1.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
2.
Early childhood education
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Early childhood education is a branch of education theory which relates to the teaching of young children up until the age of about eight. Infant/toddler education, a subset of childhood education, denotes the education of children from birth to age two. It emerged as a field of study during the Enlightenment, particularly in European countries with high literacy rates and it continued to grow through the nineteenth century as universal primary education became a norm in the Western world. In recent years, early education has become a prevalent public policy issue, as municipal, state. It is described as an important period in childs development. It refers to the development of a childs personality. The history of childhood care and education refers to the development of care. ECCE has a scope, and caring for and educating young children has always been an integral part of human societies. Historically, such arrangements have largely been informal, involving family, household, while the first two years of a childs life are spent in the creation of a childs first sense of self, most children are able to differentiate between themselves and others by their second year. This differentiation is crucial to the ability to determine how they should function in relation to other people. Parents can be seen as a childs first teacher and therefore a part of the early learning process. Early childhood attachment processes that occurs during childhood years 0–2 years of age. With proper guidance and exploration children begin to more comfortable with their environment. Parents who are consistent with response times, and emotions will properly make this attachment early on, if this attachment is not made, there can be detrimental effects on the child in their future relationships and independence. There are proper techniques that parents and caregivers can use to establish these relationships, academic Journal Reference This provides experimental research on the emphasis on caregiving effecting attachment. Education for young students can help them excel academically and socially, with exposure and organized lesson plans children can learn anything they want to. The tools they learn to use during these beginning years will provide benefits to their success. Developmentally, having structure and freedom, children are able to reach their full potential, Childrens curiosity and imagination naturally evoke learning when unfettered. Learning through play will allow a child to develop cognitively, thus, children learn more efficiently and gain more knowledge through activities such as dramatic play, art, and social games
3.
Kindergarten
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Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach traditionally based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. The first such institutions were created in the late 18th century in Bavaria, the term was coined by the German Friedrich Fröbel, whose approach globally influenced early-years education. In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strasbourg an early establishment for caring for, at about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were established in Bavaria. In 1802, Princess Pauline zur Lippe established a center in Detmold. In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infants school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy, samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his became the model for infant schools throughout England. Play was an important part of Wilderspins system of education and he is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor and he began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, in 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the class and was copied throughout the Kingdom of Hungary. He renamed his institute Kindergarten on June 28,1840, reflecting his belief that children should be nurtured and nourished like plants in a garden, women trained by Fröbel opened kindergartens throughout Europe and around the world. The first kindergarten in the US was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German, elizabeth Peabody founded the first English-language kindergarten in the US in 1860. The first free kindergarten in the US was founded in 1870 by Conrad Poppenhusen, a German industrialist and philanthropist, the first publicly-financed kindergarten in the US was established in St. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow. Canadas first private kindergarten was opened by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, by the end of the decade, they were common in large Canadian towns and cities. The countrys first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario, in 1885, the Toronto Normal School opened a department for kindergarten teaching. In Afghanistan, children between the age of 3 and 6 attend kindergartens, which though not part of the system are often run by the government
4.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
5.
Economics
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Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
6.
Sociology
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Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology
7.
Developmental psychology
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Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and this field examines change across three major dimensions, physical development, cognitive development, and socioemotional development. Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature and nurture on the process of human development, many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individuals behavior and environmental factors, including social context and the built environment. Ongoing debates include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity and stages of development vs. dynamic systems of development, influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky. Watson and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are typically cited as providing the foundations for modern developmental psychology, in the mid-18th century Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development, infants, puer and adolescence in Emile, Or, On Education. Rousseaus ideas were taken up strongly by educators at the time, stanley Hall, who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of mankind. James Mark Baldwin who wrote essays on topics that included Imitation, A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness and Mental Development in the Child, Baldwin was heavily involved in the theory of developmental psychology. Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were developmental, had a significant impact on public perceptions, Sigmund Freud believed that we all had a conscious, preconscious, and unconscious level. In the conscious we are aware of our mental process, the preconscious involves information that, though not currently in our thoughts, can be brought into consciousness. Lastly, the unconscious includes mental processes we are unaware of and he believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious, because the conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this he developed three personality structures, the id, ego, and superego, the id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle, seek pleasure and avoid pain. The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, and the ego is the organized, based on this, he proposed five universal stages of development, that each are characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the childs psychosexual energy. The first is the stage, which occurs from birth to 12 months of age. During the oral stage the libido is centered in a babys mouth, the baby is able to suck. The second is the stage, from one to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus, the third is the phallic stage, which occurs from three to five years of age. During the phallic stage, the child is aware of their sexual organs, the fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the sexual interests are repressed
8.
Academic journal
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An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny and they are usually peer-reviewed or refereed. Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, the term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields, this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Upon receipt of an article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by scholars of the editors choosing who typically remain anonymous. Though these reports are confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, even accepted articles are often subjected to further editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take several weeks to several months. Review articles, also called reviews of progress, are checks on the published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms, some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some journals are enumerative, listing all significant articles in a subject, others are selective. Yet others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field, some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions and they are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field. Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the books published by scholars, unlike articles. Journals typically have a book review editor determining which new books to review. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editors request for a book review, publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook, an academic journals prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline there are dominant journals that receive the largest number of submissions, yet, not only the largest journals are of excellent quality
9.
University of Colorado Boulder
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The University of Colorado Boulder is a public research university located in Boulder, Colorado, United States. It is the university of the University of Colorado system and was founded five months before Colorado was admitted to the Union in 1876. In 2015, the university consisted of nine colleges and schools and offered over 150 academic programs, twelve Nobel Laureates, nine MacArthur Fellows, and 20 astronauts have been affiliated with CU Boulder as students, researchers, or faculty members in its history. The university received nearly $454 million in sponsored research in 2010 to fund programs like the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, the Colorado Buffaloes compete in 17 varsity sports and are members of the NCAA Division I Pac-12 Conference. The Buffaloes have won 28 national championships,20 in skiing, seven total in mens and womens cross country, approximately 1,500 students participate in 34 intercollegiate club sports annually as well. Two cities competed for the site of the University of Colorado, Boulder, the consolation prize for the losing city was to be home of the new Colorado State Prison. Cañon City was at a disadvantage as it was already the home of the Colorado Territorial Prison, the cornerstone of the building that became Old Main was laid on September 20,1875. The doors of the university opened on September 5,1877, at the time, there were few high schools in the state that could adequately prepare students for university work, so in addition to the University, a preparatory school was formed on campus. In the fall of 1877, the student body consisted of 15 students in the proper and 50 students in the preparatory school. There were 38 men and 27 women, and their ages ranged from 12–23 years, during World War II, Colorado was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a navy commission. The main CU Boulder campus is located south of the Pearl Street Mall and it consists of academic and residential buildings as well as research facilities. The East Campus is about a mile from the main campus and is composed mainly of athletic fields. CU Boulders distinctive architecture style, known as Tuscan Vernacular Revival, was designed by architect Charles Klauder. A month or so after approval, however, Klauder updated his design by sketching in a new wrap of rough, textured sandstone walls with sloping, multi-leveled red-tiled roofs and Indiana limestone trim. This formed the basis of a style which was used in the design of fifteen other buildings between 1921 and 1939. The sandstone used in the construction of all the buildings on campus was selected from a variety of front range mountain quarries. In 2011, Travel+Leisure named the Boulder campus as one of the most beautiful campuses in the United States. Currently Freshmen and others attending the University of Colorado Boulder have an option of 24 on-, Residence halls have 17 varieties of room types from singles to four-person rooms and others with apartment style amenities
10.
