1.
Order of the Garter
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The Most Noble Order of the Garter, founded in 1348, is the highest order of chivalry and the third most prestigious honour in England and the United Kingdom. It is dedicated to the image and arms of Saint George and it is awarded at the Sovereigns pleasure as a personal gift on recipients from the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. Membership of the Order is limited to the Sovereign, the Prince of Wales, the order also includes supernumerary knights and ladies. New appointments to the Order of the Garter are always announced on St Georges Day, the orders emblem is a garter with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense in gold lettering. Members of the wear it on ceremonial occasions. King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter around the time of his claim to the French throne, the list includes Sir Sanchet DAbrichecourt, who died on 20 October 1345. Other dates from 1344 to 1351 have also been proposed, the Kings wardrobe account shows Garter habits first issued in the autumn of 1348. Also, its original statutes required that member of the Order already be a knight. The earliest written mention of the Order is found in Tirant lo Blanch and it was first published in 1490. This book devotes a chapter to the description of the origin of the Order of the Garter, at the time of its foundation, the Order consisted of King Edward III, together with 25 Founder Knights, listed in ascending order of stall number in St.1431. Various legends account for the origin of the Order, the most popular legend involves the Countess of Salisbury, whose garter is said to have slipped from her leg while she was dancing at a court ball at Calais. When the surrounding courtiers sniggered, the king picked it up and returned it to her, exclaiming, Honi soit qui mal y pense, King Edward supposedly recalled the event in the 14th century when he founded the Order. This story is recounted in a letter to the Annual Register in 1774, The motto in fact refers to Edwards claim to the French throne, the use of the garter as an emblem may have derived from straps used to fasten armour. Medieval scholars have pointed to a connection between the Order of the Garter and the Middle English poem, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, in Gawain, a girdle, very similar in its erotic undertones to the garter, plays a prominent role. A rough version of the Orders motto also appears in the text and it translates from Old French as Accursed be a cowardly and covetous heart. While the author of that poem remains disputed, there seems to be a connection between two of the top candidates and the Order of the Garter. Scholar J. P. Oakden has suggested that it is related to John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, and, more importantly. Another competing theory is that the work was written for Enguerrand de Coucy, the Sire de Coucy was married to King Edward IIIs daughter, Isabella, and was given admittance to the Order of the Garter on their wedding day
2.
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Its membership mainly comprises senior politicians, who are present or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the Council also holds the delegated authority to issue Orders of Council, mostly used to regulate certain public institutions. The Council advises the sovereign on the issuing of Royal Charters, which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies, otherwise, the Privy Councils powers have now been largely replaced by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Counsellors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland, the key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below, Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England. During the reigns of the Norman monarchs, the English Crown was advised by a court or curia regis. The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation, administration, later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice, nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council, powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament. During Henry VIIIs reign, the sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation, the legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIIIs death. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became an administrative body. The Council consisted of forty members in 1553, but the sovereign relied on a smaller committee, by the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws, the forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons, the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, de facto military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs, the Council became known as the Protectors Privy Council, its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliaments approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy, the Protectors Council was abolished, Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small group of advisers. Under George I even more power transferred to this committee and it now began to meet in the absence of the sovereign, communicating its decisions to him after the fact. Thus, the British Privy Council, as a whole, ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the sovereign and it is closely related to the word private, and derives from the French word privé
3.
Carte de visite
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The carte de visite, abbreviated CdV, was a type of small photograph which was patented in Paris by photographer André Adolphe Eugène Disdéri in 1854, although first used by Louis Dodero. It was usually made of a print, which was a thin paper photograph mounted on a thicker paper card. The size of a carte de visite is 54.0 mm ×89 mm mounted on a card sized 64 mm ×100 mm, in 1854, Disdéri had also patented a method of taking eight separate negatives on a single plate, which reduced production costs. The Carte de Visite was slow to gain widespread use until 1859 and this made the format an overnight success. The new invention was so popular it was known as cardomania and it spread throughout Europe and then quickly to America, each photograph was the size of a visiting card, and such photograph cards were traded among friends and visitors. Albums for the collection and display of cards became a fixture in Victorian parlors. The immense popularity of these card photographs led to the publication and collection of photographs of prominent persons. By the early 1870s, cartes de visite were supplanted by cabinet cards, which were also usually albumen prints, cabinet cards remained popular into the early 20th century, when Kodak introduced the Brownie camera and home snapshot photography became a mass phenomenon. The carte de visite photograph proved to be a popular item during the American Civil War. Soldiers, friends and family members would have a means of obtaining photographs. Photos of Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and other celebrities of the era became an instant hit in the North, people were not only buying photographs of themselves, but also collecting photographs of celebrities. Cabinet card Postcard Business card Gernsheim, Helmut, dr. Robert Leggat MA M. Ed Ph. D. The history of photograph Silkenat, David, a Typical Negro, Gordon, Peter, Vincent Coyler, and the Story Behind Slaverys Most Famous Photograph. Available on Wisconsin Historical Images, the Wisconsin Historical Societys online image database, also included are 64 photographs attributed to Mathew Brady. Southern Cartes de Visite Collection, A. S, williams III American Collection, Division of Special Collections, University of Alabama Libraries. Over 3300 digitized cartes-de-visite, the majority of them from southern studios, the Carte de Visite file at the New-York Historical Society Cartes de Visite of California photographers at Beinecke Library
4.
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign
5.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
6.
John Russell, 1st Earl Russell
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Scion of one of the most powerful aristocratic families, his great achievements, says A. J. P. Nevertheless Russell led his Whig Party into support for reform, he was the architect of the great Reform Act of 1832. As Prime Minister his luck ran out and he headed a government that failed to deal with a famine in Ireland that caused the loss of a quarter of its population. Taylor concludes that as minister, he was not a success. Russell was born small and premature into the highest echelons of the British aristocracy, as a younger son of a Duke, he bore the courtesy title Lord John Russell, but he was not a peer in his own right. He was, therefore, able to sit in the House of Commons until he was made an earl in 1861, after being withdrawn from Westminster School due to ill health, Russell was educated by tutors. He attended the University of Edinburgh,1809 and 1812, he did not take a degree, during his continental travels, Russell had a 90-minute meeting with Napoleon in December 1814 during the former emperors exile at Elba. Russell entered the House of Commons as a Whig in 1813, in 1819, Russell embraced the cause of parliamentary reform, and led the more reformist wing of the Whigs throughout the 1820s. When the Whigs came to power in 1830 in Earl Greys government, Russell entered the government as Paymaster of the Forces, and was soon elevated to the Cabinet. He was one of the leaders of the fight for the Reform Act 1832. In 1834, when the leader of the Commons, Lord Althorp, succeeded to the peerage as Earl Spencer and this appointment prompted King William IV to terminate Lord Melbournes government, the last time in British history that a monarch dismissed a prime minister. Nevertheless Russell retained his position for the rest of the decade, during his career in Parliament, Lord John Russell represented the City of London. Taylor emphasises Russells central role in the expansion of liberty and in leading his Whig Party to a commitment to a reform agenda. In 1845, as leader of the Opposition, Russell came out in favour of repeal of the Corn Laws, in June the following year the Corn Laws were repealed but only by virtue of Whig support. The same day Peels Irish Coercion Bill, which the Whigs did not support, was defeated, Russell became Prime Minister, this time Grey not objecting to Palmerstons appointment. Russell’s government introduced reforms such as the Ten Hours Act and measures to improve the training of teachers and his premiership was frustrated, however, because of party disunity and infighting, and he was unable to secure the success of many of the measures he was interested in passing. He fought with his headstrong Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, whose belligerence, in 1847 Palmerston provoked a confrontation with the French government by undermining the plans of the Spanish court to marry the young Spanish Queen and her sister into the French royal family. The Government prevailed but Palmerston came out of the affair with his popularity at new heights since he was seen as the champion of defending British citizens anywhere in the world, Palmerston was forced to resign when he recognised Napoleon IIIs coup of 2 December 1851, without royal approval
7.
