1.
Turkish War of Independence
–
Few of the occupying British, French, and Italian troops had been deployed or engaged in combat. The Turkish National Movement in Anatolia culminated in the formation of a new Grand National Assembly by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, after the end of the Turkish-Armenian, Franco-Turkish, Greco-Turkish fronts, the Treaty of Sèvres was abandoned and the Treaties of Kars and Lausanne were signed. The Allies left Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey decided on the establishment of a Republic in Turkey, on 3 March 1924, the Ottoman Caliphate was officially abolished and the last Caliph was exiled. On October 30,1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I, bringing hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I to a close. However, dismantling the Ottoman government and partitioning the Ottoman Empire among the Allied nations had been an objective of the Entente since the start of the war, a wave of seizures took place in the following months by the Allies. On December 1, British troops based in Syria occupied Kilis, beginning in December, French troops began successive seizures of Ottoman territory, including the towns of Antakya, Mersin, Tarsus, Ceyhan, Adana, Osmaniye and Islahiye. The first bullet was fired by Mehmet Çavuş in Dörtyol against the French on December 19,1918, on January 19,1919, the Paris Peace Conference opened, a meeting of Allied nations that set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers, including the Ottoman Empire. As a special body of the Paris Conference, The Inter-Allied Commission on Mandates in Turkey was established to pursue the secret treaties they had signed between 1915 and 1917, among the objectives was a new Hellenic Empire based on the Megali Idea. This was promised by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George to Greece, Italy sought control over the southern part of Anatolia under the Agreement of St. -Jean-de-Maurienne. France expected to control over Hatay, Lebanon and Syria. France signed the French-Armenian Agreement and promised the realization of an Armenian state in the Mediterranean region in exchange to the French Armenian Legion, meanwhile, Allied countries continued to lay claim to portions of the quickly crumbling Ottoman Empire. On April 30, Italy responded to the idea of Greek incorporation of Western Anatolia by also sending a warship to Smyrna as a show of force against the Greek campaign. A large Italian force also landed in Antalya, the Greek campaign of Western Anatolia began on May 15,1919, as Greek troops began landing in Smyrna. He and his carefully selected staff left Constantinople aboard the old steamer SS Bandirma for Samsun on the evening of May 16,1919, resistance to Allied demands began at the very onset of the Ottoman Empire′s defeat in World War I. Many Ottoman officials organized the secret Sentinel Association in reaction to the policies of the Allies, the objective of the Sentinel Association was to thwart Allied demands through passive and active resistance. Many Ottoman officials participated in efforts to conceal from the occupying authorities details of the independence movement spreading throughout Anatolia. Munitions initially seized by the Allies were secretly smuggled out of Constantinople into Central Anatolia, mirliva Ali Fuad Paşa in the meantime had moved his XX Corps from Ereğli to Ankara and started organizing resistance groups, including Circassian immigrants under Çerkes Ethem. The most prominent idea given for the Sultan’s decision was by assigning these officers out of the capital, Mustafa Kemal Paşa and his colleagues stepped ashore on May 19 and set up their first quarters in the Mintika Palace Hotel
Turkish War of Independence
–
Clockwise: Delegation gathered in
Sivas Congress to determine the objectives of the National Struggle of Representative; Turkish people carrying ammunition to the front in the war; In front of the last troops to join the war in Ankara Ulus Square uğurlanış;
Kuva-yi Nationalists attached infantry; The introduction of the
Turkish army to Izmir; Turkish horse cavalry.
Turkish War of Independence
–
Greek troops marching on Izmir's coastal street, May 1919.
Turkish War of Independence
–
The
Turkish Army 's entry into
Izmir (known as the
Liberation of Smyrna) on September 9, 1922, following the successful
Great Smyrna Offensive, effectively sealed the Turkish victory and ended the war. Izmir was the location where
Turkish civilian armed resistance against the
occupation of Anatolia by the
Allies first began on
May 15, 1919.
Turkish War of Independence
–
Map showing the
Western,
Eastern and
Southern fronts during the Turkish War of Independence.
2.
Turkish language
–
Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
Turkish language
–
Old Turkic inscription with the
Orkhon script (c. 8th century).
Kyzyl, Russia
Turkish language
–
Countries where Turkish is an official language
Turkish language
–
Road signs in
Prizren,
Republic of Kosovo. Official languages are:
Albanian (top),
Serbian (middle) and Turkish (bottom).
Turkish language
–
Map of the main subgroups of
Turkish dialects.
3.
Anadolu University
–
As the Academy of Economics and Commercial Sciences was founded earliest, Anadolu University has adopted that year as their date of establishment. Most of Anadolu Universitys faculties and schools, including the Open Education Faculty, are located at the Yunusemre Campus in the centre of Eskişehir, the Yunusemre Campus also contains student housing, Anadolus university hospital, and most of the universitys administration buildings. In addition to two campuses, the Porsuk Vocational School is located separately in Eskişehir, the Bilecik Vocational School in Bilecik. The Higher Education Act of 1981 nominated Anadolu University as the provider of distance education, upon which it has placed strong emphasis since its creation in 1982. The universitys goal is to educate Turks who live in rural areas, programs offered via distance education include 4-year Bachelor of Arts degrees in Economics and in Business Administration and nineteen 2-year associate degrees in a variety of fields. Anadolu University and SUNY Empire State College offered distance education eMBA degree from 2005 to 2010, courses are delivered by a variety of methods, including pre-recorded television and radio broadcasts, videoconferences, and via internet. Students can also access academic counseling or attend optional evening classes at some of the Anadolu University bureaus located throughout Turkey
Anadolu University
–
Anadolu University
4.
Justice and Development Party (Turkey)
–
The Justice and Development Party, abbreviated AKP in Turkish, is a conservative political party in Turkey. Developed from the tradition of moderate Islamism, the party is the largest in Turkey, the party held a majority of seats for 13 years, but lost it in June 2015, only to regain it in the snap election of November 2015. Its electoral success has been mirrored in the three elections held since the partys establishment, coming first in 2004,2009 and 2014 respectively. The current party leader Binali Yıldırım is the Prime Minister of Turkey, the party has for a long time been supported by the Cemaat Movement of exiled Islamic cleric Fethullah Gülen, whose influence in the judiciary has helped to weaken the opposition against the AKP. Having been an observer in the center-right European Peoples Party since 2005, it left to join the eurosceptic Alliance of Conservatives. Since then, the party has brought about tighter regulations on use, abortion and alcohol consumption, having temporarily blocked access to Twitter. Especially after the government corruption scandal involving several AKP ministers in 2013, the AKP favours a strong centralized leadership, having long advocated a presidential system of government and significantly reduced the number of elected local government positions in 2013. The AK Party was established by a range of politicians of various political parties. The core of the party was formed from the reformist faction of the Islamist Virtue Party, including such as Abdullah Gül. A second founding group consisted of members of the social conservative Motherland Party who had close to Turgut Özal, such as Cemil Çiçek. Some members of the True Path Party, such as Hüseyin Çelik and Köksal Toptan, some members, such as Kürşad Tüzmen had nationalist or Ertuğrul Günay, had center-left backgrounds while representatives of the nascent Muslim left current were largely excluded. In addition a number of people joined a political party for the first time, such as Ali Babacan, Selma Aliye Kavaf, Egemen Bağış. All of these people joined Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to found the new party, although the party is described as an Islamist party in some media, party officials reject those claims. These characterizations do not reflect the truth, and they sadden us, Çelik added, The AK Party is a conservative democratic party. The AK Partys conservatism is limited to moral and social issues, also in a separate speech made in 2005, Prime Minister Erdoğan stated, We are not an Islamic party, and we also refuse labels such as Muslim-democrat. Erdoğan went on to say that the AK Partys agenda is limited to conservative democracy, however, the partys leadership has also rejected this label. In 2005, the party was granted membership in the European Peoples Party. In November 2013, the party left the EPP to join the Alliance of European Conservatives
Justice and Development Party (Turkey)
–
Party leader Erdoğan on a poster thanking the people for the election results.
Justice and Development Party (Turkey)
–
Justice and Development Party Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi
Justice and Development Party (Turkey)
–
A rally of the Justice and Development Party in 2007
Justice and Development Party (Turkey)
–
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
5.
Evolution theory
–
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all living on Earth. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction. More than 99 percent of all species that lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earths current species range from 10 to 14 million, more recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection. This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms, the four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene migration. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation, mutation and gene migration create variation, consequences of selection can include meiotic drive, nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics, the importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science. The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura, in contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach, however, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the nature of species relationships. Other naturalists of this time speculated on the change of species over time according to natural laws
Evolution theory
–
Lucretius
Evolution theory
–
Diagrammatic representation of the
divergence of modern
taxonomic groups from their
common ancestor
Evolution theory
–
Alfred Russel Wallace
Evolution theory
–
Thomas Robert Malthus
6.
Jihad
–
Jihad is an Arabic word which literally means striving or struggling, especially with a praiseworthy aim. It can have many shades of meaning in an Islamic context, such as struggle against ones evil inclinations, in classical Islamic law, the term refers to armed struggle against unbelievers, while modernist Islamic scholars generally equate military jihad with defensive warfare. In Sufi and pious circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of greater jihad, the term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by terrorist groups. The word jihad appears frequently in the Quran with and without military connotations, Islamic jurists and other ulema of the classical era understood the obligation of jihad predominantly in a military sense. They developed a set of rules pertaining to jihad, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat. In the modern era, the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance, while modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, some Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory. Jihad is classified into inner jihad, which involves a struggle against ones own impulses, and external jihad. Most Western writers consider external jihad to have primacy over inner jihad in the Islamic tradition, gallup analysis of a large survey reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions of jihad held by Muslims around the world. Jihad is sometimes referred to as the pillar of Islam. In Twelver Shia Islam jihad is one of the ten Practices of the Religion, a person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid. The term jihad is often rendered in English as Holy War, in Modern Standard Arabic, the term jihad is used for a struggle for causes, both religious and secular. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic defines the term as fight, battle, jihad, nonetheless, it is usually used in the religious sense and its beginnings are traced back to the Quran and words and actions of Muhammad. In the Quran and in later Muslim usage, jihad is commonly followed by the expression fi sabil illah, in the path of God. Muhammad Abdel-Haleem states that it indicates the way of truth and justice, including all the teachings it gives on the justifications and it is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word crusade. The context of the Quran is elucidated by Hadith, of the 199 references to jihad in perhaps the most standard collection of hadith—Bukhari—all assume that jihad means warfare. He said, The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain, Ibn Nuhaas also cited a hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, where Muhammad states that the highest kind of jihad is The person who is killed whilst spilling the last of his blood. According to another hadith, supporting one’s parents is also an example of jihad and it has also been reported that Muhammad considered well-performing hajj to be the best jihad for Muslim women. The practice of raids by Bedouin against enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils predates the revelations of the Quran
Jihad
–
Sayyid Qutb, Islamist author
Jihad
7.
