He was admitted to the Scottish bar in December 1794, but, having abandoned the Tory principles in which he had been educated, he found that his Whig politics hampered his legal prospects. In consequence of his lack of success at the bar he went to London in 1798 to try his hand at journalism and his marriage to Catherine Wilson in 1801 made the question of a settled income even more pressing. At the outset the Review did not have an editor, the first three numbers were effectively edited by Sydney Smith. On his leaving for England the work devolved chiefly on Jeffrey, who, by an arrangement with Archibald Constable and this article expressed despair of the success of the British arms in Spain, and Scott at once withdrew his subscription, the Quarterly being soon afterwards started in opposition. According to Lord Cockburn the effect of the first number of the Edinburgh Review was electrical, the English reviews were at that time practically publishers organs, with articles by hack writers instructed to obey the publishers interests. The Edinburgh Review, on the hand, enlisted a brilliant and independent staff of contributors, guided by the editor. They received sixteen guineas a sheet, increased subsequently to twenty-five guineas in many cases, the review was not limited to literary criticism but became the accredited organ of moderate Whig public opinion. These general principles and the novelty of the method ensured the success of the undertaking even after the circle of exceptionally able men who founded it had been dispersed. It had a circulation of 12,000, Jeffreys editorship lasted about twenty-six years, ceasing with the ninety-eighth number, published in June 1829, when he resigned in favour of Macvey Napier. Jeffreys own contributions numbered two hundred, all six being written before his resignation of the editorship. He wrote quickly, at odd moments of leisure and with special preparation. A criticism in the number of the Review on the morality of Thomas Moores poems led in 1806 to a duel between the two authors at Chalk Farm. The proceedings were stopped by the police, and Jeffreys pistol was found to contain no bullet, the affair led to a warm friendship, and Moore contributed to the Review, while Jeffrey made ample amends in a later article on Lalla Rookh. Jeffreys wife had died in 1805, and in 1810 he became acquainted with Charlotte, daughter of Charles Wilkes of New York, when she returned to the United States, Jeffrey followed her, and they were married in 1813. Before returning to Scotland, they visited several of the chief American cities, notwithstanding the increasing success of the Review, Jeffrey continued to look to the bar as the chief field of his ambition
35.
George Cornewall Lewis
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Sir George Cornewall Lewis, 2nd Baronet PC was a British statesman and man of letters. He is best known for preserving the peace in 1862 when the British cabinet debated intervention into the American Civil War, proponents such as Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone, Foreign Minister Russell and Prime Minister Palmerston favored the Confederacy. They worried about the danger of an extremely bloody race war in the United States, Lewis was a strong opponent, warning that there were very high risks to British interests. His views finally prevailed and the British remained neutral throughout the Civil War and he was born in London, the son of Thomas Frankland Lewis of Harpton Court, Radnorshire and his wife Harriet Cornewall. Thomas, after holding office in various administrations, became a poor-law commissioner. His maternal grandparents were Sir George Cornewall, 2nd Baronet and Catherine Cornewall, Lewis was educated at Eton College and at Christ Church, Oxford, where in 1828 he earned a first-class in classics and a second-class in mathematics. He then entered the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1831, in 1833 he undertook his first public work as one of the commissioners to inquire into the condition of the poor Irish residents in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1834 Lord Althorp included him in the commission to inquire into the state of church property, during this period Lewiss mind was occupied with the study of language. Its successor was the Classical Museum which he also supported by occasional contributions and he also compiled a glossary of provincial words used in Herefordshire and the adjoining counties. But the most important work of earlier period was one to which his logical and philological tastes contributed. Moreover, he translated Philipp August Böckhs Public Economy of Athens and Mullers History of Greek Literature, some time afterward he edited a text of the Fables of Babrius. While his friend Abraham Hayward conducted the Law Magazine, he wrote in it frequently on such subjects as secondary punishments, one leading object of both commissioners was to associate the Maltese in the responsible government of the island. On his return to Britain, Lewis succeeded his father as one of the principal poor-law commissioners, the Essay on the Government of Dependencies appeared in 1841, a systematic statement and discussion of the various relations in which colonies may stand towards the mother country. In 1844 Lewis married Lady Maria Theresa Villiers, a lady of literary tastes and she was a daughter of George Villiers and Theresa Parker and younger sister of George Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon. She was the widow of novelist Thomas Henry Lister and mother of three children by her previous marriage, much of their married life was spent in Kent House, Knightsbridge. His wife and her family promoted Lewiss career, in 1847 Lewis resigned his office. He was then returned for the county of Hereford, and Lord John Russell appointed him Secretary to the Board of Control, in 1850 he succeeded Hayter as Financial Secretary to the Treasury. About this time, his Essay on the Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion was published, from 1853 to 1854 he sat on Royal Commission on the City of London
36.
Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay
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Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay, PC was a British historian and Whig politician. He wrote extensively as an essayist and reviewer, his books on British history have been hailed as literary masterpieces, Macaulay held political office as the Secretary at War between 1839 and 1841, and the Paymaster-General between 1846 and 1848. He played a role in introducing English and western concepts to education in India. He supported the replacement of Persian by English as the language, the use of English as the medium of instruction in all schools. In his view, Macaulay divided the world into civilised nations and barbarism and he was wedded to the Idea of Progress, especially in terms of the liberal freedoms. He opposed radicalism while idealising historic British culture and traditions, Macaulay was the son of Zachary Macaulay, a Scottish Highlander, who became a colonial governor and abolitionist, and Selina Mills of Bristol, a former pupil of Hannah More. They named their first child after his uncle Thomas Babington, a Leicestershire landowner and politician, Thomas Macaulay was born in Leicestershire, England, where he was noted as a child prodigy. As a toddler, gazing out of the window from his cot at the chimneys of a local factory and he was educated at a private school in Hertfordshire and at Trinity College, Cambridge. Whilst at Cambridge he wrote poetry and won several prizes. In 1825 he published a prominent essay on Milton in the Edinburgh Review and he studied law and in 1826 he was called to the bar but showed more interest in a political than a legal career. Macaulay, who never married and had no children, was rumoured to have fallen in love with Maria Kinnaird. But in fact, Macaulays strongest emotional ties were to his youngest sisters, Margaret who died while he was in India, as Hannah grew older, he formed the same close attachment to Hannahs daughter Margaret, whom he called Baba. Macaulay retained a passionate interest in literature throughout his life. He likely had an eidetic memory, while in India, he read every ancient Greek and Roman work that was available to him. In his letters, he describes reading the Aeneid whilst on vacation in Malvern in 1851 and he also taught himself German, Dutch, and Spanish, and remained fluent in French. In 1830 the Marquess of Lansdowne invited Macaulay to become Member of Parliament for the borough of Calne. His maiden speech was in favour of abolishing the civil disabilities of the Jews in the UK, Macaulay made his name with a series of speeches in favour of parliamentary reform. After the Great Reform Act of 1832 was passed, he became MP for Leeds, in the Reform, Calnes representation was reduced from two to one, Leeds had never been represented before, but now had two members
37.
Sir James Mackintosh
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Sir James Mackintosh was a Scottish jurist, Whig politician and historian. His studies and sympathies embraced many interests and he was trained as a doctor and barrister, and worked also as a journalist, judge, administrator, professor, philosopher and politician. Mackintosh was born at Aldourie,7 miles from Inverness, both his parents were from old Highland families. His mother died while he was a child, and his father was abroad, so he was brought up by his grandmother. At age thirteen he proclaimed himself a Whig, and during playtime he persuaded his friends to him in debates modelled on those of the House of Commons. He went in 1780 to Kings College, University of Aberdeen, in 1784 he began to study medicine at Edinburgh University. He participated to the full in the ferment, became friendly with Benjamin Constant, but did not quite neglect his medical studies. In 1788 Mackintosh moved to London, then agitated by the trial of Warren Hastings and he was much more interested in these and other political events than in his professional prospects. In 1789 he married Catherine Stuart, whose brother Daniel later edited the Morning Post and his wifes prudence counteracted Mackintoshs own unpractical temperament, and his efforts in journalism became fairly profitable. In 1797 his wife died, and next year he married Catherine Allen, sister-in-law of Josiah II and John Wedgwood and they had two sons, one of whom died in infancy, and two daughters, Frances Emma Elizabeth Mackintosh, married Hensleigh Wedgwood. Bessy Mackintosh Robert James Mackintosh, colonial governor, Mackintosh was soon absorbed in the question of the time, the French Revolution. It placed the author in the front rank of European publicists, the success of the Vindiciae finally decided him to give up the medical for the legal profession. He was called to the bar in 1795 and gained a reputation there as well as a tolerable practice. Vindiciae Gallicae was the verdict of a liberal on the development of the French Revolution up to the spring of 1791. Mackintosh was the first to see Burkes Reflections as the manifesto of a counter revolution, charles James Fox singled out Mackintoshs book as that which did most justice to the French Revolution, and he preferred it over Burke and Thomas Paine. But I can with truth affirm that I subscribe to your general Principles, Burke replied that As it is on all hands allowed that you were the most able advocate for the cause which you supported, your sacrifice to truth and mature reflexion, adds much to your glory. However, in private Burke was sceptical of what he considered Mackintoshs supposed conversion, Burke invited Mackintosh to spend Christmas with him at his home in Beaconsfield, where he was struck by Burkes astonishing effusions of his mind in conversation. Perfectly free from all taint of affectation. Minutely and accurately informed, to a wonderful exactness, Mackintosh was also famed for his speech in 1803 defending Jean Gabriel Peltier, a French refugee, against a libel suit instigated by Napoleon – then First Consul of France
38.