Education reform
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Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. Historically, reforms have taken different forms because the motivations of reformers have differed, however, since the 1980s, education reform has been focused on changing the existing system from one focused on inputs to one focused on outputs. In the United States, education reform acknowledges and encourages public education as the source of K-12 education for American youth. Education reformers desire to make public education into a market, where accountability creates high-stakes from curriculum standards tied to standardized tests, as a result of this input-output system, equality has been conceptualized as an end point, which is often evidenced by an achievement gap among diverse populations. This conceptualization of education reform is based on the market-logic of competition, as a consequence, competition creates inequality which has continued to drive the market-logic of equality at an end point by reproduce the achievement gap among diverse youth. Overall, education reform has and continues to be used as a substitute for needed reforms in the United States. The one constant for all forms of education includes the idea that small changes in education will have large social returns in citizen health, wealth. For example, a stated motivation has been to reduce cost to students, from ancient times until the 1800s, one goal was to reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly educated full-time personal tutor, historically, this was available only to the most wealthy. Encyclopedias, public libraries and grammar schools are examples of innovations intended to lower the cost of a classical education, related reforms attempted to develop similar classical results by concentrating on why, and which questions neglected by classical education. Abstract, introspective answers to these questions can theoretically compress large amounts of facts into relatively few principles and this path was taken by some Transcendentalist educators, such as Amos Bronson Alcott. In the early age, Victorian schools were reformed to teach commercially useful topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical subjects, such as Latin. Many reformers focused on reforming society by reforming education on scientific, humanistic, pragmatic or democratic principles. John Dewey and Anton Makarenko are prominent examples of such reformers, some reformers incorporated several motivations, e. g. Maria Montessori, who both educated for peace, and to meet the needs of the child. Reform has taken many forms and directions, throughout history and the present day, the meaning and methods of education have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Changes may be implemented by individual educators and/or by broad-based school organization and/or by curriculum changes with performance evaluations, Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn. Compulsory learning never sticks in the mind, an educational debate in the time of the Roman Empire arose after Christianity had achieved broad acceptance. Though educational reform occurred on a level at various points throughout history
11.
Education policy in Brazil
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Education policy in Brazil has been given importance by the federal and local governments since 1995. In addition, non-attendance rates and drop-out rates have also been on the increase, moreover, these factors are especially high in lower income areas where the quality of education largely remains below the expected levels. These have been the recent targets of education policy, the Federal Constitution of Brazil outlines the educational rights of Brazilian citizens in Title VIII, Chapter III, Section 1. Education is the right of all and a duty of both the State and families, in cooperation with general society, the aim of education is defined as the full development of a person, qualification for work, and participation as a citizen. Education will be provided on the basis of I. equal conditions for access to school, freedom to learn, teach, research and express thought, art and knowledge, III. Universities are given significant autonomy but have the requirement to comply with non-dissociation of teaching, research, the state will fulfill its educational duty by ensuring I. mandatory and free elementary education, II. Progressively universal high school education, III, Teaching is open to private enterprise as long as they comply with rules of national education and are authorized and evaluated by the government. Minimum curricula will be established for elementary schools to ensure common national education, however, some topics such as religion are optional and Indian communities are able to use their own language and learning methods. The Union, states, Federal District and municipalities will cooperate to organize educational activities, a minimum percentage of tax revenues – 18% from the Union and 25% from the states, Federal District and municipalities – is to be used towards education through distribution process set out in law. Donations from companies for education are permitted, public resources will be allocated to schools and other community, religious or philanthropic schools that channel funds to education, scholarships, or research. The Fund for Maintenance and Development of the Fundamental Education and Valorization of Teaching was introduced in 1996 to reform the funding of education in Brazil. It was established to make sure that money mandated by the constitution is actually spent on education, the policy mandated redistribution of funds within states across municipalities, so that all municipalities could reach the per student spending requirement. Additionally, federal government then supplemented spending in states and municipalities that could not afford the national spending floor, finally, FUNDEF required that 60% of spending go towards teacher salaries and 40% go towards school operations. In 1998, when FUNDEF was implemented,30.6 billion reais were redistributed to six different states, overall spending increased from approximately 2% of GDP in 1995 to 4% of GDP in 2008. Additionally, teacher salaries increased by an average of 70% in the first few years of implementation and it was, however, limited in scope, entailing the investment of funds only to elementary education and expiring in September 2006 when it reached 10 years of creation. FUNDEB was made effective for fourteen years and has been gradually implemented and it was formed by allocating 20% of resources from state and federal taxes, and distributed these among each State and Municipality in proportion to the number of students enrolled. FUNDEB entailed committing R$2 billion in the first year, R$2.9 billion in the year, R$3.7 billion in the third and R$4.5 billion in the fourth year. It extended the financing equalization introduced under FUNDEF to secondary school and pre-school education, FUNDEB also explicitly ensured funding for indigenous communities
12.
Free content
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Free content, libre content, or free information, is any kind of functional work, work of art, or other creative content that meets the definition of a free cultural work. Free content encompasses all works in the domain and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor. Although there are a great many different definitions in regular use, free content is legally very similar, if not like an identical twin. An analogy is the use of the terms free software and open source. For instance, the Open Knowledge Foundations Open Definition describes open as synonymous to the definition of free in the Definition of Free Cultural Works, for such free/open content both movements recommend the same three Creative Commons licenses, the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0. Copyright is a concept, which gives the author or creator of a work legal control over the duplication. In many jurisdictions, this is limited by a period after which the works then enter the public domain. Copyright laws are a balance between the rights of creators of intellectual and artistic works and the rights of others to build upon those works. During the time period of copyright the authors work may only be copied, modified, or publicly performed with the consent of the author, unless the use is a fair use. Traditional copyright control limits the use of the work of the author to those who pay royalties to the author for usage of the authors content. Secondly it limits the use of content whose author cannot be found, a public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public, or no longer can claim control over, the distribution and usage of the work. As such any person may manipulate, distribute, or otherwise utilize the work, a work in the public domain or released under a permissive licence may be referred to as copycenter. Copyleft is a play on the copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies. The aim of copyleft is to use the framework of copyright to enable non-author parties to be able to reuse and, in many licensing schemes. Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under the terms. A symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the symbol, facing the other way. Unlike the copyright symbol, the symbol does not have a codified meaning. Projects that provide free content exist in areas of interest, such as software, academic literature, general literature, music, images, video
13.