Istanbul University
–
Istanbul University is a prominent Turkish university located in Istanbul. The main campus is adjacent to Beyazıt Square in Fatih, the district of the province. Istanbul University was established in 1453 by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, education in a number of sciences and fields became available, and, until the 19th century, they were instrumental in educating the ruling cadres of the Ottoman society. An institution of higher education named the Darülfünûn-u Osmanî was created in 1863 and its first rector was Hasan Tahsini, regarded as one of the most important Ottoman scholars of the 19th century. In 1874 the Imperial University started classes in law in French, the Imperial University, now known as Darülfünûn-u Şahâne was refounded in 1900, with the departments of theology, arts, mathematics, science and philology. In 1924, the faculties of law, medicine, arts and sciences were established in Istanbul University, islamic theology was added in 1925, but in 1933 the university was reorganized without the latter. Starting from 1874, some classes of Literature, Law and Applied Sciences were given at the building of Galatasaray High School, on 1 September 1900, the school was renamed and reorganized as the Darülfünûn-u Şahâne with courses on Mathematics, Literature and Theology. On 1 August 1933, İstanbul Darülfünûnu was reorganized as İstanbul Üniversitesi following the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Classes officially began on 1 November 1933, the main campus building with its landmark gate was previously used as the headquarters of the Harbiye Nezareti by the Ottoman government. Located on the grounds is the Beyazıt Tower, a 85 m tall fire-watch tower, the grounds were previously the location of the Ottoman era Eski Saray. Some Roman and Byzantine ruins are visible on the grounds. The university has a staff of 2,000 professors and associates and 4,000 assistants. More than 60,000 undergraduate and 8,000 postgraduate students follow the courses offered by Istanbul University every year, the main gate was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 500 lira banknotes of 1971–1984
Istanbul University
–
Main entrance gate of Istanbul University on
Beyazıt Square, which was known as
Forum Tauri (later Forum of Theodosius) in the late
Roman period.
Beyazıt Tower, located within the campus, is seen in the background, to the right of the flagpole.
Istanbul University
–
Istanbul University
Istanbul University
–
The
arched monumental gate of Istanbul University on the reverse of the 500 lira banknote (1971–1984)
Istanbul University
–
Late
Roman and early
Byzantine remains at the Istanbul University campus next to
Beyazıt Tower.
8.
Ottoman Empire
–
After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting from 1523.
Ottoman Empire
–
Flag (1844–1923)
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Mohács in 1526
Ottoman Empire
–
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the
Holy League of
Charles V under the command of
Andrea Doria at the
Battle of Preveza in 1538.
9.
Turkish republic
–
Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
Turkish republic
–
Some
henges at
Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 12,000 BC, predating those of
Stonehenge,
England by almost ten millennia.
Turkish republic
–
Flag
Turkish republic
–
The Lion Gate in
Hattusa, capital of the
Hittite Empire. The city's history dates back to the 6th millennium BC.
Turkish republic
–
The
Library of Celsus in
Ephesus was built by the
Romans in 135 AD. The
Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king
Croesus of
Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
10.
Quran
–
The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
Quran
–
Manuscript of the Quran.
Brooklyn Museum.
Quran
–
Quran
Quran
–
11th-century North African Quran in the
British Museum.
Quran
–
Quran − in
Mashhad, Iran − written by
Ali.
11.
Minorities in Turkey
–
Minorities in Turkey form a substantial part of the countrys population, with at least an estimated 30% of the populace belonging to an ethnic minority. The amount of minorities is suspected to be underestimated by the Turkish government. Ethnic Albanians, Pontic Greeks, Kurds, Arabs, Bosniaks, Circassians, although many minorities have no official recognition, state-run TRT television and radio broadcasts minority language programs and elementary schools offer minority language classes. Groups of nomadic and semi-nomadic itinerants found mainly in central and western Anatolia and they speak an argot of their own and follow the Alevi faith. Afghans are one of the largest irregular migrant groups in Turkey, from the period 2003-2007, the number of Afghans apprehended were significant, with statistics almost doubling during the last year. Most had fled the War in Afghanistan, in 2005, refugees from Afghanistan numbered 300 and made a sizeable proportion of Turkeys registered migrants. Most of them were spread out over satellite cities with Van, in the following years, the number of Afghans entering Turkey greatly increased, second only to migrants from Iraq, in 2009, there were 16,000 people designated under the Iraq-Afghanistan category. Despite a dramatic 50 percent reduction by 2010, reports confirmed hundreds living and working in Turkey, as of January 2010, Afghans consisted one-sixth of the 26,000 remaining refugees and asylum seekers. By the end 2011, their numbers are expected to surge up to 10,000, making them the largest population, african quarters of 19th-century İzmir, including Sabırtaşı, Dolapkuyu, Tamaşalık, İkiçeşmelik, and Ballıkuyu, are mentioned in contemporary records. There are an estimated 500, 000–6,000,000 people of Albanian descent in Turkey, According to the Turkish government there are only 1.3 million Albanians, with 500,000 considering themselves to have an Albanian national consciousness and the remainder being assimilated. However, these assumptions of the Turkish government are rejected by scholars who explain they are without any basis. Arabs in Turkey number between 800,000 and 1 million, and they live in provinces near the Syrian border, particularly the Hatay region. However, including recent Syrian refugees, they make up to 5. 3% of the population, most of them are Sunni Muslims. However, there is a group of Alawis, and another one of Arab Christians in communion with the Antiochian Orthodox Church. Armenians are indigenous to the Armenian Highlands which corresponds to the half of modern-day Turkey, the Republic of Armenia, southern Georgia, western Azerbaijan. Prior to the Genocide in 1914, the Armenian population of Turkey numbered at about 1,914,620, the Armenian community of the Ottoman Empire before the Armenian genocide had an estimated 2,300 churches and 700 schools. After the Armenian genocide however, it is estimated that 200,000 Armenians remained in Turkey, today there are an estimated 40,000 to 70,000 Armenians in Turkey, not including the Hamshenis. Armenians today are concentrated around Istanbul
Minorities in Turkey
–
The house where the founder of the Bahá'í Faith,
Bahá'u'lláh stayed in, Edirne
Minorities in Turkey
–
Church of St. Anthony of Padua in
Istanbul.
Minorities in Turkey
–
Aya Triada Greek Orthodox church in
Beyoğlu, Istanbul
Minorities in Turkey
–
The Church of St. Paul in Tharsus
12.
Secular education
–
Secular education is the system of public education in countries with a secular government or separation between religion and state. An example of an educational system would be the French public educational system. In Turkey the promotion of Imam Hatip Islamic schools by the government following the March 2012 education reform bill, besides undermining Turkish secularism, the new measures would undermine educational standards and deepen social inequalities, according to education specialists. In Italy the Lautsi v. Italy case was brought before the European Court of Human Rights regarding the display of crucifixes in classrooms of state schools, in 2009 a new body was formed, the Australian Secular Lobby, to promote secular education in Australia. In Southern Thailand, the educational system is being undermined by insurgent groups by means of the destruction of schools. French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools Humanum Genus The case for an education system Principle of Secular Education Campaign for Secular Education
Secular education
–
A crucifix in a classroom at the
Pontifical Catholic University of Chile. Crucifixes in classrooms of public schools have become a matter of controversy in some countries.
13.
Curricula
–
In education, a curriculum is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process. The term often specifically to a planned sequence of instruction. Curriculum may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources, Curriculum is split into several categories, the explicit, the implicit, the excluded and the extra-curricular. Curricula may be standardized, or may include a high level of instructor or learner autonomy. Many countries have national curricula in primary and secondary education, such as the United Kingdoms National Curriculum, uNESCOs International Bureau of Education has the primary mission of studying curricula and their implementation worldwide. The word curriculum began as a Latin word which means a race or the course of a race, the first known use in an educational context is in the Professio Regia, a work by University of Paris professor Petrus Ramus published posthumously in 1576. The term subsequently appears in University of Leiden records in 1582, the words origins appear closely linked to the Calvinist desire to bring greater order to education. By the seventeenth century, the University of Glasgow also referred to its course of study as a curriculum, by the nineteenth century, European universities routinely referred to their curriculum to describe both the complete course of study and particular courses and their content. There is no agreed upon definition of curriculum. Braslavsky states that curriculum is an agreement among communities, educational professionals, furthermore, the curriculum defines why, what, when, where, how, and with whom to learn. Outlines the skills, performances, attitudes, and values pupils are expected to learn from schooling and it includes statements of desired pupil outcomes, descriptions of materials, and the planned sequence that will be used to help pupils attain the outcomes. The total learning experience provided by a school and it includes the content of courses, the methods employed, and other aspects, like norms and values, which relate to the way the school is organized. The aggregate of courses of study given in a learning environment, the courses are arranged in a sequence to make learning a subject easier. In schools, a curriculum spans several grades, Curriculum can refer to the entire program provided by a classroom, school, district, state, or country. A classroom is assigned sections of the curriculum as defined by the school, implicit curriculum, lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations that characterize that culture, the unintended curriculum. The term itself is attributed to Philip W. Jackson and is not always meant to be a negative, hidden curriculum, if its potential is realized, could benefit students and learners in all educational systems. Also, it not just include the physical environment of the school. Excluded curriculum, topics or perspectives that are excluded from the curriculum
Curricula
–
First published use of "curriculum" in 1576.
Curricula
–
A curriculum for the
MD degree.
Curricula
–
Curriculum may include unplanned or unstructured activities.
Curricula
–
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology student examines the university's main class schedule board on the first day of classes to find what classes he – and all students in his specialization (sub-major) – will attend this semester.
14.
Medrese
–
Madrasa is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious. The word is variously transliterated madrasah, medresa, madrassa, madraza, medrese, in the West, the word usually refers to a specific type of religious school or college for the study of the Islamic religion, though this may not be the only subject studied. In countries like India, not all students in madrasas are Muslims, the word madrasah derives from the triconsonantal Semitic root د-ر-س D-R-S to learn, study, through the wazn مفعل, mafʻal, meaning a place where something is done. Therefore, madrasah literally means a place where learning and studying take place, for example, in the Ottoman Empire during the Early Modern Period, madaris had lower schools and specialised schools where the students became known as danişmends. The usual Arabic word for a university, however, is جامعة, the Hebrew cognate midrasha also connotes the meaning of a place of learning, the related term midrash literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious connotations. However, in English, the term usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions. A regular curriculum includes courses in Arabic, tafsir, sharīʻah, hadiths, mantiq, in the Ottoman Empire, during the Early Modern Period, the study of hadiths was introduced by Süleyman I. Depending on the demands, some madaris also offer additional advanced courses in Arabic literature, English and other foreign languages, as well as science. Ottoman madaris along with religious teachings also taught styles of writing, grammary, syntax, poetry, composition, natural sciences, political sciences, people of all ages attend, and many often move on to becoming imams. The certificate of an ʻālim, for example, requires approximately twelve years of study, a good number of the ḥuffāẓ are the product of the madaris. The madaris also resemble colleges, where people take evening classes, an important function of the madaris is to admit orphans and poor children in order to provide them with education and training. Madaris may enroll female students, however, they study separately from the men, the term Islamic education means education in the light of Islam itself, which is rooted in the teachings of the Quran - holy book of Muslims. Islamic education and Muslim education are not the same, because Islamic education has epistemological integration which is founded on Tawhid - Oneness or monotheism. The first institute of education was at the estate of Hazrat Zaid bin Arkam near a hill called Safa, where Hazrat Muhammad was the teacher. After Hijrah the madrasa of Suffa was established in Madina on the east side of the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi mosque, ubada ibn as-Samit was appointed there by Hazrat Muhammad as teacher and among the students. In the curriculum of the madrasa, there were teachings of The Quran, The Hadith, faraiz, tajweed, genealogy, treatises of first aid, there were also trainings of horse-riding, art of war, handwriting and calligraphy, athletics and martial arts. The first part of madrasa based education is estimated from the first day of nabuwwat to the first portion of the Umaiya caliphate and it was founded by Fāṭimah al-Fihrī, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Muḥammad al-Fihrī. This was later followed by the establishment of al-Azhar in 959 in Cairo, niẓām al-Mulk, who would later be murdered by the Assassins, created a system of state madaris in various ʻAbbāsid cities at the end of the 11th century
Medrese
–
Portal of
Kasımiye Medrese,
Mardin,
Turkey
Medrese
–
Alauddin Khilji 's Madrasa,
Qutb complex, built in the early-14th century in
Delhi,
India.