Benjamin Disraeli
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Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS was a British politician and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He played a role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies. Disraeli is remembered for his voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone. He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and he is the only British Prime Minister of Jewish birth. Disraeli was born in Bloomsbury, then part of Middlesex and his father left Judaism after a dispute at his synagogue, young Benjamin became an Anglican at the age of 12. After several unsuccessful attempts, Disraeli entered the House of Commons in 1837, in 1846 the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel split the party over his proposal to repeal the Corn Laws, which involved ending the tariff on imported grain. Disraeli clashed with Peel in the Commons, Disraeli became a major figure in the party. When Lord Derby, the party leader, thrice formed governments in the 1850s and 1860s and he also forged a bitter rivalry with Gladstone of the Liberal Party. Upon Derbys retirement in 1868, Disraeli became Prime Minister briefly before losing that years election and he returned to opposition, before leading the party to a majority in the 1874 election. He maintained a friendship with Queen Victoria, who in 1876 created him Earl of Beaconsfield. Disraelis second term was dominated by the Eastern Question—the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire, Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company. This diplomatic victory over Russia established Disraeli as one of Europes leading statesmen, World events thereafter moved against the Conservatives. Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support and he angered British farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap imported grain. With Gladstone conducting a speaking campaign, his Liberals bested Disraelis Conservatives in the 1880 election. In his final months, Disraeli led the Conservatives in opposition and he had throughout his career written novels, beginning in 1826, and he published his last completed novel, Endymion, shortly before he died at the age of 76. Disraeli was born on 21 December 1804 at 6 Kings Road, Bedford Row, Bloomsbury, London, the child and eldest son of Isaac DIsraeli, a literary critic and historian. The family was of Sephardic Jewish Italian mercantile background, All Disraelis grandparents and great grandparents were born in Italy, Isaacs father, Benjamin, moved to England from Venice in 1748. Disraelis siblings were Sarah, Naphtali, Ralph, and James and he was close to his sister, and on affectionate but more distant terms with his surviving brothers
8.
Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston
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Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, KG, GCB, PC, FRS was a British statesman who served twice as Prime Minister in the mid-19th century. For most of 1830 to 1865 he dominated British foreign policy when Britain was at the height of her power and he succeeded to his fathers Irish peerage in 1802. He became a Tory MP in 1807, and was made Secretary at War in 1809 and he held the job until 1828, entering the cabinet in 1827 when George Canning became Prime Minister. Less than a later he resigned with other Canningites. In opposition he switched his focus to foreign policy, and he was Foreign Secretary when the Whigs were in power, dealing with a succession of crises in Europe and beyond. Some of his actions, now sometimes termed liberal interventionist, were highly controversial at the time. In 1852 he became Home Secretary in Aberdeens coalition government, the Peelites having insisted on Russell getting the Foreign Office and he passed various social reforms but opposed electoral ones. He had two periods in office, 1855–1858 and 1859–1865, before dying at almost 81, a few months after winning an election with an increased majority. He remains, to date, the last Prime Minister to die in office and his policies regarding India, Italy, Belgium and Spain had long-term impact, while his policies toward France, the Ottoman Empire, and the United States proved more ephemeral. He was a master of public opinion, achieved by stroking British nationalism and his weaknesses include mishandling of personal relations, and long-standing disagreements with the Queen over the royal role in determining foreign policy. Palmerston built a popular following among the British electorate, by promoting himself, British nationalism. He assiduously fostered the press, which gave him very favourable coverage, Queen Victoria and most of the political leadership distrusted him, but his popular strength prevailed. Henry John Temple was born in his familys Westminster house to the Irish branch of the Temple family on 20 October 1784, Henry was to become the 3rd Viscount Palmerston. His family derived their title from the Peerage of Ireland and his father was Henry Temple, 2nd Viscount Palmerston, and his mother Mary, daughter of Benjamin Mee, a London merchant. From 1792 to 1794, the young future Lord Palmerston accompanied his family on a long Continental tour, whilst in Italy Palmerston acquired an Italian tutor, who taught him to speak and write fluent Italian. He was educated at Harrow School, admiral Sir Augustus Clifford, 1st Bt. was a fag to Palmerston, Viscount Althorp and Viscount Duncannon and later remembered Palmerston as by far the most merciful of the three. Palmerston was often engaged in fights and fellow Old Harrovians remembered Palmerston as someone who stood up to bullies twice his size. Palmerstons father took him to the House of Commons in 1799, Palmerston was then at the University of Edinburgh, where he learnt political economy from Dugald Stewart, a friend of the Scottish philosophers Adam Ferguson and Adam Smith
9.
George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen
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The Aberdeen ministry was filled with powerful and talented politicians, whom Aberdeen was largely unable to control and direct. Despite trying to avoid this happening, it took Britain into the Crimean War, aberdeens career was dominated by foreign policy, but his experience did not prevent the slide towards the Crimean War. His personal life was marked by the loss of parents by the time he was eleven, and of his first wife after only seven years of a happy marriage. His daughters died young, and his relations with his sons were difficult, before his marriage he travelled extensively in Europe, including Greece, and he had a serious interest in the classical civilisations and their archaeology. On his return to Britain in 1805 he devoted much time, after the death of his wife in 1812 he became a diplomat, almost immediately being given the important embassy to Vienna while still in his twenties. After holding the position for two years, followed by another role, by 1841 his experience led to his appointment as Foreign Secretary again under Robert Peel for a longer term. This was despite his being a bad speaker, which mattered far less in the House of Lords. Nonetheless his Peelite colleague, later himself Prime Minister, William Ewart Gladstone, I have loved others, but never like him. Born in Edinburgh on 28 January 1784, he was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord Haddo, son of George Gordon and his mother was Charlotte, youngest daughter of William Baird of Newbyth. He lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795 and was brought up by Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville and he was educated at Harrow, and St Johns College, Cambridge, where he graduated with a Master of Arts in 1804. Before this, however, he had become Earl of Aberdeen on his grandfathers death in 1801, on his return to England, he founded the Athenian Society. In 1805, he married Lady Catherine Elizabeth, daughter of John Hamilton, in December 1805 Lord Aberdeen took his seat as a Tory Scottish representative peer in the House of Lords. In 1808, he was created a Knight of the Thistle, following the death of his wife from tuberculosis in 1812 he joined the Foreign Service. He was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Austria, in the company of the Austrian Emperor, Francis II he was an observer at the decisive Coalition victory of the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, he had met Napoleon in his earlier travels. Aberdeen was greatly affected by the aftermath of war which he witnessed at first hand and he wrote home, The near approach of war and its effects are horrible beyond what you can conceive. The whole road from Prague to was covered with full of wounded, dead. The shock and disgust and pity produced by such scenes are beyond what I could have supposed possible. the scenes of distress, I have been quite haunted by them. Returning home he was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon, of Aberdeen in the County of Aberdeen, and made a member of the Privy Council
10.
Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
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The Leader of Her Majestys Most Loyal Opposition is the politician who leads the official opposition in the United Kingdom. The current Leader of the Opposition is Jeremy Corbyn, leader of the Labour Party, the Leader of the Opposition is normally viewed as an alternative prime minister, and is appointed to the Privy Council. They lead an Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet which scrutinises the actions of the Cabinet led by the prime minister, There is also a Leader of the Opposition in the House of Lords. In the nineteenth century party affiliations were generally fixed and leaders in the two Houses were often of equal status. A single, clear Leader of the Opposition was only definitively settled if the leader in Commons or Lords was the outgoing prime minister. However, since the Parliament Act 1911 there has been no dispute that the leader in the House of Commons is pre-eminent, the Leader of the Opposition is entitled to a salary in addition to their salary as a Member of Parliament. In 2010, this additional entitlement was available up to £73,617, the first modern Leader of the Opposition was Charles James Fox, who led the Whigs as such for a generation, except during the Fox–North Coalition in 1783. He finally rejoined the government in 1806, and died later that year, for there to be a recognised Leader of the Opposition, it is necessary for there to be a sufficiently cohesive opposition to need a formal leader. The emergence of the office coincided with the period when wholly united parties became the norm. This situation was normalised in the Parliament of 1807–1812, when the members of the Grenvillite and Foxite Whig factions resolved to maintain a joint, dual-house leadership for the whole party. The Ministry of all the Talents, in which both Whig factions participated fell at the 1807 general election, during which the Whigs had re-adopted traditional factions, the prime minister of the Talents ministry, Lord Grenville had led his eponymous faction from the House of Lords. Meanwhile, the government leader of the House of Commons, Viscount Howick, led his faction, howicks father, the 1st Earl Grey died on 14 November 1807. As such the new Earl Grey vacated his seat in the House of Commons and this left no obvious Whig leader in the House of Commons. Grenvilles article in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography confirms that he was considered the Whig leader in the House of Lords between 1807 and 1817, despite Grey leading the larger faction. Grenville and Grey, political historian Archibald Foord describes as being duumvirs of the party from 1807 to 1817, Grenville was at first reluctant to name a Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, commenting. All the elections in the world would not have made Windham or Sheridan leaders of the old Opposition while Fox was alive, eventually they jointly recommended George Ponsonby to the Whig MPs, whom they accepted as the first Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons. Ponsonby proved a leader but as he could not be persuaded to resign. Lord Grenville retired from politics in 1817, leaving Grey as the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Lords
11.
Robert Peel
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Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet, FRS, PC, a British statesman and member of the Conservative Party, served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and twice as Home Secretary. He is regarded as the father of modern British policing and as one of the founders of the modern Conservative Party and he entered the House of Commons in 1809 under the tutelage of his father and of Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington. Peel was widely seen as a star in the Conservative Party and served in various junior ministerial offices, becoming Chief Secretary for Ireland. He cut tariffs to stimulate trade, to replace the lost revenue he pushed through a 3% income tax and he played a central role in making free trade a reality and set up a modern banking system. In 1830 the Whigs finally returned to power and Peel became a member of the Opposition for the first time, Peel then issued the Tamworth Manifesto, laying down the principles upon which the modern British Conservative Party is based. His first ministry was a minority government, dependent on Whig support, after only four months, his government collapsed and he served as Leader of the Opposition during the second government of the Viscount Melbourne. Peel declined to head another minority government in May 1839, prompting a political crisis and he finally became Prime Minister again after the 1841 general election. His second government ruled for five years - its major legislation included the Mines and Collieries Act 1842, the Income Tax Act 1842, the Factories Act 1844, Peels government was weakened by anti-Irish and anti-Catholic sentiment following the controversial Maynooth Grant of 1845. After the outbreak of the Great Irish Potato Famine, his decision to join with Whigs, Peel remained an influential backbench MP and leader of the Peelite faction until his death in 1850. Peel often started from a traditional Tory position in opposition to a measure, then reversed his stance, Peel, a Conservative, achieved repeal with the support of the Whigs in Parliament, overcoming the opposition of most of his own party. Many critics accordingly saw him as a traitor to the Tory cause, or as a Liberal wolf in sheeps clothing, taylor says, Peel was in the first rank of 19th century statesman. He carried Catholic Emancipation, he repealed the Corn Laws, he created the modern Conservative Party on the ruins of the old Toryism. Peel was born at Chamber Hall, Bury, Lancashire, to the industrialist and parliamentarian Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet and his father was one of the richest textile manufacturers of the early Industrial Revolution. Peel was educated briefly at Bury Grammar School, at Hipperholme Grammar School, then at Harrow School and finally Christ Church, Oxford and he was a law student at Lincolns Inn in 1809 before entering Parliament. Peel saw part-time military service as a Captain in the Manchester Regiment of Militia in 1808, Peel entered politics in 1809 at the age of 21, as MP for the Irish rotten borough of Cashel, Tipperary. With a scant 24 electors on the rolls, he was elected unopposed and his sponsor for the election was the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, with whom Peels political career would be entwined for the next 25 years. Peel made his speech at the start of the 1810 session. His speech was a sensation, famously described by the Speaker, Charles Abbot, as chief secretary in Dublin in 1813, he proposed the setting up of a specialist police force, later called peelers
12.