Free license
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A free license or open license is a license agreement which contains conditions permitted to the user from the holder on a specific list of uses for his work, which gives him four major freedoms. Without a special license, these uses are prohibited by the laws of copyright, most free licenses are worldwide, royalty-free, non-exclusive, and perpetual. Free licenses are often the basis of crowdsourcing and crowdfunding projects and these definitions were then transformed into licenses, utilizing the copyright as legal mechanism. Since then, ideas of free/open licenses spread into different spheres of society, open source, free culture, anticopyright, Wikimedia Foundation projects, Public Domain advocacy groups and pirate parties are connected with free and open licenses. Copyleft Creative Commons has affiliates in more than 100 jurisdictions all over the world, EUPL was created in the European Union
14.
Agricultural policy
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Agricultural policy describes a set of laws relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving an outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Outcomes can involve, for example, a guaranteed supply level, price stability, product quality, product selection, encouraging agricultural growth is therefore an important aspect of agricultural policy in the developing world. Use of animal vaccines can create new viruses that kill people, H5N1 is an example of where this might have already occurred. The spread of H5N1 and its reintroduction to domestic poultry increase the need for good agricultural vaccines. In fact, the cause of the continuing H5N1 pandemic threat may be the way the pathogenicity of H5N1 viruses is masked by co-circulating influenza viruses or bad agricultural vaccines. Dr. Robert Webster explains, If you use a good vaccine you can prevent the transmission within poultry, but if they have been using vaccines now for several years, why is there so much bird flu. There is bad vaccine that stops the disease in the bird but the bird goes on pooping out virus and maintaining it, and I think this is what is going on in China. Either there is not enough vaccine being used or there is substandard vaccine being used and we can’t blame China for substandard vaccines. I think there are substandard vaccines for influenza in poultry all over the world, in response to the same concerns, Reuters reports Hong Kong infectious disease expert Lo Wing-lok indicating that vaccines have to take top priority. Julie Hall, who is in charge of the WHOs outbreak response in China, in the UK, the country worst affected,179,000 cattle were infected and 4.4 million killed as a precaution. The disease can be transmitted to human beings who eat or inhale material from infected carcasses, between 460,000 and 482,000 BSE-infected animals had entered the human food chain before controls on high-risk offal were introduced in 1989. The origin of the disease remains unknown. Another contributory factor was the feeding of infected protein supplements to very young calves instead of milk from their mothers, foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious and sometimes fatal viral disease of cattle and pigs. It can also infect deer, goats, sheep, and other bovids with cloven hooves, as well as elephants, rats, humans are affected only very rarely. FMD occurs throughout much of the world, and while some countries have been free of FMD for some time, its wide host range, in 1996, endemic areas included Asia, Africa, and parts of South America. North America, Australia, New Zealand and Japan have been free of FMD for many years, most European countries have been recognized as free, and countries belonging to the European Union have stopped FMD vaccination. The clothes and skin of animal handlers such as farmers, standing water, cows can also catch FMD from the semen of infected bulls
15.
Commercial policy
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A commercial policy is a governmental policy governing economic transactions across international borders. These are sometimes agreed by treaty within a customs union, in the case of the European Union, commercial policy has been governed in common since the EU was created in 1957. A common commercial policy is also an aim of Mercosur, commerce minister European Commissioner for Trade Free trade Protectionism Trade policy of Japan Trade policy of the United States
16.
Drug policy
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A drug policy is the policy, usually of a government, regarding the control and regulation of drugs considered dangerous, particularly those which are addictive. Governments try to combat drug addiction with policies which address both the demand and supply of drugs, as well as policies which can mitigate the harms of drug abuse, and for medical treatment. Supply side reduction involves measures such as enacting foreign policy aimed at eradicating the international cultivation of plants used to make drugs, Policies which may help mitigate the effects of drug abuse include needle exchange and drug substitution programs, as well as free facilities for testing a drugs purity. Drugs subject to control vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, for example, heroin is regulated almost everywhere, substances such as qat, codeine are regulated in some places, but not others. The International Opium Convention, signed in 1912 during the First International Opium Conference, was the first international drug control treaty and it went into force globally in 1919 when it was incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. A revised Convention was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series in 1928 and it also imposed some restrictions—not total prohibition—on the export of Indian hemp. In 1961 it was superseded by the international Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs to control global drug trading, the Convention banned countries from treating addicts by prescribing illegal substances, allowing only scientific and medical uses of drugs. It did not detail precise drug laws and was not itself binding on countries, the federal jurisdiction has enforcement powers over national borders. In October 2016, Australia legislated for some medicinal use cannabis, compared with other EU countries the drug policy of Germany is considered to be rather progressive but still stricter than, for example, in the Netherlands. In 1994 the Federal Constitutional Court ruled that drug addiction was not a crime, in 2000 the German narcotic law was changed to allow for supervised drug injection rooms. In 2002, a study was started in seven German cities to evaluate the effects of heroin-assisted treatment on addicts. The positive results of the led to the inclusion of heroin-assisted treatment into the services of the mandatory health insurance in 2009. Liberia prohibits drugs such as cocaine and marijuana and its drug laws are enforced by the Drug Enforcement Agency. Drug policy in the Netherlands is based on two principles, that use is a health issue, not a criminal issue. The Netherlands is currently the country to have implemented a wide scale. It was also one of the first countries to introduce heroin-assisted treatment, from 2008, a number of town councils have closed many so called coffee shops that sold cannabis or implemented other new restrictions for sale of cannabis, e. g. for foreigners. Importing and exporting of any classified drug is a serious offence, the penalty can run up to 12 to 16 years if it is for hard drugs, or a maximum of 4 years for importing or exporting large quantities of cannabis. Investment in treatment and prevention of addiction is high when compared to the rest of the world
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Drug policy reform
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Drug policy reform, also known as drug law reform, is any proposed changes to the way governments respond to the socio-cultural influence on perception of psychoactive substance use. Proponents of drug policy reform believe that prohibition of drugs—such as cannabis, opioids, cocaine, amphetamines and hallucinogens—has been ineffectual, proponents of drug law reform argue that relative harm should be taken into account in the scheduling of controlled substances. The U. S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, centers for Disease Control, rated the hallucinogen psilocybin less toxic than Aspirin. The Dutch government found this also to be true, according to the American Heart Association, Nicotine addiction has historically been one of the hardest addictions to break. The pharmacologic and behavioral characteristics that determine tobacco addiction are similar to those that determine addiction to drugs such as heroin, initial attempts to change the punitive drug laws which were introduced all over the world from the late 1800s onwards were primarily based around recreational use. Timothy Leary was one of the most prominent campaigners for the legal and recreational use of LSD, in 1967, a Legalise pot rally was held in Britain. However, as death toll from the war rose, other organisations began to form to campaign on a more political. The Drug Policy Foundation formed in America and Release, a charity which gives legal advice to drugs users and currently campaigns for drug decriminalization. As of June 30,2014, the initiative has collected 100,000 signatures from citizens in European member states, harm reduction refers to a range of public health policies designed to reduce the harmful consequences associated with recreational drug use and other high risk activities. Harm reduction is put forward as a useful perspective alongside the more conventional approaches of demand and its critics are concerned that tolerating