John Ramsay McCulloch
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John Ramsey McCulloch was a Scottish economist, author and editor, widely regarded as the leader of the Ricardian school of economists after the death of David Ricardo in 1823. He was appointed the first professor of economy at University College London in 1828. He wrote extensively on policy, and was a pioneer in the collection, statistical analysis. McCulloch was a co-founder, and one of the first editors, of The Scotsman newspaper and he edited the 1828 edition of The Wealth of Nations. McCulloch attended the University of Edinburgh, but did not graduate, McCulloch collected the early literature of political economy, and wrote on the scope and method of economics and the history of economic thought. After his death his library was purchased by Lord Overstone and eventually presented to the University of Reading. He was a participant in the Political Economy Club, London, founded by James Mill, mcCullochs works include a textbook, Principles of Political Economy. He worked on subsequent editions until his death and this book contains a memorable discussion of the origins of profit or interest in the case of a cask of new wine. This question is used in discussions of the labour theory of value. Reflecting on discussions in the Political Economy Club, Ricardo had privately expressed his famous opinion about the non-existence of any measure of absolute value, McCulloch died in 1864, and is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. McCullochs theoretical work received harsh criticism from Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk in the latters History, but probably no member of the English school has been so unhappy in his treatment of the subject or done the theory of interest such a disservice as McCulloch, wrote Böhm-Bawerk. He hovers about the fringes of a number of divergent opinions and he penetrates just far enough into each to become involved in glaring self-contradictions, but he does not expand any one of them sufficiently to form a theory that even approaches consistency. On the subject of the cask, Böhm-Bawerk wrote that there was an enormous difference between what he was supposed to prove and what he did prove. Although such examples may prove that the passage of time is not enough of a change to produce an increase of value. An Essay on a Reduction of the Interest of the National Debt,1816, on Ricardos Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,1818, Edinburgh Review Taxation and the Corn Laws,1820, Edinburgh Review The Opinions of Messrs. Say, Sismondi and Malthus, on Effects of Machinery and Accumulation,1821, Edinburgh Review On Combination Laws, Restraints on Emigration,1824, Edinburgh Review Political Economy,1824, Encyclopædia Britannica. French Law of Succession,1824, Edinburgh Review, a Discourse on the Rise, Progress, Peculiar Objects and Importance of Political Economy,1824. The Principles of Political Economy, with a sketch of the rise, an Essay on the Circumstances which Determine the Rate of Wages and the Condition of the Working Classes,1826
39.
John Stuart Mill
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John Stuart Mill was an English philosopher, political economist and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory, political theory, Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by his predecessor Jeremy Bentham, and contributed significantly to the theory of the scientific method. A member of the Liberal Party, he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for womens suffrage. John Stuart Mill was born on Rodney Street in the Pentonville area of London, the eldest son of the Scottish philosopher, historian and economist James Mill, John Stuart was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place. He was given a rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings. Mill was a precocious child. He describes his education in his autobiography, at the age of three he was taught Greek. By the age of eight, he had read Aesops Fables, Xenophons Anabasis, and the whole of Herodotus and he had also read a great deal of history in English and had been taught arithmetic, physics and astronomy. At the age of eight, Mill began studying Latin, the works of Euclid, and algebra and his main reading was still history, but he went through all the commonly taught Latin and Greek authors and by the age of ten could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father also thought that it was important for Mill to study, one of Mills earliest poetic compositions was a continuation of the Iliad. In his spare time he enjoyed reading about natural sciences and popular novels, such as Don Quixote. In the following year he was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and David Ricardo with his father, Ricardo, who was a close friend of his father, used to invite the young Mill to his house for a walk in order to talk about political economy. At the age of fourteen, Mill stayed a year in France with the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, the mountain scenery he saw led to a lifelong taste for mountain landscapes. The lively and friendly way of life of the French also left an impression on him. In Montpellier, he attended the courses on chemistry, zoology, logic of the Faculté des Sciences. While coming and going from France, he stayed in Paris for a few days in the house of the renowned economist Jean-Baptiste Say, there he met many leaders of the Liberal party, as well as other notable Parisians, including Henri Saint-Simon. Mill went through months of sadness and pondered suicide at twenty years of age, according to the opening paragraphs of Chapter V of his autobiography, he had asked himself whether the creation of a just society, his lifes objective, would actually make him happy. His heart answered no, and unsurprisingly he lost the happiness of striving towards this objective, eventually, the poetry of William Wordsworth showed him that beauty generates compassion for others and stimulates joy