Medrese
–
Registan, Sher-Dor Madrasa in
Samarkand
Medrese
–
A
Muslim kindergarten in
Yangzhou, China
15.
Turkey
–
Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
Turkey
–
Some
henges at
Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 12,000 BC, predating those of
Stonehenge,
England by almost ten millennia.
Turkey
–
Flag
Turkey
–
The Lion Gate in
Hattusa, capital of the
Hittite Empire. The city's history dates back to the 6th millennium BC.
Turkey
–
The
Library of Celsus in
Ephesus was built by the
Romans in 135 AD. The
Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king
Croesus of
Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
16.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
17.
Alphabet
–
An alphabet is a standard set of letters that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries and logographies, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet, the Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic. Under a terminological distinction promoted by Peter T. Daniels, an alphabet is a script that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, in other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants, such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal letters, as in Devanagari. The Khmer alphabet is the longest, with 74 letters, there are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet. Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks, while most alphabets have letters composed of lines, there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. Alphabets are usually associated with an ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order and it also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of numbering ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements. The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, the Greek word was made from the first two letters, alpha and beta. The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, aleph, which also meant ox, and bet, in the alphabet song in English, the term ABCs is used instead of the word alphabet. Knowing ones ABCs, in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything, the history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. These glyphs were used as guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs and this script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit, the Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called Proto-Canaanite before ca.1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram and this script is the parent script of all western alphabets
Alphabet
–
Edward Bernard 's "Orbis eruditi", comparing all known alphabets as of 1689.
Alphabet
–
Writing systems
Alphabet
–
A Specimen of
typeset fonts and
languages, by
William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728
Cyclopaedia.
Alphabet
–
Codex Zographensis in the
Glagolitic alphabet from Medieval
Bulgaria
18.
Kuleli Military High School
–
Kuleli Military High School is the oldest military high school in Turkey, located in Çengelköy, Istanbul, on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus strait. It was founded on September 21,1845, by Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I, Kuleli Military High School was established on September 21,1845, under the name of Mekteb-i Fünun-ı İdadiye at the Maçka Barracks, now used by the Istanbul Technical University. Due to the renewal, the school completed its first year at the Tiled Kiosk building. Following the renewal of the Maçka Barracks, “Mekteb-i Fünun-ı İdadîye” started its second year with a ceremony at the presence of Sultan Abdülmecid on October 10,1846. The Kuleli Military High School building, originally the Kuleli Cavalry Barracks, was designed by Ottoman Armenian architect Garabet Balyan, in 1868, all military high schools were decided to be combined. At that time, four high schools, including Kuleli, were combined under the name of Umum Mekteb-i İdadî Şahane. When the combination of high schools turned out to be a failure. For this reason, “Mekteb-i Fünun-ı İdadîye” and “Deniz İdadîsi” moved to the Kuleli Barracks in 1872, afterwards, the school came to be known as the Kuleli İdadîsi. During the Russo-Turkish War between the Ottoman Empire and Russia, the school was transformed into a hospital, therefore, the students and academic staff of Kuleli moved to the Turkish Military Academy building in Pangaltı, Istanbul. When the war ended, the returned to its building in Çengelköy with the Askeri Tıbbiye İdadisi in 1879. The hospital on the ridge outside the school was evacuated and sent to the Military Medical School, the hospital later moved to the Beylerbeyi quarter. The Askeri Tıbbiye İdadisi was transferred to the Haydarpaşa quarter in 1910, during the Balkan Wars in 1912–1913, Kuleli Barracks was converted into a hospital again. Some of the students were sent to the Kandilli High School for Girls, at the end of 1913, the school moved back to its own building. During World War I, the school moved to the Prinkipo Greek Orthodox Orphanage in Büyükada Island near Istanbul for some time. Kuleli Military High School first moved to a camp, consisting of tents only, near Sünnet Bridge in Kağıthane, then one month later. Because of the British interest there, it was transferred to the old Gendarmerie School near Beylerbeyi Palace, Kuleli Barracks was given back to the Turkish troops at the end of the Treaty of Lausanne as a result of the Turkish victory in the Turkish War of Independence. The British evacuated the Kuleli Barracks and thus the school moved back to its home after a 3-year period on October 6,1923, the school became a civilian high school by the Tevhid-i Tedrisat bill passed in 1924 and was renamed as Kuleli Lisesi. At the end of the year, it became a military high school again
Kuleli Military High School
–
Kuleli Military High School on the
Bosphorus
Kuleli Military High School
–
Kuleli Cavalry Barracks in 1841. Engraving by
Thomas Allom, renowned for his illustrations of Ottoman era Istanbul.
19.
Istanbul
–
Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
Istanbul
–
Clockwise from top: View of
Golden Horn between
Galata and
Seraglio Point including the
historic areas;
Maiden's Tower; a
nostalgic tram on
İstiklal Avenue;
Levent business district with
Dolmabahçe Palace;
Ortaköy Mosque in front of the
Bosphorus Bridge; and
Hagia Sophia.
Istanbul
–
Constantine I
Istanbul
–
Remains of a Byzantine column found at
Byzantium 's
acropolis, located today within the
Topkapı Palace complex
Istanbul
–
Created in 1422 by
Cristoforo Buondelmonti, this is the oldest surviving map of Constantinople.
20.
Bosphorus
–
The Bosphorus or Bosporus is a narrow, natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in northwestern Turkey. It forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia, and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey. The worlds narrowest strait used for navigation, the Bosphorus connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara, and, by extension via the Dardanelles. Most of the shores of the strait are heavily settled, straddled by the city of Istanbuls metropolitan population of 17 million inhabitants extending inland from both coasts, together with the Dardanelles, the Bosphorus forms the Turkish Straits. This folk etymology was canonized by Aeschylus in Prometheus Bound, where Prometheus prophesies to Io that the strait would be named after her, the site where Io supposedly went ashore was near Chrysopolis, and was named Bous the Cow. The same site was known as Damalis, as it was where the Athenian general Chares had erected a monument to his wife Damalis. Historically, the Bosphorus was also known as the Strait of Constantinople, or the Thracian Bosphorus and these are expressed in Herodotus Histories,4.83, as Bosporus Thracius, Bosporus Thraciae, and Βόσπορος Θρᾴκιος, respectively. Other names by which the strait is referenced by Herodotus include Chalcedonian Bosporus, the term eventually came to be used as common noun βόσπορος, meaning a strait, and was also formerly applied to the Hellespont in Classical Greek by Aeschylus and Sophocles. Presently, the waterway is officially referred to as simply Bosphorus, the Marmara further connects to the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas via the Dardanelles. A common mistake made by those who are unfamiliar with the locale is to assume the Bosphorus is a river, when it is, in fact. The exact scientific cause and date of the formation of the Bosphorus remain the subject of debate among geologists, many geologists, however, claim that the strait is much older, even if relatively young on a geologic timescale. The Symplegades were defeated when the lyrical hero Jason obtained successful passage, whereupon the rocks became fixed, between these limits, the strait is 31 km long, with a width of 3,329 m at the northern entrance and 2,826 m at the southern entrance. Its maximum width is 3,420 m between Umuryeri and Büyükdere Limanı, and minimum width 700 m between Kandilli Point and Aşiyan, the depth of the Bosphorus varies from 13 to 110 m in midstream with an average of 65 m. The deepest location is between Kandilli and Bebek with 110 m, the most shallow locations are off Kadıköy İnciburnu on the northward route with 18 m and off Aşiyan Point on the southward route with 13 m. The study of the water and wind erosion of the straits relates to that of its formation, sections of the shore have been reinforced with concrete or rubble and sections of the strait prone to deposition are periodically dredged. These channels are the main pathway for sediments to the deep sea where they form sedimentary deposits. These deposits ultimately hold not only untapped reserves of gas and oil and our initial findings show that the flow in these channels is quite different to the flow in river channels on land. Specifically, as flow moves around a bend it spirals in the direction in the deep sea compared to the spiral found in river channels on land
Bosphorus
–
Satellite image of the Bosphorus strait, taken from the
ISS in April 2004.
Bosphorus
–
Aerial view of the Bosphorus strait from north (bottom) to south (top), with the city center of
Istanbul at the southern end.
Bosphorus
–
The Bosphorus with the Castles of Europe and Asia. 19th-century engraving by
Thomas Allom. The castles are
Rumelihisarı and
Anadoluhisarı, respectively.
Bosphorus
–
A view of the Bosphorus strait, with the
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge seen in the background.
21.
Theory of evolution
–
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all living on Earth. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction. More than 99 percent of all species that lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earths current species range from 10 to 14 million, more recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection. This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms, the four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene migration. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation, mutation and gene migration create variation, consequences of selection can include meiotic drive, nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics, the importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science. The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura, in contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach, however, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the nature of species relationships. Other naturalists of this time speculated on the change of species over time according to natural laws
Theory of evolution
–
Lucretius
Theory of evolution
–
Diagrammatic representation of the
divergence of modern
taxonomic groups from their
common ancestor
Theory of evolution
–
Alfred Russel Wallace
Theory of evolution
–
Thomas Robert Malthus
22.
Robert College
–
Robert College of Istanbul is an independent private high school in Turkey. The 154-year-old institution is the oldest American school still in existence in its location outside the United States. Robert College is accredited by the New York State Association of Independent Schools, the School is a member of the G20 Schools group. In 1863, Robert College was founded in Bebek by Christopher Robert, a wealthy American and a philanthropist, and Cyrus Hamlin, the first building of the school was named Hamlin Hall in memory of Cyrus Hamlin. A few years after the foundation of Robert College, in 1878, according to the article, A Millionaires Will, published in New York Times, Robert left a great portion of his wealth to the College. A College Catalog was compiled in 1878–1879, giving general information, after Hamlin, Robert College was administrated by George Washburn and Caleb F. Gates. Robert College, in the past had junior high school, high school, since 1971, the school has functioned only as a high school on its Arnavutköy campus, yet it retains the title of College. The Bebek campus and academic staff were turned over to the Republic of Turkey for use as Boğaziçi University,1863, September 16, Robert College opened with 31 students at Bebek Seminary School. 1922, President C. Gates and Hüseyin Pektaş attended the Conference of Lausanne representing foreign educational institutions in the Ottoman Empire,1932, With Dr. Paul Monroe, joint Presidency system was adapted by Robert College and American College for Girls. Robert Academy was the school for Robert College, which had a reputable Engineering School. Instruction was bilingual, in Turkish and English, Robert Academy continued on the Bebek campus as a private high school. 1971, Robert College Yüksek was officially ended on May 18 It was renamed Bogazici University, Robert Colleges Bebek campus was donated to the Republic of Turkey. Boğaziçi University was established as a university in this campus. 1998, With the adoption of the law for eight years of uninterrupted primary education in Turkey,2004, The last junior high school students graduated and junior high school section was officially closed. Now, Robert College has Prep, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th grades, Robert College stands as a token of the close cooperation between Turkey and the USA. It is an institution which has important contributions to the cultural life of this country and will continue to play a valuable part in the promotion of culture. I have come to express Americas solidarity with the Turkish people at a time of national tragedy and we have been friends for a very long time. In 1863, the first American college outside the United States, Robert College and it was the only foreign institution allowed along the Bosphorus, precisely because America had never encroached upon Turkish sovereignty
Robert College
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Robert College
Robert College
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Anderson Hall, Boğaziçi University
Robert College
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A view of the Bosphorus from Robert College Plateau
Robert College
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RC Reviews March 2005 Issue
23.