risky or illegal behaviour sends a message to the community that these behaviours are acceptable. Drug decriminalization calls for reduced control and penalties compared to existing laws, a central feature of drug decriminalization is the concept of harm reduction. Portugal was the first country in the world that has decriminalized the use of all drugs and this generally means anyone caught with any type of drug, if it classifies as being for personal consumption rather than sale, will not be imprisoned. However, Mexico City has decriminalized certain drugs and Greece has just announced that it is going to do so, spain has also followed the Portugal model. Italy after waiting 10 years to see the result of the Portugal model, in May 2014, the Criminal Chamber of the Italian Supreme Court upheld a previous decision in 2013 by Italys Constitutional Court, to reduce the penalties for the convictions for sale of soft drugs. Examples of drugs with different levels of regulated distribution in most countries include, caffeine, nicotine, ethyl alcohol, not all proponents of drug re-legalization necessarily share a common ethical framework, and people may adopt this viewpoint for a variety of reasons. In particular, favoring drug re-legalization does not imply approval of drug use, the group does not support the decriminalisation of illegal drugs. The Senlis Council outlined proposals for the implementation of a village based poppy for medicine project and calls for a pilot project for Afghan morphine at the next planting season
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Economic policy
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Economic policy refers to the actions that governments take in the economic field. Such policies are often influenced by international institutions like the International Monetary Fund or World Bank as well as political beliefs, almost every aspect of government has an important economic component. Trade policy, which refers to tariffs, trade agreements and the institutions that govern them. Fiscal policy, often tied to Keynesian economics, uses government spending, fiscal stance, The size of the deficit or surplus Tax policy, The taxes used to collect government income. It is concerned with the amount of money in circulation and, consequently, interest rates, sometimes other objectives, like military spending or nationalization are important. These are referred to as the goals, the outcomes which the economic policy aims to achieve. To achieve these goals, governments use policy tools which are under the control of the government and these generally include the interest rate and money supply, tax and government spending, tariffs, exchange rates, labor market regulations, and many other aspects of government. Government and central banks are limited in the number of goals they can achieve in the short term, for instance, there may be pressure on the government to reduce inflation, reduce unemployment, and reduce interest rates while maintaining currency stability. This dilemma can in part be resolved by using microeconomics, supply-side policy to help adjust markets, for instance, unemployment could potentially be reduced by altering laws relating to trade unions or unemployment insurance, as well as by macroeconomic factors like interest rates. For much of the 20th century, governments adopted discretionary policies like demand management designed to correct the business cycle and these typically used fiscal and monetary policy to adjust inflation, output and unemployment. However, following the stagflation of the 1970s, policymakers began to be attracted to policy rules, a discretionary policy is supported because it allows policymakers to respond quickly to events. This makes policy non-credible and ultimately ineffective, a rule-based policy can be more credible, because it is more transparent and easier to anticipate. Examples of rule-based policies are fixed exchange rates, interest rate rules, the stability and growth pact, some policy rules can be imposed by external bodies, for instance the Exchange Rate Mechanism for currency. A compromise between strict discretionary and strict rule-based policy is to grant discretionary power to an independent body. For instance, the Federal Reserve Bank, European Central Bank, Bank of England and Reserve Bank of Australia all set interest rates without government interference, another type of non-discretionary policy is a set of policies which are imposed by an international body. This can occur as a result of intervention by the International Monetary Fund, the first economic problem was how to gain the resources it needed to be able to perform the functions of an early government, the military, roads and other projects like building the Pyramids. Early governments generally relied on tax in kind and forced labor for their economic resources, however, with the development of money came the first policy choice. A government could raise money through taxing its citizens, however, it could now also debase the coinage and so increase the money supply
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Fiscal policy
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In economics and political science, fiscal policy is the use of government revenue collection and expenditure to influence the economy. According to Keynesian economics, when the government changes the levels of taxation and government spending, it influences aggregate demand, Fiscal policy often attempts to stabilize the economy over the course of the business cycle. Government spending is fully funded by tax revenue and overall the budget outcome has an effect on the level of economic activity. Expansionary fiscal policy involves government spending exceeding tax revenue, and is undertaken during recessions. It is also known as fiscal policy. Contractionary fiscal policy occurs when government spending is lower than tax revenue, therefore, for purposes of the above definitions, government spending and tax revenue are normally replaced by cyclically adjusted government spending and cyclically adjusted tax revenue. Thus, for example, a government budget that is balanced over the course of the cycle is considered to represent a neutral fiscal policy stance. Governments spend money on a variety of things, from the military and police to services like education and healthcare. These pay interest, either for a period or indefinitely. If the interest and capital requirements are too large, a nation may default on its debts, public debt or borrowing refers to the government borrowing from the public. For this to happen, the propensity to save needs to be strictly positive. Another possibility is that the government might decide to increase its own spending – say, the idea is that the additional government spending creates jobs and lowers the unemployment rate. Governments use fiscal policy to influence the level of demand in the economy, in an effort to achieve economic objectives of price stability, full employment. Keynesians argue this method be used in times of recession or low economic activity as an tool for building the framework for strong economic growth. In theory, the deficits would be paid for by an expanded economy during the boom that would follow. Governments can use a surplus to do two things, to slow the pace of strong economic growth, and to stabilize prices when inflation is too high. Keynesian theory posits that removing spending from the economy will reduce levels of demand and contract the economy. But economists still debate the effectiveness of fiscal stimulus, the argument mostly centers on crowding out, whether government borrowing leads to higher interest rates that may offset the stimulative impact of spending
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Industrial policy
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The government takes measures aimed at improving the competitiveness and capabilities of domestic firms and promoting structural transformation. A countrys infrastructure is a part of the manufacturing sector that often has a key role in IP. Industrial policies are sector-specific, unlike broader macroeconomic policies, examples of the latter, which are horizontal, economy-wide policies, are tightening credit and taxing capital gains. Traditional examples of industrial policy that involves vertical, sector-specific policies, include protecting textiles from imports, more contemporary industrial policies include measures such as support for linkages between firms and support for upstream technologies. Industrial policies are interventionist measures typical of mixed economy countries, many types of industrial policies contain common elements with other types of interventionist practices such as trade policy and fiscal policy. An example of an industrial policy is import-substitution-industrialization, where trade barriers are temporarily imposed on some key sectors. By selectively protecting certain industries, these industries are given time to learn, once competitive enough, these restrictions are lifted to expose the selected industries to the international market. The traditional arguments for industrial policies go back as far as the 18th century, in the early nineteenth century, for example, it is quite clear that the laissez faire label is an inappropriate one. These early examples are followed by interventionist ISI strategies pursued in Latin American countries such as Brazil, the success of these state-directed industrialization strategies are often attributed to developmental states and strong bureaucracies such as the Japanese MITI. Many of these domestic policy choices, however, are now seen as detrimental to trade and are hence limited by various international agreements such as WTO. Instead, the recent focus for industrial policy has shifted towards the promotion of local business