William Ewart Gladstone
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William Ewart Gladstone, FRS, FSS was a British Liberal and earlier conservative politician. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times, more than any other person, Gladstone was also Britains oldest Prime Minister, he resigned for the final time when he was 84 years old. Gladstone first entered Parliament in 1832, beginning as a High Tory, Gladstone served in the Cabinet of Sir Robert Peel. After the split of the Conservatives Gladstone was a Peelite – in 1859 the Peelites merged with the Whigs, as Chancellor Gladstone became committed to low public spending and to electoral reform, earning him the sobriquet The Peoples William. Gladstones first ministry saw many reforms including the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland, after his electoral defeat in 1874, Gladstone resigned as leader of the Liberal Party, but from 1876 began a comeback based on opposition to Turkeys reaction to the Bulgarian April Uprising. Gladstones Midlothian Campaign of 1879–80 was an example of many modern political campaigning techniques. The government also passed the Third Reform Act, Back in office in early 1886, Gladstone proposed Irish home rule but this was defeated in the House of Commons in July. The resulting split in the Liberal Party helped keep out of office, with one short break. In 1892 Gladstone formed his last government at the age of 82, the Second Home Rule Bill passed the Commons but was defeated in the Lords in 1893. Gladstone resigned in March 1894, in opposition to increased naval expenditure and he left Parliament in 1895 and died three years later aged 88. Gladstone was known affectionately by his supporters as The Peoples William or the G. O. M, Gladstone is consistently ranked as one of Britains greatest Prime Ministers. Born in 1809 in Liverpool, at 62 Rodney Street, William Ewart Gladstone was the son of the slave-owning merchant Sir John Gladstone. Although born and brought up in Liverpool, William Gladstone was of purely Scottish ancestry, in 1814 young Willy visited Scotland for the first time, as he and his brother John travelled with their father to Edinburgh, Biggar and Dingwall to visit their relatives. William and his brother were both made freemen of the burgh of Dingwall, in 1815 Gladstone also travelled to London and Cambridge for the first time with his parents. In London he attended a service of thanksgiving with his family at St Pauls Cathedral following the Battle of Waterloo, William Gladstone was educated from 1816 to 1821 at a preparatory school at the vicarage of St Thomass Church at Seaforth, close to his familys residence, Seaforth House. In December 1831 he achieved the double first-class degree he had long desired, Gladstone served as President of the Oxford Union debating society, where he developed a reputation as an orator, which followed him into the House of Commons. At university Gladstone was a Tory and denounced Whig proposals for parliamentary reform, following the success of his double first, William travelled with his brother John on a Grand Tour of Europe, visiting Belgium, France, Germany and Italy. On his return to England, William was elected to Parliament in 1832 as Tory Member of Parliament for Newark, partly through the influence of the local patron, the Duke of Newcastle
13.
Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey
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Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, KG, PC, known as Viscount Howick between 1806 and 1807, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 22 November 1830 to 16 July 1834. A member of the Whig Party, he backed significant reform of the British government and was among the architects of the Reform Act 1832. His government also saw the abolition of slavery in the British Empire, in addition to his political achievements, he has come to be associated with Earl Grey tea, named after him. He had four brothers and two sisters, Grey was elected to Parliament for the Northumberland constituency on 14 September 1786, aged just 22. He became a part of the Whig circle of Charles James Fox, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and the Prince of Wales and he was the youngest manager on the committee for prosecuting Warren Hastings. No advantage of fortune or connection was wanting that could set off to the height his splendid talents, at twenty-three he had been thought worthy to be ranked with the veteran statesmen who appeared as the delegates of the British Commons, at the bar of the British nobility. All who stood at that bar, save him alone, are gone, culprit, advocates, to the generation which is now in the vigour of life, he is the sole representative of a great age which has passed away. Grey was also noted for advocating Parliamentary reform and Catholic emancipation and his affair with the Duchess of Devonshire, herself an active political campaigner, did him little harm although it nearly caused her to be divorced by her husband. In 1806, Grey, by then Lord Howick owing to his fathers elevation to the peerage as Earl Grey, following Foxs death later that year, Howick took over both as Foreign Secretary and as leader of the Whigs. The government fell from power the year, and, after a brief period as a member of parliament for Appleby from May to July 1807, Howick went to the Lords. He continued in opposition for the next 23 years, there were times during this period when Grey came close to joining the Government. In 1811, the Prince Regent tried to court Grey and his ally William Grenville to join the Spencer Perceval ministry following the resignation of Lord Wellesley, Grey and Grenville declined because the Prince Regent refused to make concessions regarding Catholic Emancipation. Greys relationship with the Prince was strained further when his daughter and heiress, Princess Charlotte. On the Napoleonic Wars, Grey took the standard Whig party line, Grey was then slow to recognise the military successes of Moores successor, the Duke of Wellington. In 1826, believing that the Whig party no longer paid any attention to his opinions, when Wellington became Prime Minister in 1828, George IV singled out Grey as the one person he could not appoint to the Government. In 1830, following the death of George IV and when the Duke of Wellington resigned on the question of Parliamentary reform, in 1831, he was made a member of the Order of the Garter. His term was a one, seeing passage of the Reform Act 1832, which finally saw the reform of the House of Commons. It was the issue of Ireland which precipitated the end of Greys premiership in 1834, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Lord Stanley, however, preferred coercive measures
14.
F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich
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He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom between August 1827 and January 1828. A member of the landowning aristocracy, Robinson entered politics through family connections. In the House of Commons he rose through junior ministerial ranks, in 1823 he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer, a post he held for four years. In 1827 he was raised to the peerage, and in the House of Lords was Leader of the House and Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. When the Prime Minister, George Canning, died in 1827 Goderich succeeded him and he resigned after 144 days in office. After leaving the premiership Goderich served in the cabinets of two of his successors, Earl Grey and Sir Robert Peel. Robinson was born at Newby Hall, Yorkshire, the son of Thomas Robinson, 2nd Baron Grantham. He was educated at a school at Sunbury-on-Thames, and, from 1796 to 1799. William Pitt the Younger was Member of Parliament for Cambridge University, to which, as The Times said, Robinson was an accomplished classicist, winning Sir William Brownes Medal for the best Latin ode in 1801. After graduating in 1802 he was admitted to Lincolns Inn and he remained a member there until 1809, but did not pursue a legal career and was not called to the bar. Against the background of the Napoleonic Wars Robinson did part-time military service at home as Captain, Robinson entered politics through a family connection. His mothers cousin, the third Earl of Hardwicke, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, two years later Hardwicke secured for him the parliamentary seat of Carlow, a pocket borough near Dublin. In 1807 Robinson gave up the seat and was elected as MP for Ripon, in his first years in Parliament Robinson declined offers of junior ministerial posts, out of deference to his patron Hardwicke, who was an opponent of the Prime Minister, the Duke of Portland. However, the Foreign Secretary, George Canning, chose him as the secretary of Lord Pembrokes mission to Vienna, aimed at securing a new treaty of alliance between Britain and Austria. The mission was unsuccessful, but Robinsons reputation was not damaged and his political thinking was greatly influenced by Canning, but he became the protégé of Cannings rival Lord Castlereagh, who appointed him his under-secretary at the War Office in May 1809. When Castlereagh resigned from the government in October, unwilling to serve under the new Prime Minister, Spencer Perceval, in June 1810 he accepted office as a member of the Admiralty board. At the time of Percevals assassination early in 1812, he was absent from parliament ostensibly on militia duties in Yorkshire. He was made a Privy Counsellor in August 1812, In 1814 Robinson married Lady Sarah Albinia Louisa Hobart, daughter of the Earl of Buckinghamshire, there were three children of the marriage, only one of whom survived to adulthood
15.