Istanbul High School
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İstanbul High School, also commonly known as İstanbul Erkek Lisesi, abbreviated İEL, is one of the oldest and internationally renowned high schools of Turkey. The school is considered elite among Turkish public high schools, Germany recognizes the school as a Deutsche Auslandsschule. İstanbul Lisesi is located in Cağaloğlu, İstanbul, the school has changed several buildings throughout its history. Since 1933 the school has used its current building, a new building adjacent to the main historical building was inaugurated in 1984, providing new boarding and sports facilities. The primary languages of instruction are Turkish and German, the secondary foreign language of instruction is English. As a state school, admissions to İstanbul Lisesi are through the Secondary Education Institutions Entrance Exams, İstanbul Lisesi is one of the most difficult schools to enter of all the 400 Anadolu Lisesis in the country. The school usually accepts students from the top 800-1000 in Turkey, the academic program enables students to pursue academic excellence and acquire fluency and literacy in German and Turkish. The education period is five years, the German Abitur has been offered at İstanbul Lisesi since 2002. The Abitur diploma permits successful students the admission to any German university in almost any faculty, all science and mathematics courses in the last two years are at Abitur level. İstanbul Lisesi has a strong academic record, with a high proportion of its students proceeding to prominent universities in Turkey, Germany, Austria. The school combines both German and Turkish curricula, textbooks, curricula and standards are under the permanent supervision of the German government. German and English are the foreign languages taught at İstanbul Lisesi. Since 1999 İstanbul Lisesi has been a 5-year school, all students are required to spend their first year learning to master the German language, taking twenty-three hours of instruction in their first year and eighteen hours in their second year. Science, mathematics and English courses also start in the preparatory class, biology is the first science class followed by physics and chemistry in the ninth and tenth grades. In the eleventh grade the students choose between two majors, Mathematics and Sciences, or Turkish and Mathematics, students who aim to pursue careers in engineering, sciences or medicine, major in FEN, concentrating on science and mathematics courses. TM major is dominated by courses in sciences and mathematics and is for students who want to study humanities, business. The academic standards are demanding, and the system is strict. As the school follows both German and Turkish curricula, two scales are used
Istanbul High School
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Istanbul Erkek Lisesi
Istanbul High School
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İstanbul High School İstanbul Lisesi Istanbuler Gymnasium
Istanbul High School
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Main Entrance Outside
Istanbul High School
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Second floor SW corridor
24.
Getronagan Armenian High School
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Getronagan is an Armenian minority high school in the Karaköy district of Istanbul, Turkey. With the sponsorship of Archbishop Nerses Varjabetyan, Getronagan High School opened its doors on September 1,1886, the Catholicos of All Armenians, Magar, and Harutyun Archbishop Vehabetyan, the Patriarch of Armenians in İstanbul, conducted the opening commencement. Minas Cheraz became its first principal, as of 2014 Getronagan teaches both sexes. In 2001, the school had 182 students, the school teaches mainly in Turkish, but it also has Armenian language and literature classes. English, French and Spanish are taught as foreign languages
Getronagan Armenian High School
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Getronagan Armenian High School Ազգային Կեդրոնական Վարժարան
Getronagan Armenian High School
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Getronagan class of 1923 with
Kegham Kavafyan as principal. (
Nigoghos Sarafian is pictured to the left of principal)
25.
Turkish literature
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The Ottoman and Azeri forms of Turkish, which forms the basis of much of the written corpus, are highly influenced by Persian and Arabic literature, and used the Ottoman Turkish alphabet. The history of the broader Turkic literature spans a period of nearly 1,300 years, the oldest extant records of written Turkic are the Orhon inscriptions, found in the Orhon River valley in central Mongolia and dating to the 7th century. For the next 900 years, until shortly before the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, with the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the two traditions came together for the first time. Throughout most of its history, Turkish literature has been sharply divided into two different traditions, neither of which exercised much influence upon the other until the 19th century. The first of two traditions is Turkish folk literature, and the second is Turkish written literature. For most of the history of Turkish literature, the salient difference between the folk and the written traditions has been the variety of language employed. The folk tradition, by and large, was oral and remained free of the influence of Persian and Arabic literature, when the Ottoman Empire arose early in the 14th century, in northwestern Anatolia, it continued this tradition. Out of this confluence of choices, the Ottoman Turkish language—which was always distinct from standard Turkish—was effectively born. This style of writing under Persian and Arabic influence came to be known as Divan literature, Turkish folk literature is an oral tradition deeply rooted, in its form, in Central Asian nomadic traditions. However, in its themes, Turkish folk literature reflects the problems peculiar to a people who have abandoned the nomadic lifestyle. Another example is the mysterious figure of Nasreddin, a trickster who often plays jokes, of a sort. The religion henceforth came to exercise an influence on Turkish society and literature, particularly the heavily mystically oriented Sufi. The word aşık is in fact the term used for members of the Bektashi order. There are three basic genres in the tradition, epic, folk poetry, and folklore, the Book of Dede Korkut endured in the oral tradition of the Oghuz Turks after settling in Anatolia. Alpamysh is an epic, still preserved in the literature of various Turkic peoples of Central Asia in addition to its important place in the Anatolian tradition. The Book of Dede Korkut was the element of the Azerbaijani–Turkish epic tradition in the Caucasus. Concurrent to the Book of Dede Korkut was the so-called Epic of Köroğlu, complicating matters somewhat is the fact that Köroğlu is also the name of a poet of the aşık/ozan tradition. The epic tradition in modern Turkish literature may be seen in the Epic of Shaykh Bedreddin, many of the works of the 20th-century novelist Yaşar Kemal, such as the 1955 novel Memed, My Hawk, can be considered modern prose epics continuing this long tradition
Turkish literature
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A page from the Dîvân-ı Fuzûlî, the collected poems of the 16th-century Turkish and Azerbaijani poet
Fuzûlî.
Turkish literature
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An aşık performing in
Anatolia, from an 18th-century Western engraving
Turkish literature
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Kaygusuz Abdal
26.
History of the Republic of Turkey
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The Republic of Turkey was created after the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new Republican Parliament in 1922. This new regime delivered the coup de grâce to the Ottoman state which had been wiped away from the world stage following the First World War. The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on October 29,1923, the government was formed from the Ankara-based revolutionary group, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues. The second constitution was ratified by the Grand National Assembly on April 20,1924, chronology of Major Kemalist Reforms, November 1,1922, Abolition of the office of the Ottoman Sultan. October 29,1923, Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey, march 3,1924, Abolition of the office of Caliphate held by the Ottoman Caliphate. November 25,1925, Change of headgear and dress, November 30,1925, Closure of religious convents and dervish lodges. March 1,1926, Introduction of the new penal law, October 4,1926, Introduction of the new civil code. November 1,1928, Adoption of the new Turkish alphabet, June 21,1934, Introduction of the law on family names. November 26,1934, Abolition of titles and by-names, december 5,1934, Full political rights, to vote and be elected, to women. February 5,1937, The inclusion of the principle of laïcité in the constitution, the first party to be established in the newly formed republic was the Womens Party. It was founded by Nezihe Muhiddin and several women but was stopped from its activities. The actual passage to multi-party period was first attempted with the Liberal Republican Party by Ali Fethi Okyar, the Liberal Republican Party was dissolved on 17 November 1930 and no further attempt for a multi-party democracy was made until 1945. Turkey was admitted to the League of Nations in July 1932, atatürks successor after his death on November 10,1938 was İsmet İnönü. After failing in 1939 to get an alliance against Germany with Britain. Ambassadors from the Axis powers and Allies intermingled in Ankara, İnönü signed a non-aggression treaty with Nazi Germany on June 18,1941,4 days before the Axis powers invaded the Soviet Union. Nationalist magazines Bozrukat and Chinar Altu called for the declaration of war against the Soviet Union, in July 1942, Bozrukat published a map of Greater Turkey, which included Soviet controlled Caucasus and central Asian republics. In August 1942, during talks with the German ambassador, Turkish prime minister Şükrü Saracoğlu stated, in the summer of 1942, Turkish high command considered war with the Soviet Union almost unavoidable. An operation was planned, with Baku being the initial target, Turkey traded with both sides and purchased arms from both sides
History of the Republic of Turkey
27.
Edirne
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Edirne served as the third capital city of the Ottoman Empire from 1363 to 1453, before Constantinople became the empires fourth and final capital. At present, Edirne is the capital of Edirne Province in Turkish Thrace, the citys estimated population in 2014 was 165,979. The city was founded as Hadrianopolis, named for the Roman Emperor Hadrian and this name is still used in the Modern Greek. The name Adrianople was used in English, until the Turkish adoption of Latin alphabet in 1928 made Edirne the internationally recognized name. The Turkish, Edirne, Bulgarian, Одрин, Albanian, Edrêne, Slovene, Одрин and Serbian, Једрене / Jedrene are adapted forms of the name Hadrianopolis or of its Turkish version, see also its other names. The area around Edirne has been the site of no fewer than 16 major battles or sieges, military historian John Keegan identifies it as the most contested spot on the globe and attributes this to its geographical location. According to Greek mythology, Orestes, son of king Agamemnon, built this city as Orestias, at the confluence of the Tonsus and the Ardiscus with the Hebrus. The city was founded eponymously by the Roman Emperor Hadrian on the site of a previous Thracian settlement known as Uskadama, Uskudama, Uskodama or Uscudama and it was the capital of the Bessi, or of the Odrysians. Hadrian developed it, adorned it with monuments, changed its name to Hadrianopolis after himself, licinius was defeated there by Constantine I in 323, and Emperor Valens was killed by the Goths in 378 during the Battle of Adrianople. In 813, the city was seized by Khan Krum of Bulgaria who moved its inhabitants to the Bulgarian lands towards the north of the Danube. During the existence of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, the Crusaders were decisively defeated by the Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan in the Battle of Adrianople. Later Theodore Komnenos, Despot of Epirus, took possession of it in 1227, in 1369, the city was conquered by the Ottoman sultan Murad I. The city remained the Ottoman capital for 90 years until 1453, Edirne is famed for its many mosques, domes, minarets, and palaces from the Ottoman period. Under Ottoman rule, Edirne was the city of the administrative unit, the eponymous Eyalet of Edirne, and after land reforms in 1867. Sultan Mehmed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, was born in Edirne, Sultan Mehmed IV left the palace in Constantinople and died in Edirne in 1693. During his exile in the Ottoman Empire, the Swedish king Charles XII stayed in the city during most of 1713, baháulláh, the founder of the Baháí Faith, lived in Edirne from 1863 to 1868. He was exiled there by the Ottoman Empire before being banished further to the Ottoman penal colony in Akka and he referred to Edirne in his writings as the Land of Mystery. Edirne was briefly occupied by imperial Russian troops in 1829 during the Greek War of Independence, the city suffered a fire in 1905
Edirne
Edirne
Edirne
Edirne
28.