clusters, during the Reagan administration, an economic development initiative called Project Socrates was initiated to address US decline in ability to compete in world markets. President Reagan was satisfied that this objective was fulfilled in the Socrates system, however contemporary industry policy generally accepts globalisation as a given, and focuses less on the decline of older industries, and more on the growth of emergent industries. It often involves government working collaboratively with industry to respond to challenges and opportunities, the main criticism against industrial policy arises from the concept of government failure. Despite existing criticism, there is a consensus in recent development theory that state interventions are often necessary when market failures prevail. Market failures often exist in presence of externalities and natural monopolies and these market failures hinder the emergence of a well-functioning market and corrective industrial policies are required to ensure the allocative efficiency of a free market. Even relatively sceptical economists now recognise that public action can boost certain development factors beyond what market forces on their own would generate, in practice, these interventions are often aimed at regulating networks, public infrastructure, R&D or correcting information asymmetries. While the current debate has shifted away from dismissing industrial policies overall, one key question is which kinds of industrial policy are most effective in promoting economic development. Much debate also surrounds the issue whether government failures are more pervasive
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Tax policy
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Tax policy is the choice by a government as to what taxes to levy, in what amounts, and on whom. It has both microeconomic and macroeconomic aspects, the macroeconomic aspects concern the overall quantity of taxes to collect, which can inversely affect the level of economic activity, this is one component of fiscal policy. The microeconomic aspects concern issues of fairness and allocative efficiency, policymakers debate the nature of the tax structure they plan to implement and how they might affect individuals and businesses. The reason for such focus is economic efficiency as advisor to the Stuart King of England Richard Petty had noted that the government does not want to kill the goose that lays the golden egg, paradigmatic efficient taxes are those that are either nondistortionary or lump sum. However, economists define distortion only according to the substitution effect, one must also consider the income effect, which for tax policy purposes often needs to be assumed to cancel out in the aggregate. The efficiency loss is depicted on the curve and supply curve diagrams as the area inside Harbergers Triangle. The implementation of tax policy has always been a tricky business, a more recent American example is President George H. W. Bushs famous tax policy quote, Read my lips, no new taxes. Tax incidence Tax law Mirrlees, James, Adam, Stuart, Besley, Tim, et al
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Energy policy
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Energy policy is the manner in which a given entity has decided to address issues of energy development including energy production, distribution and consumption. The attributes of energy policy may include legislation, international treaties, incentives to investment, guidelines for energy conservation, taxation, although research is ongoing, the human dimensions of energy use are of increasing interest to business, utilities, and policymakers. Using the social sciences to gain insights into energy consumer behavior can empower policymakers to make decisions about broad-based climate. This could facilitate more efficient energy use, renewable energy commercialization, a national energy policy comprises a set of measures involving that countrys laws, treaties and agency directives. These policies have been consistent since the 1990s, despite changes in governments. The pace and form of industry liberalization and privatization has been highly controversial, with rapid change of global as well as domestic situation, the policy was updated in 2004. Australias energy policy features a combination of power stations and hydro electricity plants. The Australian government has decided not to nuclear power plants. Catherine Wolfram, Robert Gross, Nathan S. Lewis, and M. V, the Frontiers of Energy, Nature Energy, Vol 1,11 January 2016. Climate and Clean Energy Policy, State Institutions and Economic Implications, fouquet, Roger, and Peter JG Pearson. Seven Centuries of Energy Services, The Price and Use of Light in the United Kingdom, north versus South, Energy transition and energy intensity in Europe over 200 years. American Energy Policy in the 1970s 322 pages, Nye, David E. Consuming power, A social history of American energies Pratt, Joseph A. Exxon, Transforming Energy, 1973-2005 600pp Smil, the role of energy in economic growth. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Energy use and economic development, A comparative analysis of useful work supply in Austria, Japan, the United Kingdom and the US during 100 years of economic growth
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Nuclear energy policy
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Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to the nuclear fuel cycle. Governments might subsidize nuclear energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of technology, electricity, nuclear waste. Since about 2001 the term nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a nuclear power industry revival. Following the March 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. Thirty-one countries operate nuclear power stations, and there are a number of new reactors being built in China, South Korea, India. Since nuclear energy and nuclear technologies are closely related, military aspirations can act as a factor in energy policy decisions. The fear of nuclear proliferation influences some international nuclear energy policies, after 1986s Chernobyl disaster, public fear of nuclear power led to a virtual halt in reactor construction, and several countries decided to phase out nuclear power altogether. In 2004, the largest producer of energy was the United States with 28% of worldwide capacity, followed by France. In 2007,31 countries operated nuclear power plants, in September 2008 the IAEA projected nuclear power to remain at a 12. 4% to 14. 4% share of the worlds electricity production through 2030. Asia is expected to be the growth market for nuclear energy in the foreseeable future, despite continued uncertainty in the energy outlooks for Japan, South Korea. As of 2014, 63% of all reactors under construction globally are in Asia, Nuclear accidents and radioactive waste disposal are major concerns. Other concerns include nuclear proliferation, the high cost of power plants. For some countries, nuclear power affords energy independence, in the words of the French, We have no coal, we have no oil, we have no gas, we have no choice. Therefore, the discussion of a future for energy is intertwined with a discussion of energy security. Nuclear power has been unaffected by embargoes, and uranium is mined in reliable countries, including Australia. Proponents have long made inflated projections of the growth of nuclear power. In 1973 and 1974, the International Atomic Energy Agency predicted a worldwide installed capacity of 3,600 to 5,000 gigawatts by 2000. The IAEAs 1980 projection was for 740 to 1,075 gigawatts of installed capacity by the year 2000, even after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, the Nuclear Energy Agency forecasted an installed nuclear capacity of 497 to 646 gigawatts for the year 2000
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Renewable energy commercialization
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Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies, which are mature and economically competitive, include biomass, hydroelectricity, geothermal power. As of 2012, renewable energy accounts for half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed. Public policy and political leadership helps to level the playing field, countries such as Germany, Denmark, and Spain have led the way in implementing innovative policies which has driven most of the growth over the past decade. As of 2014, Germany has a commitment to the Energiewende transition to an energy economy. There are now 144 countries with renewable energy policy targets, Renewable energy continued its rapid growth in 2015, providing multiple benefits. There was a new set for installed wind and photovoltaic capacity. A key benefit that this investment growth brings is a growth in jobs, the top countries for investment in recent years were China, Germany, Spain, the United States, Italy, and Brazil. Renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy, First Solar, Gamesa, GE Energy, Goldwind, Sinovel, Trina Solar, Vestas, Climate change concerns are also driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries. According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the worlds electricity within 50 years, Renewable power has been more effective in creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States. Climate change, pollution, and energy insecurity are significant problems, in the old economy, energy was produced by burning something — oil, coal, or natural gas — leading to the carbon emissions that have come to define our economy. The new energy economy harnesses the energy in wind, the coming from the sun. In international public opinion there is strong support for a variety of methods for addressing the problem of energy supply. It is expected that renewable energy investments will pay off economically in the long term, EU member countries have shown support for ambitious renewable energy goals. In 2010, Eurobarometer polled the twenty-seven EU member states about the target to increase the share of energy in the EU by 20 percent by 2020. Most people in all twenty-seven countries either approved of the target or called for it to go further, across the EU,57 percent thought the proposed goal was about right and 16 percent thought it was too modest. In comparison,19 percent said it was too ambitious, New EPA initiatives targeting air toxics, coal ash, and effluent releases highlight the environmental impacts of coal and the cost of addressing them with control technologies. The use of fracking in natural gas exploration is coming under scrutiny, with evidence of groundwater contamination, concerns are increasing about the vast amounts of water used at coal-fired and nuclear power plants, particularly in regions of the country facing water shortages