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John Playfair
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John Playfair FRSE, FRS was a Scottish scientist and mathematician, and a professor of natural philosophy at the University of Edinburgh. He is perhaps best known for his book Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth and it was through this book that Huttons principle of uniformitarianism, later taken up by Charles Lyell, first reached a wide audience. Playfairs textbook Elements of Geometry made an expression of Euclids parallel postulate known now as Playfairs axiom. Born at Benvie, near Dundee, where his father, Rev James Playfair, was a kirk minister, Playfair was educated at home until the age of fourteen, when he entered the University of St Andrews. In 1766, when only eighteen, he was a candidate for the chair of mathematics in Marischal College, Playfair continued, however, his mathematical and physical studies, and in 1782 he resigned his charge to become the tutor of Ferguson of Raith. By this arrangement, Playfair was able to be frequently in Edinburgh and to cultivate the literary, in particular, he attended the natural history course of John Walker. Through Nevil Maskelyne, whose acquaintance he had first made in the course of the celebrated Schiehallion experiments in 1774, in 1785 when Dugald Stewart succeeded Ferguson in the Edinburgh chair of moral philosophy, Playfair succeeded the former in that of mathematics. In 1795 Playfair published an alternative, more stringent formulation of Euclids parallel postulate, although the axiom bears Playfairs name, he did not create it, but credited others, in particular William Ludlam, with its prior use. In 1802, Playfair published his celebrated volume entitled Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth, the influence exerted by James Hutton on the development of geology is thought to be largely due to its publication. In 1805 Playfair exchanged the chair of mathematics for that of philosophy in succession to John Robison. Playfair was an opponent of Gottfried Leibnizs vis viva principle, a version of the conservation of energy. In 1808, he launched an attack on John Smeaton and William Hyde Wollastons work championing the theory, in 1808 he also published a review of Laplaces Traité de Mécanique Celeste. Johns brothers were architect James Playfair, solicitor Robert Playfair and engineer William Playfair and his nephew, William Henry Playfair was an eminent architect in Scotland. Although an eminent man, Playfair was buried in a grave in Old Calton Burial Ground. His, and his brother, Jamess graves were marked by a plaque unveiled in 2011 following a local campaign, the monument to his memory by William Henry Playfair, on Calton Hill, is visible from the spot. In later life he admired and proposed to the wealthy widow Jane Apreece and she turned him down and married the younger and more famous Sir Humphry Davy. Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Fellow of the Royal Society of London,1807 Craters on Mars, the mineral playfairite was named in his honour. A four-volume collected edition of Playfairs works, with a memoir by James G. Playfair and his lives of Matthew Stewart, Hutton, and Robison, many of his reviews, and above all his Dissertation are of the utmost value
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Henry Enfield Roscoe
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Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe FRS was an English chemist. He is particularly noted for work on vanadium and for photochemical studies. Henry Enfield Roscoe was born in London, the son of Henry Roscoe and Maria Roscoe, Roscoe studied at the Liverpool Institute for Boys and University College London. He then went to Heidelberg to work under Robert Bunsen, who became a lifelong friend, in 1857, Roscoe returned to England with Dittmar and was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester, with Dittmar as his assistant. Roscoe remained at the college until 1886 by which time the Victoria University had been established, from 1885 to 1895 he was MP for Manchester South. He served on royal commissions appointed to consider educational questions, in which he was keenly interested. Roscoes scientific work includes a series of researches carried out with Bunsen between 1855 and 1862, in which they laid the foundations of comparative photochemistry. In 1864 they carried out what is reputed to be the first flashlight photography, in so doing he corrected Berzeliuss value for the atomic mass. Roscoe was awarded the 1868 Bakerian Lecture for this work and he also carried out researches on niobium, tungsten, uranium, perchloric acid, and the solubility of ammonia. He was the uncle of Beatrix Potter, the mineral Roscoelite was named after him, due to its vanadium content and Roscoes work on that element. Roscoe received a doctorate from the University of Glasgow in June 1901. In November 1909 he was sworn in the Privy Council and he was awarded the Franklin Institutes Elliott Cresson Medal in 1912. Roscoes Lessons in Elementary Chemistry passed through many editions in England, Henry Roscoe Kurzes Lehrbuch der Chemie Braunschweig, Vieweg Roscoe, Henry. John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry, the Life and Experiences of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe. The Roscoe Building at the University of Manchester was named after Professor Roscoe, it is a large general-purpose teaching facility used for various levels of teaching in Brunswick Street
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Bertrand Russell