Thomas Spring Rice, 1st Baron Monteagle of Brandon
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Thomas Spring Rice, 1st Baron Monteagle of Brandon PC FRS FGS was a British Whig politician, who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1835 to 1839. Spring Rice was born into a notable Anglo-Irish family, which owned estates in Munster. He was a grandson of Sir Stephen Rice, Chief Baron of the Irish Exchequer. His only married sister, Mary, was the mother of the Catholic converts Aubrey Thomas de Vere, poet, Spring Rices grandfather, Edward, had converted the family from Roman Catholicism to the Anglican Church of Ireland, to save his estate from passing in gavelkind. Spring Rice was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and later studied law at Lincolns Inn and his family was politically well-connected, both in Ireland and Great Britain, and he was encouraged to stand for Parliament by his father-in-law, Lord Limerick. Spring Rice first stood for election in Limerick City in 1818 but was defeated by the Tory incumbent, John Vereker and he won the seat in 1820 and entered the House of Commons. He positioned himself as a moderate unionist reformer who opposed the radical nationalist politics of Daniel OConnell, in 1824 he led the committee which established the Ordnance Survey in Ireland. Spring Rices fluent debating style in the Commons brought him to the attention of leading Whigs, as a result, Spring Rice was made Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department under George Canning and Lord Goderich in 1827, with responsibility for Irish affairs. This required Spring Rice to accept deferral of Catholic emancipation, a policy which he strongly supported, Spring Rice then served as joint Secretary to the Treasury from 1830 to 1834 under Lord Grey. Following the Reform Act 1832, he was elected to represent Cambridge from 1832 to 1839. In June 1834, Grey appointed Spring Rice Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, with a seat in the cabinet, a strong and vocal unionist throughout his life, Spring Rice led the Parliamentary opposition to Daniel OConnells 1834 attempt to repeal the Acts of Union 1800. In a six-hour speech in the House of Commons on 23 April 1834 he suggested that Ireland should be renamed West Britain, in the Commons, Spring Rice also championed causes such as the worldwide abolition of slavery and the introduction of state-supported education. The Whig government fell in November 1834, after which Spring Rice attempted to be elected Speaker of the House of Commons in early 1835, when the Whigs returned to power under Melbourne in April 1835, Spring Rice was made Chancellor of the Exchequer. As Chancellor, Spring Rice had to deal with crop failures and his Church Rate Bill of 1837 was quickly abandoned and his attempt to revise the charter of the Bank of Ireland ended in humiliation. Spring Rice, unhappy as Chancellor, again tried to be elected as Speaker and he was a dogmatic figure, described by Lord Melbourne as too much given to details and possessed of no broad views. Upon his departure from office in 1839, Spring Rice had become a scapegoat for the many problems. That same year he was raised to the peerage as Baron Monteagle of Brandon, in the County of Kerry, Lord Monteagle of Brandon was also Comptroller General of the Exchequer from 1835 to 1865, despite Lord Howicks initial opposition to the maintenance of the office. Monteagle differed from the government regarding the control over the treasury
16.
Chief Secretary for Ireland
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The Chief Secretary for Ireland was a key political office in the British administration in Ireland. The Chief Secretary was ex officio President of the Local Government Board for Ireland from its creation in 1872, British rule over much of Ireland came to an end as the result of the Irish War of Independence, which culminated in the establishment of the Irish Free State. In consequence the office of Chief Secretary was abolished, as well as that of Lord Lieutenant, the dominant position of the Lord Lieutenant at Dublin Castle had been central to the British administration of the Kingdom of Ireland for much of its history. The appointment of a Secretary was intended to both improve Irish administration, and to keep the Lord Lieutenant in line. The role of Secretary of State for Ireland and Chief Secretary of Ireland were originally distinct positions, while the Irish administration was not responsible to the parliament, it nevertheless needed to manage and influence it in order to ensure the passage of key legislative measures. In 1800 the Act of Union was passed by the Irish parliament, merging the kingdom into the new United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with effect from 1 January 1801. The Chief Secretaryship was of importance in the run-up to the eventual enactment, on the second attempt, of the Act of Union. The Chief Secretarys exercise of patronage and direct bribery were central to delivering a majority for the Union. Upon the Union the Irish parliament ceased to exist, however, the existing system of administration in Ireland continued broadly in place, with the offices of Lord Lieutenant and Chief Secretary retaining their respective roles
17.
Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge
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Field Marshal Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge GCB, PC, PC was a British Army officer and politician. After serving in the Peninsula War and the Waterloo Campaign he became Secretary at War in Wellingtons ministry, after a tour as Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1830 he became Secretary at War again in Sir Robert Peels cabinet. He went on to be Governor-General of India at the time of the First Anglo-Sikh War, in February 1806 he was sent to the newly formed Staff College at High Wycombe. He was promoted to major on 13 April 1809 and appointed deputy-quartermaster-general in the Portuguese army and was present at many of the battles of the Peninsular War. He took part in the Battle of Vitoria on 21 June 1813, where he was wounded again, and was present at the Battle of the Pyrenees in July 1813. He commanded the Portuguese brigade at the Battle of Orthez on 27 February 1814 and he was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in January 1815. When war broke out again in 1815 after Napoleons escape from Elba, Wellington presented him with a sword that had belonged to Napoleon. Hardinge remained attached to the Prussian army of occupation in France until 1818 and he was promoted to brevet colonel on 19 July 1821 and to major-general on 22 July 1830. In 1820 Hardinge was returned to parliament as member for Durham, on 4 April 1823 he was appointed Clerk of the Ordnance and on 9 June 1828 he accepted the office of Secretary at War in Wellingtons ministry. Returned as Member of Parliament for St Germans in 1830, for Newport in 1831 and for Launceston in 1832 and he was Secretary at War once again in Sir Robert Peels cabinet from 1841 to 1844. He was promoted to lieutenant-general in 1841, in May 1844 he succeeded Lord Ellenborough as Governor-General of India. He was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 1 July 1844, following the death of Maharajah Ranjit Singh tribal war broke out and the first Sikh War ensued in 1845. Hardinge, waiving his right to the command, offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh Gough. At the Battle of Mudki on 18 December 1845 Gough commanded the right flank and he was created Viscount Hardinge of Lahore and of Kings Newton in Derbyshire on 7 April 1846. Hardinge returned to England in 1848, and became Master-General of the Ordnance on 5 March 1852 and he was promoted to brevet general on 20 June 1854 and field marshal on 2 October 1855. A commission was set up to investigate the failings of the British military during the Crimean campaign, as Hardinge was delivering the report of the commission to Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, he collapsed with a stroke. Albert helped him to a sofa, where despite being paralysed on one side, he continued to deliver his report and he was also colonel of the 97th Regiment of Foot from 4 March 1833 and of the 57th Regiment of Foot from 31 May 1843. Hardinge resigned his office of commander-in-chief in July 1856, owing to failing health, there is a memorial to him at St John the Baptist, Penshurst
18.