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Environmental policy
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Environmental policy refers to the commitment of an organization to the laws, regulations, and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues. These issues generally include air and water pollution, waste management, ecosystem management, maintenance of biodiversity, policies concerning energy or regulation of toxic substances including pesticides and many types of industrial waste are part of the topic of environmental policy. It is useful to consider that environmental policy comprises two terms, environment and policy. Environment refers to the ecosystems, but can also take into consideration the social dimension. Policy can be defined as a course of action or principle adopted or proposed by a government, party, relatively recently, environmental policy has also attended to the communication of environmental issues. An example of an externality is when a factory produces waste pollution which may be dumped into a river, the cost of such action is paid by society-at-large, when they must clean the water before drinking it and is external to the costs of the factory. The tragedy of the commons is the problem that, because no one owns the commons. Without governmental involvement, the commons is overused, examples of tragedies of the commons are overfishing and overgrazing. Environmental policy instruments are used by governments to implement their environmental policies. Governments may use a number of different types of instruments, for example, economic incentives and market-based instruments such as taxes and tax exemptions, tradable permits, and fees can be very effective to encourage compliance with environmental policy. Corporate companies who engage in efficient environmental management and are transparent about their environmental data, bilateral agreements between the government and private firms and commitments made by firms independent of government requirement are examples of voluntary environmental measures. Another instrument is the implementation of public purchasing programs. Several instruments are combined in a policy mix to address a certain environmental problem. Since environmental issues have many aspects, several policy instruments may be needed to address each one. Furthermore, a combination of different policies may give greater flexibility in policy compliance and reduce uncertainty as to the cost of such compliance. Government policies must be formulated so that the individual measures do not undermine one another, or create a rigid. Overlapping policies result in administrative costs, increasing the cost of implementation. To help governments realize their goals, the OECD Environment Directorate collects data on the efficiency
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Food policy
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Food policy is the area of public policy concerning how food is produced, processed, distributed, and purchased. Food policies are designed to influence the operation of the food, Food policy can be promulgated on any level, from local to global, and by a government agency, business, or organization. Most food policy is initiated at the level for purposes of ensuring a safe. Agricultural producers often bear the burden of desire to keep food prices sufficiently low for growing urban populations. Low prices for consumers can be a disincentive for farmers to more food, often resulting in hunger, poor trade prospects. Industrialized countries strive to ensure that farmers earn relatively stable incomes despite price and supply fluctuations, the cost of subsidizing farm incomes is passed along to consumers in the form of higher food prices. The history of policy in the United States started in the 1880s with policies being carried out by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. In 1883, Harvey W. Wiley, M. D. was appointed chief chemist at USDA, for much of the 1880s, policymakers discussed how to deal with diseased livestock being imported into or exported out of the United States. In 1884, the USDA Bureau of Animal Industry was created with the purpose of ensuring that livestock could not be used as food. In 1890, the BAI was charged also with testing meats being exported from the U. S. in 1906, the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Federal Meat Inspection Act were both signed into law. Both prevent production and sale of adulterated or misbranded foods, the Pure Food and Drug Act focusing on general foods, in 1938, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act was passed by Congress, giving the FDA authority to set food safety standards. The FDA was reorganized to be under the direction of the Department of Health, in 1953, with large-scale reorganization in the USDA, the BAI and Bureau of Dairy were abolished, among other bureaus, and their duties were transferred to the Agricultural Research Service. The Poultry Products Inspection Act was passed in 1957 and this ensured that poultry products shipped in interstate commerce as well as those products being imported into the U. S. were continually inspected for diseases, and that product labels are accurate. In 1958, the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938 was amended to include the Food Additive Amendment, also, the Humane Methods of Slaughter Act was passed in 1958. In 1978, this act was amended to ensure that all meat that was inspected by the FSIS to be used for consumption was humanely slaughtered. In 1965, reorganization of the ARS Consumer and Marketing Service brought federal meat, the Egg Products Inspection Act, passed in 1970, ensured the continuous inspection of the processing of egg products. In 1995, this task was taken over by FSIS, in 1977, following several changes in organization, the Food Safety and Quality Service, renamed the Food Safety and Inspection Service in 1981, was created to perform meat and poultry grading. Following an E. coli outbreak in 1993, inspections began to more on scientific tests as opposed to the usual sensory-based inspections
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Health policy
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Health policy can be defined as the decisions, plans, and actions that are undertaken to achieve specific healthcare goals within a society. They may cover topics of financing and delivery of healthcare, access to care, quality of care, health-related policy and its implementation is complex. Conceptual models can help show the flow from health-related policy development to health-related policy and program implementation and to health systems, policy should be understood as more than a national law or health policy that supports a program or intervention. Operational policies are the rules, regulations, guidelines, and administrative norms that governments use to translate national laws and policies into programs, the policy process encompasses decisions made at a national or decentralized level that affect whether and how services are delivered. Thus, attention must be paid to policies at multiple levels of the health system, a supportive policy environment will facilitate the scale-up of health interventions. There are many topics in the politics and evidence that can influence the decision of a government, evidence-based policy relies on the use of science and rigorous studies such as randomized controlled trials to identify programs and practices capable of improving policy relevant outcomes. Most political debates surround personal health care policies, especially those that seek to reform healthcare delivery, the modern concept of healthcare involves access to medical professionals from various fields as well as medical technology, such as medications and surgical equipment. It also involves access to the latest information and evidence from research, including medical research, planning and production of health human resources is distributed among labour market participants. Many governments around the world have established universal health care, which takes the burden of healthcare expenses off of private businesses or individuals through pooling of financial risk, there are a variety of arguments for and against universal healthcare and related health policies. Healthcare is an important part of systems and therefore it often accounts for one of the largest areas of spending for both governments and individuals all over the world. Many countries and jurisdictions integrate a human rights philosophy in directing their healthcare policies, other jurisdictions and non-governmental organizations draw on the principles of humanism in defining their health policies, asserting the same perceived obligation and enshrined right to health. Such increasing attention to health as a human right has been welcomed by the leading medical journal The Lancet. There remains considerable controversy regarding policies on who would be paying the costs of care for all people. For example, government spending on healthcare is used as a global indicator of a governments commitment to the health of its people. The argument furthers that universal health insurance denies the right of patients to dispose of their own income as per their own will. Many types of health policies exist focusing on the financing of services to spread the economic risks of ill health. These include publicly funded care, mandatory or voluntary private health insurance. For those people who would go without care due to lack of financial means