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Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, social critic, political activist and Nobel laureate. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist and he was born in Monmouthshire into one of the most prominent aristocratic families in the United Kingdom. In the early 20th century, Russell led the British revolt against idealism and he is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, colleague G. E. Moore, and protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is widely held to be one of the 20th centurys premier logicians, with A. N. Whitehead he wrote Principia Mathematica, an attempt to create a logical basis for mathematics. His philosophical essay On Denoting has been considered a paradigm of philosophy, Russell mostly was a prominent anti-war activist, he championed anti-imperialism. Occasionally, he advocated preventive nuclear war, before the opportunity provided by the monopoly is gone. He went to prison for his pacifism during World War I, in 1950 Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought. Bertrand Russell was born on 18 May 1872 at Ravenscroft, Trellech, Monmouthshire and his parents, Viscount and Viscountess Amberley, were radical for their times. Lord Amberley consented to his wifes affair with their childrens tutor, both were early advocates of birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous. Lord Amberley was an atheist and his atheism was evident when he asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russells secular godfather, Mill died the year after Russells birth, but his writings had a great effect on Russells life. His paternal grandfather, the Earl Russell, had asked twice by Queen Victoria to form a government. The Russells had been prominent in England for several centuries before this, coming to power, Lady Amberley was the daughter of Lord and Lady Stanley of Alderley. Russell often feared the ridicule of his grandmother, one of the campaigners for education of women. Russell had two siblings, brother Frank, and sister Rachel, in June 1874 Russells mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachels death. In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis following a period of depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly Victorian paternal grandparents and his grandfather, former Prime Minister Earl Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kindly old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, the Countess Russell, was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russells childhood, the countess was from a Scottish Presbyterian family, and successfully petitioned the Court of Chancery to set aside a provision in Amberleys will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Her favourite Bible verse, Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil, the atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression, and formality, Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings
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Sir Walter Scott
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Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet, FRSE was a Scottish historical novelist, playwright and poet. Many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature, famous titles include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Old Mortality, The Lady of the Lake, Waverley, The Heart of Midlothian and The Bride of Lammermoor. A prominent member of the Tory establishment in Edinburgh, Scott was an member of the Highland Society. He survived a bout of polio in 1773 that left him lame. To cure his lameness he was sent in 1773 to live in the rural Scottish Borders at his grandparents farm at Sandyknowe, adjacent to the ruin of Smailholm Tower. Here he was taught to read by his aunt Jenny, and learned from her the speech patterns and many of the tales and legends that characterised much of his work. In January 1775 he returned to Edinburgh, and that went with his aunt Jenny to take spa treatment at Bath in England. In the winter of 1776 he went back to Sandyknowe, with another attempt at a cure at Prestonpans during the following summer. In 1778, Scott returned to Edinburgh for private education to him for school. In October 1779 he began at the Royal High School of Edinburgh and he was now well able to walk and explore the city and the surrounding countryside. His reading included chivalric romances, poems, history and travel books and he was given private tuition by James Mitchell in arithmetic and writing, and learned from him the history of the Church of Scotland with emphasis on the Covenanters. Scott began studying classics at the University of Edinburgh in November 1783, at the age of 12, in March 1786 he began an apprenticeship in his fathers office to become a Writer to the Signet. While at the university Scott had become a friend of Adam Ferguson, Scott met the blind poet Thomas Blacklock, who lent him books and introduced him to James Macphersons Ossian cycle of poems. During the winter of 1786–87 the 15-year-old Scott saw Robert Burns at one of these salons, for what was to be their only meeting. When Burns noticed a print illustrating the poem The Justice of the Peace and asked who had written the poem, only Scott knew that it was by John Langhorne, and was thanked by Burns. When it was decided that he would become a lawyer, he returned to the university to study law, first taking classes in Moral Philosophy, after completing his studies in law, he became a lawyer in Edinburgh. As a lawyers clerk he made his first visit to the Scottish Highlands directing an eviction and he was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1792. He had an unsuccessful love suit with Williamina Belsches of Fettercairn, as a boy, youth and young man, Scott was fascinated by the oral traditions of the Scottish Borders