International Baccalaureate
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The International Baccalaureate, formerly known as the International Baccalaureate Organization, is an international educational foundation headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland and founded in 1968. To teach these programmes, schools need to be authorised by IB, the organizations name and logo were changed in 2007 to reflect a reorganisation. Consequently, IB may now refer to the organisation itself, any of the four programmes, when Marie-Thérèse Maurette wrote Educational Techniques for peace. In 1948, she created the framework for what would become the IB Diploma Programme. The IB headquarters were established in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1968 for the development. The IB Middle Years Programme was first offered in 1994, within five years,51 countries had MYP schools. A revised MYP programme was introduced in September 2014, the IB Career-related Programme was first offered in 2012. Alec Peterson was IBs first director general, followed by Gérard Renaud, Roger Peel, Derek Blackman, George Walker, Jeffrey Beard and Dr. Siva Kumari. As the IBs mission in action, the learner profile describes the aspirations of a global community that shares the values underlying the IBs educational philosophy. The IB learner profile describes the attributes and outcomes of education for international-mindedness, IB learners strive to be, Inquirers Knowledgeable Thinkers Communicators Principled Risk-takers Balanced Reflective All four programmes use the IB learner profile. The IB maintains its Foundation Office in Geneva, Switzerland, the Assessment Centre is located in Cardiff, Wales and the curriculum centre moved in 2011 to The Hague, Netherlands. Three Global Centres have been opened, Bethesda, Maryland in the United States, Singapore, in 2003, the IB established the IB Fund, incorporated in the United States, for the purpose of enhancing fundraising and keeping funds raised separate from operational funds. In 2004, the IB approved a plan to ensure that programmes and services are of the highest quality. In 2010 and 2015 the strategic plans were updated after substantial consultation, the vision for the next 5 years was to more consciously establish the IB as a leader in international education and the Board outlined a vision and four strategic goals with key strategic objective. The IB governance is composed of an IB Board of Governors, the structure of its different committees are based on respect, representation and collaboration. The Board of Governors can comprise between 15 and 25 members, members are elected by the Board on the recommendation of the governance committee, and from nominations presented from the Heads Council, Regional Councils and the Board. To encourage diversity of gender, culture and geography, there are only three ex officio positions, Director General, the chair of the Examining Board and the chair of the Heads Council. The IBDP was also featured in the summer 2002 edition of American Educator, in the USA, in 2006, as part of the American Competitiveness Initiative, President George W
International Baccalaureate
–
International Baccalaureate logo
29.
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
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The Grand National Assembly of Turkey, usually referred to simply as the TBMM or Parliament, is the unicameral Turkish legislature. It is the body given the legislative prerogatives by the Turkish Constitution. It was founded in Ankara on 23 April 1920 in the midst of the Turkish War of Independence. The parliament was fundamental in the efforts of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Turkey has had a history of parliamentary government before the establishment of the current national parliament. There were two parliamentary governments during the Ottoman period in what is now Turkey, the First Constitutional Era lasted for only two years, elections being held only twice. The Second Constitutional Era is considered to have begun on 23 July 1908, freedom to hold meetings and establish political parties was recognized, and the government was held responsible to the assembly, not to the sultan. During the two eras of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman parliament was called the General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire and was bicameral. The upper house was the Senate of the Ottoman Empire, the members of which were selected by the sultan, the lower chamber of the General Assembly was the Chamber of Deputies of the Ottoman Empire, the members of which were elected by the general public. After World War I, the victorious Allied Powers sought the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire through the Treaty of Sèvres, the political existence of the Turkish nation was to be completely eliminated under these plans, except for a small region. Nationalist Turkish sentiment rose in the Anatolian peninsula, engendering the establishment of the Turkish national movement, the political developments during this period have made a lasting impact which continues to affect the character of the Turkish nation. The Sultanate was abolished by the newly founded parliament in 1922 and he also stated that the members of the dispersed Ottoman Chamber of Deputies could also participate in the assembly in Ankara, to increase the representative power of the parliament. These elections were held as planned, in the style of the elections of the preceding Chamber of Deputies and this Grand National Assembly, established on national sovereignty, held its inaugural session on 23 April 1920. From this date until the end of the Turkish War of Independence in 1923, the Liberal Party was dissolved on 17 November 1930 and no further attempt at a multiparty democracy was made until 1945. The multi-party period in Turkey was resumed by the founding of the National Development Party, by Nuri Demirağ, under the constitution of 1961, the Grand National Assembly was a bicameral parliament with over 600 members, the newly established upper house being the Senate of the Republic. Following the 1980 military coup, the Senate was dissolved and the Turkish parliament again became unicameral under the current constitution approved in a referendum in 1982. To avoid a hung parliament and its political fragmentation, a party must win at least 10% of the national vote to qualify for representation in the parliament. As a result of this threshold, only two won seats in the legislature after the 2002 elections and three in 2007. The 2002 elections saw every party represented in the previous parliament ejected from the chamber and this rather high threshold has been internationally criticised, but a complaint with the European Court for Human Rights was turned down
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
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Grand National Assembly of Turkey Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
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President Atatürk and his colleagues leaving the building of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (today the Museum of the Republic) after a meeting for the seventh anniversary of the foundation of the
Republic of Turkey (1930).
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
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Eighteen
female deputies joined the
Turkish Parliament with the 1935 general elections
30.
Bosphorus University
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Boğaziçi University is a major research university located on the European side of the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul, Turkey. It has four faculties and two schools offering degrees, and six institutes offering graduate degrees. The language of instruction is English, founded in 1863, as Robert College, it is the first American higher education institution founded outside the United States. Though under entirely Turkish administration today, the university maintains strong ties to the American educational system. Boğaziçi University consistently ranks highest in Turkey, having the most number of applicants via the YGS-LYS Turkish university entrance examinations. This allows Boğaziçi University to attract many of the highest scoring students, as well as having the most preferred applied science, education, engineering, Boğaziçi University is the only Turkish university among first 200 universities worldwide according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2013-2014. Boğaziçi University also provides a liberal educational atmosphere and a program of extracurricular activities, in 1863, Robert College was founded in Bebek by Christopher Robert, a wealthy American and a philanthropist, and Cyrus Hamlin, a missionary devoted to education. The first building of the school was named Hamlin Hall in memory of Cyrus Hamlin, few years after the foundation of Robert College, in 1878, Christopher Robert died. According to the article, A Millionaires Will, published in New York Times, a College Catalog was compiled in 1878–1879, giving general information and an outline of the courses of study. After Hamlin, Robert College was administrated by George Washburn and Caleb Gates, Robert College, in the past had junior high school, high school, and university sections under the names Robert Academy, Robert Yüksek and American College for Girls. Since 1971, the school has functioned only as a school on its Arnavutköy campus. The Bebek campus and academic staff were turned over to the Republic of Turkey for use as Boğaziçi University, through the education of succeeding generations of students, Robert College has assisted the economic and social progress in the Near East. It has also brought direct benefits to several generations of Americans—faculty members, trustees, students, contributors, I send my cordial congratulations to the officers and friends of Robert College on the century of service you are so deservedly celebrating. Boğaziçi University operates on six campuses in Istanbul, four of these campuses are close to each other and located on a hill in the affluent district of Bebek on the European side of Istanbul, overlooking the Bosphorus. The Kennedy Lodge, named after John F. Kennedy, is located at the South Campus and operates as a facility for visiting professors. The Kandilli Campus is right across from the shore, located on the Asian side of Istanbul and hosts the Kandilli Observatory, the newest campus is in Kilyos on the Black Sea coast and hosts a private beach. South Campus is the most popular campus among students and the visitors alike, every spring, in the end of May, international sport fests are held at the South Campus and other venues of Bogazici University. Usually, around 300 to 800 students come from all over the world to participate in tournaments and have fun together
Bosphorus University
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Robert College 1880
Bosphorus University
–
Boğaziçi University
Bosphorus University
–
The Faculty of Arts and Sciences
Bosphorus University
31.
SantralIstanbul
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The SantralIstanbul, opened in 2007, is an arts and cultural complex located at the upper end of Golden Horn in the Eyüp district of Istanbul, Turkey. The site is named after the Turkish word santral for power plant, the redevelopment plan was an idea of Oğuz Özerden, a young businessman and founder of Istanbul Bilgi University. The related protocol foreseeing the transfer for a 20-years term was signed on May 1,2004 at the Khedive Palace in Istanbul, however, the Ministry of Energy preferred the project of Istanbul Bilgi University. The cost of the project exceeded US$45m, far more than the budgeted US$30m, han Tümertekin joined the team for the design work on the energy museum. The architectural work was completed in three years, recently, some parts of the complex are still under construction. SantralIstanbuls preliminary opening was held on July 17,2007 in presence of Prime Minister Erdoğan, three foreign exhibitions were on the show. Visiting hours during this period were limited between 19.00 through 23.00 hours due to ongoing works at the site. The official opening took place on September 8,2007 and it is expected that around 1.5 million people will visit SantralIstanbul. Former directors were Serhan Ada and Kerim Goknel, from the beginning of 2012 the complex is running by Istanbul Bilgi University Board. The Modern art museum, with 7,000 m² floorspace, the reinforced concrete buildings have steel and glass exteriors, and are five stories high. The two buildings are connected with a glass passage, the galleries are separated with mobile drywalls in gray and white matching the colors of rust and brown. They can be used also as a projection screen, today, the building is no longer an art museum, it has been transformed into an educational complex filled with classrooms. The facility, the biggest library in Turkey, will be able to serve around 1,000 people at the same time, a new building is planned for multi-purpose halls, which is still in-planning state. Four blocks of buildings with two or three floors are constructed in a simple structure not to outdo the functional buildings surrounding. The design is devoted to the footsteps of the old buildings, but today the residency program is no longer available. There are three cafes in the center, a chain restaurant called Otto Santral turns into a discothèque in the late night hours and also hosts different events and live music. But after the new regulations on alcohol, Otto had to close down, today the same space hosts a new restaurant called Papaz, which doesnt serve alcohol. A shuttle bus service free of charge is provided for the visitors departing from Kabatas pier, Trump Shopping Mall, address, Eski Silahtarağa Elektrik Santrali Silahtar Mah
SantralIstanbul
–
SantralIstanbul exterior
SantralIstanbul
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Energy museum - Control room
32.
Istanbul Bilgi University
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Istanbul Bilgi University is a university in Istanbul, Turkey, privately owned by US-based Laureate Education, which is a for-profit college corporation. The Bilgi Education and Culture Foundation was founded on October 31,1994, the school has three campuses in Istanbul. The university has graduated approximately 30,000 students, Istanbul Bilgi University opened in earnest in 1996. The university provides a liberal arts and business-economics oriented curriculum in Turkey, Istanbul Bilgi University joined Laureate International Universities in 2006 and is one of the largest private universities in the country. Bilgi is administrated by a Board of Trustees having nine members, the main responsibilities of the board are to select the rector of Bilgi University, to determine the goals and strategic direction of the University, and to approve the annual budget. In practice, part of responsibility is delegated by the rector to other departments of the administration, to the faculty. Istanbul Bilgi University is a member of the European University Association, the International Association of Universities, in 2010, Recep Erdogan was awarded an honorary degree by one of Bilgis sister schools in Spain, Universidad Europea de Madrid. The same year, Samil Erdogan became the administrator of Bilgis International Center, on October 2,2010, US President Bill Clinton also presented a speech to hundreds of students at Bilgi University. Bilgis Dolapdere campus received the 2002 Structure and Life Architecture Award, located in ten minutes away from Taksim, the heart of art scene, social activities and city life. It hosts the faculty of Law along with other faculties divided between Santral Campus. It is the home to Bilgis swimming team, having state of art gym and this campus is located in Şişli district, the center of İstanbul and the business life. The campus is dedicated to English preparatory school having mostly international staff. Students at Bilgi are represented by a Student Union elected by the students each year during the fall semester, the union has the right to interfere in various issues regarding the school. Academic representatives from each department, elected by the students in the semester, are also a part of the union. Bilgi has three libraries, one in the Dolapdere campus, one in the Kuştepe campus, and one in the SantralIstanbul campus, Bilgi Library offers an extensive system to support university degree programs, research and teaching. The virtual library contains more than 25.000 electronic books,23.000 electronic journals,37 electronic databases, access to these resources is available over internet, on-campus and off-campus. Sik and Nedim Şener reported on human rights committed by the military. A prosecutor accused Stephenson of making propaganda of a terror organisation because there were messages and pictures aimed at making PKK propaganda, in June 2016, Communications Professor Zeynep Sayın Balıkçıoğlu was fired for allegedly speaking insultingly about Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan. History Professor Christoph K. Neumann resigned after his colleague’s dismissal and it is your responsibility to find an appropriate name for that institution, but Bilgi is no longer a university”
Istanbul Bilgi University
–
Istanbul Bilgi University
33.