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Pharmaceutical policy
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Pharmaceutical policy is a branch of health policy that deals with the development, provision and use of medications within a health care system. It embraces drugs, biologics, vaccines and natural health products, for example, a major investment by the NIH into research on HIV in the 1980s certainly could be viewed as an important foundation for the many antiviral drugs that have subsequently been developed. If that decision is not overturned by the United States Supreme Court, generic versions of the drug in controversy and this involves the approval of a product for sale in a jurisdiction. The regulatory process typically focuses on quality, safety and efficacy, to be approved for sale a product must demonstrate that it is generally safe, that it does what the manufacturer claims and that it is produced to high standards. Internal staff and expert advisory committees review products, once approved, a product is given an approval letter or issued with a notice of compliance, indicating that it may now be sold in the jurisdiction. In some cases, such approvals may have attached, requiring. In many jurisdictions drug prices are regulated. For example, in the UK the Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme is intended to ensure that the National Health Service is able to purchase drugs at “reasonable prices. ”In Canada, in these circumstances, drug manufacturers must submit a proposed price to the appropriate regulatory agency. Payers may be private insurance plans, governments or health care such as hospitals. At this point the critical issue is cost-effectiveness and this is where the discipline of pharmaco-economics is often applied. Structures like the UK’s National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, some jurisdictions do not, however, evaluate products for cost-effectiveness. In some instances, individual drug benefit plans may also evaluate products, additionally, hospitals may have their own review committees to make decisions about which drugs to fund from the hospital budget. Drug plan administrators may also apply their own pricing rules outside of that set by national pricing agencies, for example, British Columbia uses a pricing model called reference-based pricing to set the price of drugs in certain classes. Many US pharmacy benefit managers use strategies like tiered formularies and preferred listings to encourage competition and downward pricing pressure, competitive procurement of this sort is common among large purchasers such as the US Veteran’s Health Administration. Typically, a manufacturer will provide an estimate of the use of a drug as well as the expected fiscal impact on a drug plan’s budget. Once a product is deemed cost-effective, a negotiated and any risk-sharing agreement negotiated. Prescribers may choose drugs on the list for their patients, subject to any conditions or patient criteria, at the core of most reimbursement regimes is the drug list, or formulary. Managing this list can involve many different approaches, negative lists – products that are not reimbursed under any circumstances are used in some jurisdictions
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Vaccination policy
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Vaccination policy refers to the health policy a government adopts in relation to vaccination. Vaccinations are voluntary in some countries and mandatory in others, as part of their health system. Some governments pay all or part of the costs of vaccinations for vaccines in a national vaccination schedule, Vaccination policies aim to produce immunity to preventable diseases. Besides individual protection from getting ill, some vaccination policies also aim to provide the community as a whole with herd immunity, herd immunity refers to the idea that the pathogen will have trouble spreading when a significant part of the population has immunity against it. This protects those unable to get the due to health reasons, such as age, allergies. Each year, vaccination averts between two and three deaths, across all age groups, from diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis and measles. These diseases used to be among the causes of death worldwide. Now, many of these deaths are able to be avoided, the impact of immunization policy on vaccine-preventable diseases has been listed as one of the top public health achievements. With some vaccines, a goal of vaccination policies is to eradicate the disease - make it disappear from Earth altogether, the World Health Organization coordinated the global effort to eradicate smallpox globally. Victory is also claimed for getting rid of endemic measles, mumps, the last naturally occurring case of smallpox occurred in Somalia in 1977. In 1988, the body of WHO targeted polio for eradication by the year 2000. The next eradication target would most likely be measles, which has declined since the introduction of vaccination in 1963. Rational individuals will attempt to minimize the risk of illness, and will seek vaccination for themselves or their children if they perceive a threat of disease. To eliminate the risk of outbreaks, at various times governments. For example, an 1853 law required universal vaccination against smallpox in England and Wales, in the United States, the Supreme Court ruled in Jacobson v. Massachusetts that states could compel vaccination for the common good. A few other countries follow this practice. Compulsory vaccination greatly reduces infection rates for associated diseases, common objections included claims of excessive government intervention in personal matters or that proposed vaccinations were not sufficiently safe. Many modern vaccination policies allow exemptions for people with compromised immune systems, allergies to vaccination components and this opposition began with the first vaccinations, has not ceased, and probably never will
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Public housing
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Public housing may be a form of housing tenure in which the property is owned by a government authority, which may be central or local. Social housing can also be seen as a remedy to housing inequality. Some social housing organizations construct for purchase, particularly in Spain, although the common goal of public housing is to provide affordable housing, the details, terminology, definitions of poverty and other criteria for allocation vary within different contexts. The origins of municipal housing lie in the urban population increase caused by the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century. In the large cities of the period, many commentators, such as Octavia Hill and Charles Booth reported on the squalor, sickness. Henry Mayhew, visiting Bethnal Green, wrote in the The Morning Chronicle, roads were unmade, often mere alleys, houses small and without foundations, subdivided and often around unpaved courts. An almost total lack of drainage and sewerage was made worse by the ponds formed by the excavation of brickearth. Pigs and cows in back yards, noxious trades like boiling tripe, melting tallow, or preparing cats meat, and slaughter houses, dustheaps, and lakes of putrefying night soil added to the filth. Some philanthropists began to provide housing in tenement blocks, and some factory owners built entire villages for their workers, such as Saltaire in 1853 and it was in 1885, after the report from a Royal Commission in England, that the state first took an interest. This led to the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1885, nearly 6,000 individuals were crammed into the packed streets, where one child in four died before his or her first birthday. Arthur Morrison wrote the influential A Child of the Jago, an account of the life of a child in the slum, construction of the Boundary Estate was begun in 1890 by the Metropolitan Board of Works and completed by the recently formed London County Council in 1900. The success of this project spurred many local councils to embark on similar construction schemes in the early 20th century. The Arts and Crafts movement and Ebenezer Howards Garden city ideas led to the leafy London County Council cottage estates such as firstly Totterdown Fields and later Wormholt and Old Oak. The First World War indirectly provided a new impetus, when the physical health. In 1916, 41% of conscripts were unfit to serve, Public housing projects were tried out in some European countries and the United States in the 1930s, but only became widespread globally after the Second World War. Minha Casa Minha Vida, the Brazilian governments social housing program, was launched in March 2009 with a budget of R$36 billion to one million homes. The second stage of the program, included within the government Growth Acceleration Program was announced in March 2010 and this stage foresees the construction of a further two million homes. Of the total 3 million homes,1, all funds for Minha Casa Minha Vida properties are provided by the Brazilian public bank, Caixa Econômica Federal
31.