John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton
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John Cam Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton, GCB PC FRS, known as Sir John Hobhouse, Bt, from 1831 to 1851, was a British politician and diarist. Born at Redland near Bristol, Broughton was the eldest son of Sir Benjamin Hobhouse, 1st Baronet and he was educated at Westminster School and at Trinity College, Cambridge. At Trinity College Hobhouse became friends with Lord Byron, and accompanied him in his journeys in the Peninsula, Greece and Turkey, and acted as his best man. In 1816 he was with Byron after his separation from his wife, and contributed notes to the fourth canto of Childe Harold, which was dedicated to him. On his return he threw himself into politics with great energy as an advanced Radical, and wrote various pamphlets, for one of which he was in 1819 imprisoned in Newgate. Also in that year, he spoke the words, I am a man chosen for the people, by the people. In 1820, he entered Parliament, sitting for Westminster, Hobhouse is credited with the invention of the phrase His Majestys Opposition made in 1826 during a speech in the House of Commons. He was later President of the Board of Control under Lord Melbourne between 1835 and 1841 and under Lord John Russell between 1846 and 1852. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1832 and raised to the peerage as Baron Broughton, of Broughton-de-Gyfford in the County of Wiltshire, in 1852 he was also made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. Lord Broughton married Lady Julia, daughter of George Hay, 7th Marquess of Tweeddale, Lady Julia died from tuberculosis in April 1835. Lord Broughton survived her by over 30 years and died in June 1869 and he is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, London. The large and distinctive monument lies on the pathway to the central chapel. His barony died with him, as he had no heirs, whilst the baronetcy created for his father passed to Broughtons nephew. He published Journey through Albania, Historical Illustrations of the Fourth Canto of Childe Harold, and Recollections of a Long Life, for private circulation, and he left in MS. Diaries, Correspondence, and Memoranda, etc. not to be opened till 1900, extracts from which were published by his daughter, Lady Dorchester, also under the title of Recollections from a Long Life. Italy, Remarks Made in Several Visits, from the Year 1816 to 1854, Murray, reissued by Cambridge University Press,2009,1859, ISBN 978-1-108-00398-8. John Cam Hobhouse, Lord Broughton, Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. Vol. IV, New York, Charles Scribners Sons,1878, pp. 381–382. John Cam Hobhouse, Baron Broughton, Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. Vol. IV, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1911 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Cousin, John William
19.
Robert Wilmot-Horton
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Sir Robert John Wilmot-Horton, 3rd Baronet, GCH, PC, FRS was a British politician, pamphleteer and colonial administrator during the first third of the 19th century. Born Robert John Wilmot, Wilmot-Horton was the son of Sir Robert Wilmot, 2nd Baronet, of Osmaston, near Derby. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, Wilmot-Horton was a Canningite supporter of free trade and Catholic emancipation among the Tories. He sat as a Member of Parliament for Newcastle-under-Lyme from 1818 until 1830 and he served under the Earl of Liverpool, George Canning and Lord Goderich as Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies from 1821 to 1827 and was sworn of the Privy Council in 1827. He reorganised the Colonial Office, including dividing the Empire into areas with a clerk responsible for administering each area. He managed to establish a committee on emigration and served as its chairman between 1826 and 1827. In this position he pushed for a plan where so called paupers gave up their rights to parish maintenance in return for grants of land in the colonies, however, the plans were dropped after Wilmot-Horton left the Colonial Office in 1827. In 1831 Wilmot-Horton was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Hanoverian Order by William IV and it was also the only school in Asia which was Accredited by Her Majesty. In 1834 he succeeded his father as third Baronet and he returned to Britain in 1837. Wilmot-Horton married Anne Beatrix Horton, daughter and co-heiress of Eusebius Horton, of the Catton Hall estate in Derbyshire and they had four sons and three daughters. In 1823 he inherited the Catton Hall estate on the death of his father-in-law and he died at Sudbrooke Park, Petersham, in May 1841, aged 56, and was succeeded in the baronetcy by his eldest son, Robert. Horton Plains was named after Sir Robert in 1834 by Lt William Fisher of the 78th Regiment, Horton Place in Colombo was named after the Governor. His memorial is located in St John the Baptists Church, Croxall, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Sir Robert Wilmot-Horton
20.
Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere
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Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere KG, PC, known as Lord Francis Leveson-Gower until 1833, was a British politician, writer, traveller and patron of the arts. Ellesmere Island, an island in Nunavut, the Canadian Arctic, was named after him. Ellesmere was the son of George Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland and his wife. He was born at 21 Arlington Street, Piccadilly, London, on 1 January 1800, Egerton entered Parliament in 1822 as member for the pocket borough of Bletchingley in Surrey, a seat he held until 1826. He afterwards sat for Sutherland between 1826 and 1831, and for South Lancashire between 1835 and 1846. Appointed a Lord of the Treasury in 1827, he held the post of Chief Secretary for Ireland from 1828 till July 1830, when he became Secretary at War for a short time during the last Tory ministry. In 1833 he assumed, by Royal Licence, the surname of Egerton, having succeeded on the death of his father to the estates which the latter inherited from the Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater. In 1846 he was raised to the peerage as Earl of Ellesmere, of Ellesmere in the County of Salop, with the subsidiary title Viscount Brackley, Ellesmere was a member of the Canterbury Association from 27 March 1848. In 1849, the surveyor of the Canterbury Association, Joseph Thomas. Ellesmeres claims to remembrance are founded chiefly on his services to literature, in 1839 he visited the Mediterranean and the Holy Land. His impressions of travel were recorded in Mediterranean Sketches and in the notes to a poem entitled The Pilgrimage and he published several other works in prose and verse. His literary reputation secured for him the position of rector of the University of Aberdeen in 1841, a singular exception to the artistic and literary character of Ellesmeres writing efforts lay in the field of military theory. Ellesmere, as a protegé of the Duke of Wellington, became interested in the historical writings of the Prussian military theorist General Carl von Clausewitz. He was involved in the discussion that ultimately compelled Wellington to write an essay in response to Clausewitzs study of the Waterloo campaign of 1815, Ellesmere himself anonymously published a translation of Clausewitzs The Campaign of 1812 in Russia, a subject in which Wellington was also deeply interested. Lord Ellesmere was a munificent and yet discriminating patron of artists, to the collection of pictures which he inherited from his great-uncle, the 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, he made numerous additions, and he built a gallery to which the public were allowed free access. Lord Ellesmere served as president of the Royal Geographical Society and as president of the Royal Asiatic Society and he also initiated the collection of the National Portrait Gallery, by donating the Chandos portrait of Shakespeare. On 18 June 1822, he married Harriet Catherine Greville, a great-great-granddaughter of the 5th Baron Brooke, the family lived at Hatchford Park, Cobham, Surrey, where Lady Ellesmere laid out the gardens. Her mother, Lady Charlotte Greville died at Hatchford Park on 28 July 1862, Francis died on 18 February 1857 at his London home, Bridgwater House, St. James Park, and was succeeded by his first son, George
21.