Ankara
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Ankara, formerly known as Ancyra and Angora, is the capital of the Republic of Turkey. With a population of 4,587,558 in the center and 5,150,072 in its province. Ankara was Atatürks headquarters from 1920 and has been the capital of the Republic since its founding in 1923, the government is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city, located at the center of Turkeys road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the Angora wool shorn from Angora rabbits, the long-haired Angora goat, the area is also known for its pears, honey, and muscat grapes. Ankara is an old city with various Hittite, Phrygian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine. The historical center of town is a hill rising 150 m over the left bank of the Ankara Çayı, a tributary of the Sakarya River. The hill remains crowned by the ruins of the old citadel, as with many ancient cities, Ankara has gone by several names over the ages. It has been identified with the Hittite cult center Ankuwaš, although remains a matter of debate. In classical antiquity and during the period, the city was known as Ánkyra in Greek and Ancyra in Latin. Following its annexation by the Seljuk Turks in 1073, the city known in many European languages as Angora. The form Angora is preserved in the names of breeds of different kinds of animals. The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the Hattic civilization which existed during the Bronze Age and was gradually absorbed c, 2000–1700 BC by the Indo-European Hittites. In Phrygian tradition, King Midas was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but Pausanias mentions that the city was far older. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great who conquered the city in 333 BC, Alexander came from Gordion to Ankara and stayed in the city for a short period. After his death at Babylon in 323 BC and the subsequent division of his empire among his generals, Ankara, by that time the city also took its name Ἄγκυρα which, in slightly modified form, provides the modern name of Ankara. Other centers were Pessinos, todays Balhisar, for the Trocmi tribe, the city was then known as Ancyra. The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers, an aristocracy which ruled over Phrygian-speaking peasants. However, the Celtic language continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries
Ankara
–
From top to bottom and left to right:
Atatürk's Mausoleum,
Kızılay Square,
Kocatepe Mosque, A general view of the city centre,
Atakule Tower and
Ulus Square.
Ankara
Ankara
–
Alaca Höyük bronze standard on display at the
Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara.
Ankara
–
The
Dying Galatian was a famous statue commissioned some time between 230–220 BC by King
Attalos I of
Pergamon to honor his victory over the
Celtic Galatians in
Anatolia. Roman marble copy of a
Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BC, at the
Capitoline Museums, Rome.
34.
Middle East Technical University
–
Middle East Technical University is a public technical university located in Ankara, Turkey. The main campus of METU spans an area of 11,100 acres, comprising, in addition to academic and auxiliary facilities, a forest area of 7,500 acres, METU has more than 120,000 alumni worldwide. The official language of instruction at METU is English, over 40% of METUs undergraduate alumni choose to pursue graduate studies. Arrangements and Procedures as for the Foundation of METU, Law No 6213 was enacted on January 22,1957, finally, the Foundation Act No 7907, setting forth the particular standing of METU and establishing it as a juridical entity, was enacted on May 27,1959. In 1963, the university moved to its current location west of Ankara city center, in 1956, the Department of Architecture initiated the first academic program at METU, followed by the Department of Mechanical Engineering in the spring of 1957. At the start of the 1957–1958 academic year, the Faculty of Architecture, the Faculty of Engineering, in 1959, the establishment of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences was completed. The Faculty of Education launched its program in 1982. METU has 42 academic departments, most of which are organized into 5 faculties and these are responsible for the undergraduate programs. The 5 graduate schools present in METU are responsible for the graduate programs, a further 1,500 students are attending programs in the new Northern Cyprus Campus. Over 40% of METUs students go on to graduate school, as of 2010, the university employs 2,500 faculty,500 academic instructors, and over 2,000 research assistants. The number of the alumni exceeds 500,000. 1% of the nearly 1.5 million applicants, the QS World University Rankings 2010 by Quacquarelli Symonds ranked METU as 185th worldwide in the field of engineering and technology, and as 333th in the field of natural sciences. The language of instruction at METU is English, all enrolled students are required to have a degree of proficiency in English for academic purposes, and this is assured by a proficiency examination before the commence of studies. Students with unsatisfactory knowledge of English follow a preparatory English education for one year, two exceptions instructed in Turkish are the Turkish language and the history of Turkish revolution courses mandated by the Council of Higher Education. Researchers from METU actively take part in many COST, EUREKA, NASA, NATO, NSF, UN, World Bank, Jean Monnet, Erasmus Mundus, Leonardo and SOCRATES projects. METU has been involved in 56 European Union 6th Framework Programme projects, within the 7th Framework Programme,33 research projects involve participation of METU, since 2007. As of 2010, METU has 19 international joint degree programmes with European and American universities at the undergraduate and graduate levels. METU is a member of associations and networks dealing with international education and exchange, including EUA, EAIE, IIE, GE3, SEFI. The university also participates in AIESEC and IAESTE summer internship programs
Middle East Technical University
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Bust of
Albert Einstein, one in a series of influential scientists' busts on the METU main campus.
Middle East Technical University
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Middle East Technical University
Middle East Technical University
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Part of METU campus. METU Stadium, a portion of dormitories in the background.
Middle East Technical University
–
An auditorium in METU.
35.
Music school
–
A music school is an educational institution specialized in the study, training and research of music. Such an institution can also be known as a school of music, music academy, music faculty, college of music, music department, Music instruction can be provided within the compulsory general education system, or within specialized childrens music schools such as the Purcell School. Elementary-school children can access music instruction also in after-school institutions such as music academies or music schools, in Venezuela El Sistema of youth orchestras provides free after-school instrumental instruction through music schools called núcleos. In other parts of Europe, the equivalents of higher school of music or university of music may be used, although music and music education may have been in existence for thousands of years, the earliest history is speculative. Even when history starts to be recorded, music is mentioned more frequently than music education. Within the biblical tradition, Hebrew litany was accompanied with music, but the Torah or Pentateuch was silent on the practice and instruction of music in the early life of Israel. ”This has led some scholars to believe that the prophet Samuel was the patriarch of a school which taught not only prophets and holy men. The schola cantorum in Rome may be the first recorded school in history. The school consisted of monks, secular clergy, and boys, wells Cathedral School, England founded as a Cathedral School in 909 a. d. to educate choristers, continues today to educate choristers and teaches instrumentalists. However the school appears to have been refounded at least once, Saint Martial school, 10th to 12th century, was an important school of composition at the Abbey of Saint Martial, Limoges. It is known for the composition of tropes, sequences, in this respect, it was an important precursor to the Notre Dame School. It was the Notre Dame school which was the earliest repertory of polyphonic music to gain international prestige, the school was a group of composers and singers working under the patronage of the great Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris. First records on Escolania de Montserrat, boys choir linked to a school, back to 1307. The Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia is one of the oldest musical institutions in the world, the term conservatory has its origin in 16th-century Renaissance Italy, where orphanages were attached to hospitals. The orphans were given an education there, and the term gradually applied to music schools. These hospitals-conservatories were among the first secular institutions equipped for training in music. By the 18th century, Italian conservatories were already playing a role in the training of artists. In the city of Naples, a conservatorio was strictly a secular place for teaching and learning specializing in music education. The second half of the 19th century saw the network expanding to the Americas, Rio de Janeiro, Boston, Baltimore and Chicago, Havana, and Buenos Aires
Music school
–
Graduates of the
Rimsky-Korsakov Saint Petersburg Conservatory include
Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky,
Sergey Prokofiev,
Dmitri Shostakovich, and
George Balanchine.
Music school
–
Based around the Notre Dame Cathedral, the
Notre Dame School was an important centre of polyphonic music.
Music school
–
Musikgymnasium Schloss Belvedere is a specialist music school in Germany
Music school
–
300 children attend the
Royal College of Music 's Junior Department
36.
Socrates programme
–
The SOCRATES programme was an educational initiative of the European Commission,31 countries took part. The initial Socrates programme ran from 1994 until 31 December 1999 when it was replaced by the Socrates II programme on 24 January 2000 and this, in turn, was replaced by the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. The countries participating in the programme were the then 25 European Union countries, the programme is named after the Greek philosopher Socrates. The Erasmus programme – relating to higher, the Grundtvig programme – relating to adult education. The Lingua programme – relating to education in European languages, the Minerva programme – relating to information and communication technology in education. Below is a short list of funded projects, ARGuing for Multilingual Motivation in Web 2.0. Autonomous Language Learning The Autonomous Language Learning project, is building Blended Learning language courses in four European languages, chain Stories project Young students, in their first year of language learning, can complete creative writing in their mother tongue. They then pass on their story to other schools, within a chain, Tool Project Tool for Online and Offline Language Learning project is building Blended Learning language courses in five European languages. Dont Give Up Motivating adult language learners to complete language courses, lullabies of Europe Collecting the lullabies of Europe to use as a very early learning language resource. Grammar Explorer Main page at europa. eu FAQ
Socrates programme
–
Socrates
37.
Erasmus programme
–
The Erasmus Programme is a European Union student exchange programme established in 1990. Erasmus+, or Erasmus Plus, is the new programme combining all the EUs current schemes for education, training, youth and sport, the Erasmus Programme, together with a number of other independent programmes, was incorporated into the Socrates programme established by the European Commission in 1994. At the same time, ERASMUS is a backronym meaning European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students, by the time the Erasmus Programme was adopted in June 1987, the European Commission had been supporting pilot student exchanges for 6 years. This method of voting was not accepted by some of the opposing Member States, in 2006, over 150,000 students, or almost 1% of the European student population, took part. The proportion is higher among university teachers, where Erasmus teacher mobility is 1. 9% of the population in Europe. In the past twenty years, over two million students have benefited from Erasmus grants, and the European Commission aims to reach a total of 3 million by 2012. The Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013 replaced the Socrates programme as the umbrella under which the Erasmus programmes operate from 2007. The Erasmus Mundus programme is another, parallel programme that is oriented towards globalising European education, whereas the Erasmus Programme is open to Europeans, Erasmus Mundus is open to non-Europeans with Europeans being exceptional cases. On 9 May 2012, Fraternité2020 was registered as Europes first European Citizens Initiative and its goal was to increase the budget for EU exchange programmes like Erasmus or the European Voluntary Service from 2014. To be successful it would have needed 1 million signatures by 1 November 2013 and it ultimately collected only 71,057 signatures from citizens across the EU. Erasmus+, also called Erasmus Plus, is the new 14.7 billion euro catch-all framework programme for education, training, youth, the Erasmus+ regulation was signed on 11 December 2013. In 2012-13 alone,270,000 took part, the most popular destinations being Spain, Germany, Erasmus students represented 5 percent of European graduates as of 2012. A number of studies have raised issues related to the selection into the programme, such studies have raised doubts about the inclusiveness of the programme, by socio-economic background, level of study, or academic performance. Other study argues that the reason why the Erasmus programme misses its mark to reinforce a European identity is that it addresses university students, who are already very likely to feel European. The Erasmus Programme had previously restricted to applicants who had completed at least one year of tertiary-level study. Students who join the Erasmus Programme study at least 3 months or do an internship for a period of at least 2 months to a year in another European country. The Erasmus Programme guarantees that the period spent abroad is recognised by their university when they come back, Switzerland has been suspended as a participant in the Erasmus programme as of 2015, following the popular vote to limit the immigration of EU citizens into Switzerland. As a consequence, Swiss students will not be able to apply for the programme, a main part of the programme is that students do not pay extra tuition fees to the university that they visit
Erasmus programme
–
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam
Erasmus programme
–
Logo of the Erasmus Programme
38.
European Commission
–
Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
European Commission
–
President
Delors, one of the most notable presidents in the Commission's history
European Commission
–
European Commission
European Commission
–
Incumbent
President Juncker
European Commission
–
Floor 13 of the Berlaymont, Commission's meeting room
39.