Politics of global warming
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Developing countries do not have cost effective access to the advanced energy technologies that they need for development. All parties that engage in such acts add to the politicization of the science of global warming, the result is a clouding of the reality of the global warming problem. Distrust between developed and developing countries at most international conferences that seek to address the topic add to the challenges, as an example, a gold mine might release a dangerous chemical byproduct into a waterway that kills the fish in the waterway, a clear environmental damage. By contrast, carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring colorless odorless trace gas that is essential to the biosphere, carbon dioxide is produced by all animals and utilized by plants and algae to build their body structures. Plant structures buried for tens of millions of years sequester carbon to form coal, oil, over 80% of the worlds energy is derived from carbon dioxide emitting fossil fuels and over 91% of the worlds energy is derived from non carbon-neutral energy sources. Scientists attribute the increases of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to industrial emissions, however, the scientific consensus is difficult for the average individual layperson to readily see and grasp. The vast majority of developed countries rely on carbon dioxide emitting energy sources for large components of their economic activity, in developing countries the challenges are slightly different. Developing countries see carbon dioxide emitting fossil fuels as a cost effective, sometimes renewable energy technologies are not readily available to developing countries because of cost or due to export restrictions from developed countries who own those technologies. Carbon dioxide emitting fossil fuels continue to be abundant and their prices are consequently low accounting in 2010 for over 80% of the energy needs. When a trees carbon is released into the atmosphere in a single pulse, current studies indicate that even after 50 years the forest has not recovered to its initial carbon storage and the optimal strategy is likely to be protection of the standing forest. After adjustment, carbon neutral renewables account for 4. 9% of the energy needs in 2010 with solar accounting for. 23%. A strong contributor to these decisions is that the technologies are not yet adequate to replace the role of fossil hydrocarbon fuels. According to IEA energy subsidies artificially lower the price of energy paid by consumers, fossil fuels subsidies costs generally outweigh the benefits. Subsidies to renewables and low-carbon energy technologies can bring long-term economic, the IEAs report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand. By contrast, Fossil-fuel consumption subsidies were $409 billion in 2010, renewable-energy subsidies were $66 billion in 2010 and will reach according to IEA $250 billion by 2035. Renewable energy is subsidized in order to compete in the market, increase their volume, eliminating fossil-fuel subsidies could bring economic and environmental benefits. Phasing out fossil-fuel subsidies by 2020 would cut primary energy demand 5%, since the start of 2010, at least 15 countries have taken steps to phase out fossil-fuel subsidies. According to IEA onshore wind may become competitive around 2020 in the European Union, the developing world sees economic and industrial development as a natural right and the evidence shows that the developing world is industrializing
32.
Space policy
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Space policy is the political decision-making process for, and application of, public policy of a state regarding spaceflight and uses of outer space, both for civilian and military purposes. International treaties, such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, attempt to maximize the peaceful uses of space and it also encompasses government regulation of third-party activities such as commercial communications satellites and private spaceflight. Space policy also encompasses the creation and application of space law, Space law is an area of the law that encompasses national and international law governing activities in outer space. There are currently five treaties that make up the body of space law. The inception of the field of law began with the launch of the worlds first artificial satellite by the Soviet Union in October 1957. Named Sputnik 1, the satellite was launched as part of the International Geophysical Year, since that time, space law has evolved and assumed more importance as mankind has increasingly come to use and rely on space-based resources. The Soviet Union became the worlds first spacefaring state by launching its first satellite, Sputnik 1, the President may also negotiate with other nations and sign space treaties on behalf of the US, according to his or her constitutional authority. Space advocacy organizations may provide advice to the government and lobby for space goals, the President is legally responsible for deciding which space activities fall under the civilian and military areas. In addition, the Department of Commerces National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration operates various services with space components, the President consults with NASA and Department of Defense on their space activity plans, as potential input for the policy draft submitted to Congress. These committees also exercise oversight over NASAs operations and investigation of such as the 1967 Apollo 1 fire. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee conducts hearings on proposed space treaties, Space policy efforts are supported by Congressional agencies such as the Congressional Research Service, the Congressional Budget Office, and Government Accountability Office. The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s, the National Aeronautics and Space Act creating NASA was passed in 1958, after the launch of the Soviet Sputnik 1 satellite. Thereafter, in response to the flight of Yuri Gagarin as the first man in space, Kennedy in 1961 committed the United States to landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. Although the costs of the Vietnam War and the programs of the Great Society forced cuts to NASAs budget as early as 1965, under the Nixon administration NASAs budget continued to decline and three of the planned Apollo Moon landings were cancelled. The Space Shuttle first launched in 1981, during Ronald Reagans administration, the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in January 1986 led to a reevaluation of the future of the national space program in the National Commission on Space report and the Ride Report. There is a current debate on the post-Space Shuttle future of the space program. The Vision for Space Exploration established under the George W. Bush administration in 2004 was replaced with a new policy released by Barack Obama on 28 June 2010, the European Space Agency is the common space agency for many European nations. The ESA was founded to serve as a counterweight to the dominant United States and Soviet space programs and this has included the development of the Ariane rockets, which by 1985 had captured over 40 percent of commercial launch market in the free world
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Social policy
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Social policy is a term which is applied to various areas of policy, usually within a governmental or political setting. It can refer to guidelines, principles, legislation and activities that affect the living conditions conducive to human welfare, such as a persons quality of life. Social policy might also be described as actions that affect the well-being of members of a society through shaping the distribution of and access to goods, Social policy often deals with wicked problems. The earliest example of direct intervention by government in human welfare dates back to Umar ibn al-Khattābs rule as the caliph of Islam in the 6th century. He used zakat collections and also other governmental resources to establish pensions, income support, child benefits, Social policy in the 21st century is complex and in each state it is subject to local and national governments, as well as supranational political influence. For example, membership of the European Union is conditional on member states adherence to the Social Chapter of European Union law, Social policy is an academic discipline focusing on the systematic evaluation of societies responses to social need. It was established in the part of the 20th century as a complement to social work studies. One can reasonably argue there is not a clear and comprehensive definition of social policy. This is probably because social policy is more an area of study than a discipline, scholars studied and categorized social security systems on the basis of their modes of intervention. Of course, each state system includes a mixture of these elements. Others emphasize social insurance mechanisms, i. e. Germany, still other focus on social assistance for the poor, i. e. the United Kingdom. Social policy aims to human welfare and to meet human needs for education, health, housing. Moreover, Social Darwinism helped mold Americas ideas of capitalism and the survival of the fittest mentality, the Catholic Churchs social teaching has also been considerably influential to the development of social policy. The programs were in response to the Great Depression affecting the United States in the 1930s, an American education policy proposal from a Republican president is the No Child Left Behind Act. This Act took effect on January 8,2002, and was put in place to raise standards in education so different individuals can have better educational outcomes, the No Child Left Behind Act requires every state to assess students on basic skills to receive federal funding. However, this Act did not create a standard since each state develops their own set of standards. Critics of most all social policies point toward a depiction of a state on the make of a Hobbesian Leviathan. Social Policy & Administration Titmuss, R. M, the three worlds of welfare capitalism
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