Knowsley Hall
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Knowsley Hall is a stately home near Liverpool in the Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley, Merseyside, England. Since 1953 it has designated a Grade II* listed building, and is the ancestral home of the Stanley family. The hall is surrounded by 2,500 acres of parkland, the hall is still owned by the Stanley family but is no longer a family home and instead used for functions such as corporate events, conferences and weddings. Originally Knowsley was a hunting lodge in the estate of Lathom House. It was inherited by the 10th Earl in 1702 who developed the lodge into a large house, a dairy was designed by Robert Adam, 1776-77. The house was given Gothic castellations and extended further about 1820 to designs by John Foster, William Burn, in the early 20th century it was tidied up by W. H. Romaine-Walker for the 17th Earl. After the Second World War, the buildings were reduced by Claud Phillimore. A smaller - but still substantial - family residence was built in the park, Thomas Stanley was rewarded with the title of Earl Derby in 1485 by Henry VII as a reward for his support at the Battle of Bosworth Field which led to Henrys gaining the crown. The title was taken from the area in South Lancashire called West Derby, in 1495 Thomas entertained Henry VII at Lathom House and at Knowsley, which was then still a hunting lodge. Thomas, the second Earl, fought with Henry VIII at the Battle of the Spurs in 1513, ferdinando, the fifth Earl, was a poet and a patron of writers, including William Shakespeare. He held the position of Earl for only one year before dying from arsenic poisoning, James, seventh Earl, was involved in the Civil War as a Royalist supporter of Charles I. Charlotte, his wife, withstood a siege at Lathom Hall for ten weeks in 1644, James fought with Charles I at the Battle of Worcester, was taken prisoner and beheaded at Bolton. He became known as the Martyr Earl, the massive rebuilding of Knowsley in the early 18th century was carried out by James, the tenth Earl who had become wealthy through his marriage. Edward, the twelfth Earl had a great interest in horseracing and founded the Derby and he created the State Dining Room for the visit of George IV in 1820–21. In the grounds of Knowsley he maintained a menagerie which contained 94 different species of mammals and 318 species of birds, many of which were rare and valuable. Edward, the 13th Earl created a library of works relating to natural history and was a champion of Edward Lear. Edward, the 14th Earl was a politician who became Prime Minister three times and he was responsible for steering the Slavery Abolition Act through Parliament and in his third administration the Second Reform Bill was passed. The political tradition was maintained by Frederick, the 16th Earl who became President of the Board of Trade, while in Canada he presented the Stanley Cup, the countrys premier trophy for ice hockey
22.
Conservative Party (UK)
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The Conservative Party, officially the Conservative and Unionist Party, is a political party in the United Kingdom. It is currently the party, having won a majority of seats in the House of Commons at the 2015 general election. The partys leader, Theresa May, is serving as Prime Minister. It is the largest party in government with 8,702 councillors. The Conservative Party is one of the two major political parties in the United Kingdom, the other being its modern rival. The Conservative Partys platform involves support for market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defence, deregulation. In the 1920s, the Liberal vote greatly diminished and the Labour Party became the Conservatives main rivals, Conservative Prime Ministers led governments for 57 years of the twentieth century, including Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher. Thatchers tenure led to wide-ranging economic liberalisation, the Conservative Partys domination of British politics throughout the twentieth century has led to them being referred to as one of the most successful political parties in the Western world. The Conservatives are the joint-second largest British party in the European Parliament, with twenty MEPs, the party is a member of the Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe Europarty and the International Democrat Union. The party is the second-largest in the Scottish Parliament and the second-largest in the Welsh Assembly, the party is also organised in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. The Conservative Party traces its origins to a faction, rooted in the 18th century Whig Party and they were known as Independent Whigs, Friends of Mr Pitt, or Pittites. After Pitts death the term Tory came into use and this was an allusion to the Tories, a political grouping that had existed from 1678, but which had no organisational continuity with the Pittite party. From about 1812 on the name Tory was commonly used for the newer party, the term Conservative was suggested as a title for the party by a magazine article by J. Wilson Croker in the Quarterly Review in 1830. The name immediately caught on and was adopted under the aegis of Sir Robert Peel around 1834. Peel is acknowledged as the founder of the Conservative Party, which he created with the announcement of the Tamworth Manifesto, the term Conservative Party rather than Tory was the dominant usage by 1845. In 1912, the Liberal Unionists merged with the Conservative Party, in Ireland, the Irish Unionist Alliance had been formed in 1891 which merged anti-Home Rule Unionists into one political movement. Its MPs took the Conservative whip at Westminster, and in essence formed the Irish wing of the party until 1922. The Conservatives served with the Liberals in an all-party coalition government during World War I, keohane finds that the Conservatives were bitterly divided before 1914, especially on the issue of Irish Unionism and the experience of three consecutive election losses
23.
Whigs (British political party)
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The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Whigs origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy. The Whigs played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760. The Whig Supremacy was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714, the Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession, and local offices. The Partys hold on power was so strong and durable, historians call the period from roughly 1714 to 1783 the age of the Whig Oligarchy. The first great leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government through the period 1721–1742, his protégé was Henry Pelham, who led from 1743 to 1754. Both parties were founded on rich politicians, more than on votes, there were elections to the House of Commons. The Whig Party slowly evolved during the 18th century, later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the royal family. The term Whig was originally short for whiggamor, a term meaning cattle driver used to describe western Scots who came to Leith for corn. In the reign of Charles I the term was used during Wars of the Three Kingdoms to refer derisively to a faction of the Scottish Covenanters who called themselves the Kirk Party. It was then applied to Scottish Presbyterian rebels who were against the Kings Episcopalian order in Scotland, Whig was a term of abuse applied to those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. The fervent Tory Samuel Johnson often joked that the first Whig was the Devil, the Whigs, under Lord Shaftesburys leadership, wished to exclude the Duke of York from the throne due to his Catholicism, his favouring of monarchical absolutism and his connections to France. They believed the Duke, if allowed to inherit the throne, would endanger the Protestant religion, liberty, the first Exclusion Bill was supported by a substantial majority on its second reading in May 1679. In response, King Charles prorogued Parliament and then dissolved it and this new parliament did not meet for thirteen months, because Charles wanted to give passions a chance to die down. When it met in October 1680, an Exclusion Bill was introduced and passed in the Commons without major resistance, Charles dissolved Parliament in January 1681, but the Whigs did not suffer serious losses in the ensuing election. The next Parliament first met in March, at Oxford, but Charles dissolved it only after a few days, when he made an appeal to the country against the Whigs, and determined to rule without Parliament. In February, Charles had made a deal with the French King Louis XIV, without Parliament, the Whigs gradually crumbled, mainly due to the Rye House Plot
24.