European Union
–
The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
European Union
–
In 1989, the
Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to
expand further (
Berlin Wall pictured).
European Union
–
Flag
European Union
–
2009, the
Lisbon Treaty entered into force.
European Union
–
The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates the European climate (
Cyprus).
40.
European Economic Area
–
The EEA was established on 1 January 1994 upon entry into force of the EEA Agreement. The EEA Agreement specifies that membership is open to member states of either the European Union or European Free Trade Association, EFTA states which are party to the EEA Agreement participate in the EUs internal market without being members of the EU. They adopt most EU legislation concerning the single market, however with notable exclusions including laws regarding agriculture, the EEAs decision-shaping processes enable EEA EFTA member states to influence and contribute to new EEA policy and legislation from an early stage. Third country goods are excluded for these states on rules of origin, membership has grown to 31 states as of 2016,28 EU member states, as well as three of the four member states of the EFTA. The Agreement is applied provisionally with respect to Croatia—the remaining and most recent EU member state—pending ratification of its accession by all EEA parties. One EFTA member, Switzerland, has not joined the EEA, in the late 1980s, the EFTA member states, led by Sweden, began looking at options to join the then European Communities. The reasons identified for this are manifold, many authors cite the economic downturn in the beginning of the 1980s, and the subsequent adoption by the European Union of the Europe 1992 agenda as a primary reason. Other authors point to the end of the Cold War, which joining the EU less politically controversial for neutral countries. Delors proposed a European Economic Space in January 1989, which was renamed the European Economic Area. By the time the EEA was established, however, several developments hampered its credibility, first of all, Switzerland rejected the EEA agreement in a national referendum on 6 December 1992 obstructing full EU-EFTA integration within the EEA. Furthermore, Austria had applied for full EEC membership in 1989, and was followed by Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland between 1991 and 1992. The EEA Agreement was signed in Porto on 2 May 1992 by the seven states of the European Free Trade Association. Switzerland is instead linked to the EU by a series of bilateral agreements, liechtensteins participation in the EEA was delayed until 1 May 1995. As of 2014 the contracting parties to the EEA are 3 of the 4 EFTA member states and 27 of the 28 EU member states, after Slovenia, Croatia has recovered best from the break-up of the former Yugoslavia and is the second former Yugoslav state to join the EU. According to Eurostat, Croatia has a market economy and its GDP per capita in 2010 was 61 per cent of the EU average. EU accession negotiations were concluded on 30 June 2011, and the Treaty of Accession was signed on 9 December 2011 in Brussels, Accession negotiations were expected to be completed by the autumn of 2013, and on 20 November 2013 it was announced that an enlargement agreement was reached. As of January 2017, the agreement has been ratified by 15 out of 31 EEA member states, the agreement did not fully enter into force until 9 November 2011. On the other hand, the EEA Agreement was applied on a basis to the 10 acceding countries in May 2004 as from the date of their accession to the EU
European Economic Area
41.
Rector (academia)
–
A rector is a term used in non-English-speaking countries for a university chancellor. In the sphere of academia, it is the highest academic official of universities and in certain other institutions of higher education. The term and office of a rector are called a rectorate, the title is used widely in universities in Europe. And is very common in Latin American countries and it is also used in Brunei, Turkey, Russia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Israel and the Middle East. In some universities, the title is phrased in an even loftier manner and this term is generally not used in English-speaking countries. In England and elsewhere in Great Britain, the head of a university is referred to as a chancellor. This pattern has been followed in the Commonwealth, the United States, in Scotland, many universities are headed by a chancellor, with the Lord Rector designated as an elected representative of students at the head of the university court. The head of a university in Germany is called a president, rector magnificus or rectrix magnifica, in Dutch universities, the rector magnificus is the most publicly prominent member of the board, responsible for the scientific agenda of the university. In the Netherlands, the rector is, however, not the chair of the university board, the chair has, in practice, the most influence over the management of the University. In some countries, including Germany, the position of teacher in secondary schools is also designated as rector. In the Netherlands, the rector and conrector are used commonly for high school directors. This is also the case in some Maltese secondary schools, in the Scandinavian countries, the head of a university or a gymnasium is called a rektor. In Sweden and Norway, this term is used for the heads of primary schools. For example, in Portugal, the rector of the University of Coimbra, the heads of Czech universities are called the rektor. The rector acts in the name of the university and decides the universitys affairs unless prohibited by law, the rector is nominated by the University Academic Senate and appointed by the President of the Czech Republic. The nomination must be agreed by a majority of all senators. The vote to elect or repeal a rector is secret, the term of office is four years and a person may hold it for at most two consecutive terms. The rector appoints vice-rectors, who act as deputies to the extent the Rector determines, Rectors salaries are determined directly by the Minister of Education
Rector (academia)
–
Inauguration of Rector Lubomír Dvořák (
Palacký University)
Rector (academia)
–
Colonnade at the reconstructed
Yushima Seidō in Tokyo. The hereditary rectors of this
Edo period institution were selected from the
Hayashi clan.
Rector (academia)
–
Herminio Dagohoy, the 96th Rector Magnificus of the
Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, Manila
42.
President of Turkey
–
The President of the Republic of Turkey is the head of state of the Republic of Turkey. The Presidency is largely a ceremonial office but has important functions. The articles from 101 to 106 of the Constitution establish all the requirements, election, duties, the office of the President of Turkey was established with the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey on October 29,1923. The President of Turkey is often referred to as the Cumhurbaşkanı. The current office-holder is the 12th President, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan since August 28,2014, in order to become the President of Turkey, the candidate must have completed higher education, and be at least forty years of age. The president-elect has to sever his relations, if any, with his political party, candidates must be declared to the bureau of the parliament within the first 10 days of this period, and elections must be completed within the remaining 20 days. Formerly, the President was elected by the members of the Turkish Parliament, according to an amendment that was drafted in 2007, the future Presidents shall be elected by the citizens through a public vote. The candidates must be over forty years old and must have completed their higher education and they can either be members of the Turkish Parliament, or common Turkish citizens who fulfill these requirements and who are eligible to become members of parliament. The President is selected for a term of office of five years, the term of office of the incumbent president continues until the President-elect takes office. The president performs also the duties of selection and appointment, and other duties conferred by the constitution, thus the prime minister and the concerned ministers are accountable for these decrees. The decisions and orders signed by the president on his own initiatives may not be appealed against to any judicial authority, including the Constitutional Court
President of Turkey
–
President
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan during a meeting, with the
presidential seal and
Turkish flag
President of Turkey
–
Presidential Standard
President of Turkey
–
The official Seal of the Presidency, used on documents.
43.
Galatasaray High School
–
Galatasaray High School is one of the most influential high schools in modern Turkey. Established in 1481, it is the oldest high school in Turkey, being an Anatolian High School, access to the school is open to students with a high Nationwide High School Entrance score. Education consists of a blend of Turkish and French curricula and is provided in both languages, the association football club Galatasaray S. K. was formed by and named after the institution. The footballers consisted entirely of students of the school during the formative years. Galatasaray High School is the progenitor of Galatasaray Community, which includes the club, its parent Galatasaray Sports Club. The history of Galatasaray High School dates back to 1481, the high school was first built in Beyoğlu and called Galata Sarayı Enderun-u Hümayunu. Bayezid II founded the Galata Sarayı Enderun-u Hümayunu in 1481, known as the peaceful Sultan, he revived the city of Istanbul after the conquest of 1453. Bayezid II often roamed the city, disguised as an ordinary citizen, legend has it that on one of these rambles, he found a garden near Galata filled with beautiful red and yellow roses. In this garden, he met Gül Baba, the Sultan asked the wise man about how to improve the Empire and the city as they filled with a range of immigrants. He told the Sultan he would be proud to serve as a teacher in school in order to create a generation of valuable subjects to the Empire. Gül Baba became the first headmaster of Galatasaray and administered the school for many years and he died during the Ottoman raid to Hungary and his tomb is located near Budapest. When the Ottoman army went to war, dervishes and minstrels accompanied it to provide religious prayers, dervishes and minstrels also armed themselves and joined the fighting whenever necessary. Gül Baba was one of these dervishes, janissaries were fond of the dervishes of the Bektashi Order, since they regarded Haji Bektash as their convents chief. German historian Theodor Menzel suggests that Gül Babas name was a nickname, Galata Palace Imperial School remained open until the 1830s, when the movement of reform and reorganization abolished the Ottoman Empires old establishment. Sultan Mahmud II replaced the Imperial School with the Ottoman Medical School, the Medical School was based at the Galata Palace buildings for some thirty years. Sultan Abdülaziz was the first Ottoman sultan to travel to Europe, invited by Napoleon III, in June–July 1867 he attended the World Exhibition in Paris. He then visited Queen Victoria in London, Wilhelm I in Prussia, in September 1868, influenced by the French Lycée model, a school was established under the name Lycée Impérial Ottoman de Galata-Sérai. French was the language of instruction, and many teachers were European
Galatasaray High School
–
First logo of GSL
Galatasaray High School
–
Galatasaray High School
Galatasaray High School
–
Second logo of GSL
Galatasaray High School
–
GS High School in winter
44.
Lausanne Treaty
–
The Treaty of Lausanne was a peace treaty signed in Lausanne, Switzerland, on 24 July 1923. The original text of the treaty is in French, the Treaty of Lausanne ended the conflict and defined the borders of the modern Turkish Republic. In the treaty, Turkey gave up all claims to the remainder of the Ottoman Empire and in return the Allies recognized Turkish sovereignty within its new borders. The treaty was ratified by Turkey on 23 August 1923, Greece on 25 August 1923, Italy on 12 March 1924, Japan on 15 May 1924, Great Britain on 16 July 1924. The treaty came into force on 6 August 1924, when the instruments of ratification had been deposited in Paris. Negotiations were undertaken during the Conference of Lausanne, where İsmet İnönü was the negotiator for Turkey. Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Secretary of that time, was the negotiator for the Allies. On 20 November 1922, the conference was opened and after strenuous debate was interrupted by Turkish protest on 4 February 1923. After reopening on 23 April, and following protests by the Turks and tense debates. The Allied delegation included negotiators such as U. S. Admiral Mark L. Bristol, the treaty was composed of 143 articles with major sections including, Convention on the Turkish Straits Trade Agreements Binding letters. The treaty provided for the independence of the Republic of Turkey but also for the protection of the Greek Orthodox Christian minority in Turkey and the Muslim minority in Greece. Turkey also formally accepted the loss of Cyprus as well as Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan to the British Empire, the fate of the province of Mosul was left to be determined through the League of Nations. However, the definition of Turkeys southern border in Article 3 also meant that Turkey officially ceded them and these territories included Yemen, Asir and parts of Hejaz like the city of Medina. They were held by Turkish forces until 23 January 1919, Turkey officially ceded Adakale Island in River Danube to Romania with Articles 25 and 26 of the Treaty of Lausanne, by formally recognizing the related provisions in the Treaty of Trianon of 1920. Due to a diplomatic irregularity at the 1878 Congress of Berlin, the United States Senate refused to ratify the treaty, and consequently Turkey annulled the concession. The Treaty of Lausanne led to the recognition of the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey as the successor state of the defunct Ottoman Empire. The Convention on the Turkish Straits lasted only thirteen years and was replaced with the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits in 1936, the customs limitations in the treaty were shortly reworked. Political amnesty was applied to the 150 personae non gratae of Turkey who slowly acquired citizenship — the last one was in 1974
Lausanne Treaty
Lausanne Treaty
–
Borders of Turkey set by the Treaty of Lausanne
45.
Cram school
–
Cram schools or as a whole, crammers, are specialized schools that train their students to meet particular goals, most commonly to pass the entrance examinations of high schools or universities. The English name is derived from the slang term cramming, meaning to study hard or to study a large amount of material in a period of time. Cram schools often specialize in a subject or subjects. Special cram schools that students who have failed their entrance examinations to take them the following year are also common. In extreme cases, such students may spend up to eighteen hours a day studying to retake their tests, students who attend regular after-school cram schools may study for four hours or more. As the name suggests, the aim of a school is generally to impart as much information to its students as possible in the shortest period of time. The goal is to enable the students to pass, or obtain a grade in. Cram schools are sometimes criticized, along with the countries in which they are prevalent, for a lack of training in critical thinking and analysis. Cram schools are referred to largely as coaching colleges, they are used primarily to achieve the results for the entrance exam for selective schools in New South Wales. They are also used extensively in mathematics courses for the Higher School Certificate, in Bangladesh, Cram Schools are known as Coaching Centers and to some extent Tutorials. Most cram schools provide help for admission tests of public universities and medical colleges, and public examinations like SSC, there are also some variants which have entered the market of ever increasing help seekers. For example, cram schools now also prepare students for language tests like IELTS and TOEFL, aptitude tests like GRE, GMAT, SAT, in recent years cram schools have also been extended to the tests for government civil services like BCS Examination. Cram schools are called Cursinhos in Brazil and are attended by students who will be taking an exam to be admitted into a university. Cram schools are called Preuniversitarios in Chile and are attended by students to revise before taking PSU in order to get onto undergraduate studies, Cram schools are popular in China due to the importance of standardized exams, such as, High school entrance exam. The National Higher Education Entrance Examination, or Gaokao, mandatory for college admission, passing the College English Test band 4 and 6 is sometimes a prerequisite for bachelors degree, and the certificates are often important to finding employment. The TOEFL and GRE tests from ETS are required for studying abroad in English-speaking countries, Entrance exams to domestic graduate program. Over recent years the competition has intensified, partially because many new college graduates fail to find satisfactory jobs, mainland China has a test-driven system. Education departments give entrance examinations to sort students into schools of different levels, examinations like the National Higher Education Entrance Examination are vital, deciding the academic future of the participants
Cram school
–
Taiwanese students studying English in an evening cram school
46.
Ince Minaret Medrese
–
İnce Minareli Medrese is a 13th-century medrese located in Konya, Turkey, now housing the Museum of Stone and Wood Art. Built between 1258-1279 by the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate vizier Sâhib Ata Fahreddin Ali who later founded the Anatolian beylik of Sâhib Ata, the building has a highly ornamented stone façade which includes relief work of scripts, geometric patterning and vertical ribbon-like lines. The entrance is surrounded by a band of elegant Thuluth, depicting Sura 36, the minaret was damaged by lightning in 1901, and was restored in 1956. The building now houses a museum of stone and wooden objects dating from the Seljuk, many pictures from the Ince Minaret museum
Ince Minaret Medrese
–
İnce Minareli Medrese, front facade.
Ince Minaret Medrese
–
The highly ornamented stone façade of the entrance of the İnce Minareli Medrese.
47.
Konya
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Konya is a major city in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey. It is the city in Turkey. As of 2014, Konya has a population of 1,174,536, Konya is an economically and industrially developed city and the capital of Konya Province. Konya was historically the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, Konya, was known in classical antiquity and during the medieval period as Ἰκόνιον in Greek and as Iconium in Latin. In some historic English texts, the name appears as Konia or Koniah. Excavations have shown that the region was inhabited during the Late Copper Age, the city came under the influence of the Hittites around 1500 BC. These were overtaken by the Sea Peoples around 1200 BC, the Phrygians established their kingdom in central Anatolia in the 8th century BC. Xenophon describes Iconium, as the city was called, as the last city of Phrygia, the region was overwhelmed by Cimmerian invaders c.690 BC. It was later part of the Persian Empire, until Darius III was defeated by Alexander the Great in 333 BC, alexanders empire broke up shortly after his death and the town came under the rule of Seleucus I Nicator. During the Hellenistic period the town was ruled by the kings of Pergamon, as Attalus III, the last king of Pergamon, was about to die without an heir, he bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic. During the Roman Empire, under the rule of emperor Claudius, the name was changed to Claudioconium. They fled to Lystra and Derbe, cities of Lycaonia, Paul recalled this experience in his second letter to Timothy, Albert Barnes therefore suggesting that Timothy had been present with Paul in Iconium, Antioch and Lystra. The city became the seat of a bishop, which in ca.370 was raised to the status of a metropolitan see for Lycaonia, with Saint Amphilochius as the first metropolitan bishop. In Christian legend, based on the apocryphal Acts of Paul and Thecla, Iconium was also the birthplace of Saint Thecla, under the Byzantine Empire, the city was part of the Anatolic Theme. During the 8th–10th centuries, the town and the nearby Kabala Fortress were a frequent target of Arab attacks as part of the Arab–Byzantine wars, the city was finally conquered by the Seljuks in 1084. From 1097 to 1243 it was the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and it was briefly occupied by the Crusaders Godfrey of Bouillon, and Frederick Barbarossa after the Battle of Iconium. The area was retaken by the Turks, the name of the town was changed to Konya by Mesud I in 1134. This golden age lasted until the first decades of the 13th century, by the 1220s, the city of Konya was filled with refugees from the Khwarezmid Empire
Konya
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Konya
Konya
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Hercules Sarcophagus (ca. 250–260 AD) at the
Konya Archaeological Museum
Konya
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Ince Minaret Medrese (1279) in Konya
Konya
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Established in 1273, the
Sufi Mevlevi Order and its
Whirling Dervishes are among the renowned symbols of Konya and Turkey.
48.
Erzurum
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Erzurum is a city in eastern Turkey. It is the largest city in, and the capital of and it is situated 1757 meters above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 361,235 in the 2000 census, Erzurum, known as The Rock in NATO code, served as NATOs southeastern-most air force post during the Cold War. The city uses the double-headed Anatolian Seljuk Eagle as its coat-of-arms, a motif that was a symbol throughout Anatolia. Erzurum has some of the finest winter sports facilities in Turkey, the city was originally known in Armenian as Karno Kaghak, meaning city of Karin, to distinguish it from the district of Karin. After the Arab conquest of Armenia, the city was known to the Arabs as Kālīkalā, during Roman times, Erzurum was named Theodosiopolis. It got its present name after its conquest by the Seljuks following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, a neighboring commercial city named Artsn was heavily sacked by the Seljuk Turks in 1048-49. Its Armenian, Syrian, and other Christian inhabitants moved to Theodosiopolis, some older sources derive the name Erzurum from the Arabic Arḍ-ar-Rūm land of the Rûm. The surroundings of Erzurum at the Urartian period presumably belonged to Diauehi, later, Erzurum existed under the Armenian name of Karin. During the reigns of the Artaxiad and Arsacid kings of Armenia, after the partition of Armenia between the Eastern Roman Empire and Sassanid Persia in 387 AD, the city passed into the hands of the Romans. They fortified the city and renamed it Theodosiopolis, after Emperor Theodosius I, emperors Anastasius I and Justinian I both refortified the city and built new defenses during their reigns. Theodosiopolis was conquered by the Umayyad general Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik in 700/701 and it became the capital of the emirate of Ḳālīḳalā and was used as a base for raids into Byzantine territory. Though only an island of Arab power within Christian Armenian-populated territory, in 931, and again in 949, Byzantine forces led by Theophilos Kourkouas, grandfather of the future emperor John I Tzimiskes, captured Theodosiopolis. Its Arab population was expelled and the city was resettled by Greeks, Emperor Basil II rebuilt the city and its defenses in 1018 with the help of the local Armenian population. In 1071, after the battle at Manzikert, the Seljuk Turks took possession of Theodosiopolis. The Saltukids were rulers of an Anatolian beylik centered in Erzurum, melike Mama Hatun, sister of Nâsırüddin Muhammed, was the ruler between 1191 and 1200. Theodosiopolis repelled many attacks and military campaigns by the Seljuks and Georgians until 1201 when the city, erzen-Erzurum fell to the Mongol siege in 1242, and the city was looted and devastated. Then became part of the beylik, Black Sheep Turkmen, empire of Timur Lenk
Erzurum
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Top left:
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha Mosque, Top right: Erzurum Poolside, Middle left: Cumhuriyet avenue, Top right: Statue of
Nene Hatun, Bottom left:
Kiremitliktepe Ski Jump, Bottom right: The Statue of Liberty in Erzurum
Erzurum
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The
Seljuk era
Çifte Minareli Medrese (Twin
Minaret Madrasa) is the symbol of the city and appears on its
coat of arms.
Erzurum
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Seljuk
stone carving on the Yakutiye Medrese, 13th century
Erzurum
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Photograph by
W. L. Sachtleben showing Armenian victims of a massacre in Erzurum on October 30, 1895 being gathered for burial in a mass grave.
49.
Mimar Sinan
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Koca Mimâr Sinân Âğâ was the chief Ottoman architect and civil engineer for sultans Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III. He was responsible for the construction of more than 300 major structures and other more modest projects and his apprentices would later design the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, Stari Most in Mostar, and help design the Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire. The son of a stonemason, he received a technical education and he rose rapidly through the ranks to become first an officer and finally a Janissary commander, with the honorific title of ağa. He remained in this post for almost fifty years and his masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, although his most famous work is the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul. He headed an extensive governmental department and trained many assistants who, in turn, distinguished themselves, including Sedefkar Mehmed Agha and he is considered the greatest architect of the classical period of Ottoman architecture and has been compared to Michelangelo, his contemporary in the West. Michelangelo and his plans for St. Mimar Sinans works are among the most influential buildings in history, according to contemporary biographer, Mustafa Sâi Çelebi, Sinan was born in 1489 with the name Joseph. He was born either an Armenian, Cappadocian Greek, Albanian, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Sinan had either Armenian or Greek origin. According to some scholars, this means that his family was Cappadocian Greek because the only Orthodox Christians of the region were Greeks, also, some of them have identified his father as a stonemason and carpenter by the name of Christos, a common Greek name. According to Herbert J. Muller though, he seems to have been an Armenian, lucy Der Manuelian of Tufts University suggests that he can be identified as an Armenian through a document in the imperial archives and other evidence. Several scholars have cited Sinans possible Albanian origin, Sinan grew up helping his father in his work, and by the time that he was conscripted would have had a good grounding in the practicalities of building work. There are three records in the library of Topkapı Palace, dictated by Sinan to his friend. In these manuscripts, Sinan divulges some details of his youth and his father is referred to as Abdülmennan, a title which was commonly used in the Ottoman period to define the non-Muslim father of a Muslim convert. In 1512, Sinan was conscripted into Ottoman service under the devshirme system and he was sent to Constantinople to be trained as an officer of the Janissary Corps and converted to Islam. He was too old to be admitted to the imperial Enderun School in the Topkapı Palace but was sent instead to an auxiliary school, some records claim that he might have served the Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha as a novice of the Ibrahim Pasha School. Possibly, he was given the Islamic name Sinan there and he initially learned carpentry and mathematics but through his intellectual qualities and ambitions, he soon assisted the leading architects and got his training as an architect. During the next six years, he trained to be a Janissary officer. He possibly joined Selim I in his last military campaign, Rhodes according to sources, but when the Sultan died. Two years later he witnessed the conquest of Belgrade, under the new sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, he was present, as a member of the Household Cavalry, at the Battle of Mohács
Mimar Sinan
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Mimar Sinan bust in
Ankara
Mimar Sinan
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Şehzade Mosque - Istanbul
Mimar Sinan
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Şehzade Mosque interior
Mimar Sinan
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Süleymaniye Mosque - Istanbul
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