Edward Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby
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Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby KG PC FRS, known as Lord Stanley from 1851 to 1869, was a British statesman. He served as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs twice, from 1866 to 1868, the Stanleys were one of the richest landowning families in England. In March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of Lancaster, and then made a tour in the West Indies, Canada. During his absence he was elected member for Kings Lynn, which he represented till October 1869 and he took his place, as a matter of course, among the Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech in May 1850 on the sugar duties. Just before, he had made a brief tour in Jamaica. In 1852 he went to India, and while travelling in that country he was appointed under-secretary for foreign affairs in his fathers first administration, on 11 March 1853, he was commissioned a captain in the 3rd Royal Lancashire Militia. He was much tempted by the proposal, and hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father, what brings you here. —Has Dizzy cut his throat, or are you going to be married. When the object of his appearance had been explained, the Conservative chief received the courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but favour. On 13 May 1856, he was appointed to the Royal Commission on the purchase of commissions in the British army. After the revolution in Greece and the disappearance of King Otto, Lord Stanley was the prime favourite as an occupant of this bed of thorns, and it has been said that he was actually offered the crown. That, however, is not true, the offer was never formally made, after the fall of the Russell government in 1866 he became Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in his fathers third administration. He compared his conduct in that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it encountered. He thought that that should be the attitude of an English foreign minister. In 1874 he again became Foreign Secretary in Disraelis government, disraeli usually gets the main credit for a series of achievements. In 1875 came the purchase of the shares in the Suez Canal company. By negotiations, Russia gave up substantial gains in the Balkans, Britain gains control of Cyprus from the Ottomans as a naval base covering the Eastern Mediterranean. In exchange, Britain guaranteed the Asiatic territories of the Ottoman Empire, Britain did not do well in conflicts in Afghanistan and South Africa. Derby acquiesced in Disraelis purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered dangerous by many people and he accepted the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin Memorandum
25.
Frederick Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby
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An avid sportsman, he built Stanley House Stables in England, and is famous in North America for presenting Canada with the Stanley Cup. Stanley was also one of the inductees of the Hockey Hall of Fame. Derby was the son of Prime Minister Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby. He was born in London and was educated at Eton and Sandhurst and he received a commission in the Grenadier Guards, rising to the rank of Captain. Derby left the army for politics, serving as a Conservative Member of Parliament, in government, he served as a Civil Lord of the Admiralty, Financial Secretary to the War Office, Secretary to the Treasury, War Secretary and Colonial Secretary. In 1886 he was created Baron Stanley of Preston, in the County Palatine of Lancaster and he served as President of the Board of Trade, remaining in that office until he was appointed Governor General of Canada. Stanley was appointed the Governor General of Canada and Commander in Chief of Prince Edward Island on 1 May 1888, during his term as Governor General, he travelled often and widely throughout the country. During his visit he dedicated Stanley Park, which is named after him and he also experienced the joys of fishing and avidly pursued the sport whenever his busy schedule allowed. When Sir John A. Macdonald died in office of heart failure on 6 June 1891 and he asked Sir John Abbott to take over as prime minister. Once the government was in place, Abbott resigned for health reasons, Derby helped cement the non-political role of the governor general when, in 1891, he refused to agree to a controversial motion in the House of Commons. The opposition to the bill was introduced by the provinces who were motivated by mistrust of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec. Derby declined to interfere, citing the proposed disallowal as unconstitutional, in holding to this decision, he gained popularity by refusing to compromise the viceregal position of political neutrality. Derbys wife, whom Sir Wilfrid Laurier described as an able and witty woman, in 1891, she founded the Lady Stanley Institute for Trained Nurses on Rideau Street, the first nursing school in Ottawa. She was also a fan of hockey games at the Rideau Rink. Derbys sons became avid ice hockey players in Canada, playing in amateur leagues in Ottawa, in 1892, Derby gave Canada a treasured national icon, the Stanley Cup. He originally donated the trophy as a cup for Canadas best amateur hockey club. Since 1926, only teams of the National Hockey League have competed for the trophy and this now famous cup bears Derbys name as tribute to his encouragement and love of outdoor life and sport in Canada. In recognition of this, Derby was inducted into the Canadian Hockey Hall of Fame in 1945 in the Honoured Builders category, the original size of the Stanley Cup was 7 inches and is now around 36 inches and 35 pounds
26.
Edward Smith-Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby
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The Derbyan parakeet, Psittacula derbiana, is named after him. He was the 1st child and only son of Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby and Elizabeth Hamilton, daughter of James Hamilton, on 10 November 1796, he was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Lancashire. He was commissioned the colonel of the 1st Battalion of the Lancashire Supplementary Militia on 1 March 1797 and he was breveted as a colonel in the regular Army with seniority from that date, retaining the rank until his regiment was disembodied, which occurred at the end of 1799. He resigned his commission as colonel on 13 April 1847, on 30 June 1798 he married Charlotte Margaret Hornby, daughter of Reverend Geoffrey Hornby, with whom he fathered future Prime Minister Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby. In 1834 he succeeded his father as 13th Earl of Derby and withdrew from politics, instead concentrating on his natural history collection at Knowsley Hall, near Liverpool. He had a collection of living animals, at his death there were 1,272 birds and 345 mammals at Knowsley. Lord Derby was also the patron of the writer Edward Lear, many of Derbys collections are now housed in Liverpool museum. From 1828 to 1833 he was President of the Linnean Society, the TAL & Dai-ichi Life Derby Collection at the State Library of New South Wales
27.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
28.
Christ Church, Oxford
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Christ Church is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. The college is associated with Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, which serves as the college chapel and it is the second wealthiest Oxford college by financial endowment with an endowment of £436m as of 2015. Christ Church has produced thirteen British prime ministers, more than any other Oxbridge college, the college was the setting for parts of Evelyn Waughs Brideshead Revisited, as well as a small part of Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland. More recently it has used in the filming of the movies of J. K. Rowlings Harry Potter series. Distinctive features of the architecture have been used as models by a number of other academic institutions, including the National University of Ireland, Galway. The University of Chicago and Cornell University both have reproductions of Christ Churchs dining hall, christChurch Cathedral in New Zealand, after which the City of Christchurch is named, is itself named after Christ Church, Oxford. Stained glass windows in the cathedral and other buildings are by the Pre-Raphaelite William Morris group with designs by Edward Burne-Jones, Christ Church is also partly responsible for the creation of University College Reading, which later gained its own Royal Charter and became the University of Reading. The first female undergraduates matriculated at Christ Church in 1980 and he planned the establishment on a magnificent scale, but fell from grace in 1529, with the buildings only three-quarters complete, as they were to remain for 140 years. In 1531 the college was suppressed, but it was refounded in 1532 as King Henry VIIIs College by Henry VIII. Since the time of Queen Elizabeth I the college has also associated with Westminster School. The dean remains to this day an ex member of the schools governing body. Major additions have made to the buildings through the centuries. To this day the bell in the tower, Great Tom, is rung 101 times at 9 pm at the former Oxford time every night, in former times this was done at midnight, signalling the close of all college gates throughout Oxford. Since it took 20 minutes to ring the 101, Christ Church gates, unlike those of other colleges, when the ringing was moved back to 9,00 pm, Christ Church gates still remained open until 12.20,20 minutes later than any other college. Although the clock itself now shows GMT/BST, Christ Church still follows Oxford time in the timings of services in the cathedral, King Charles I made the Deanery his palace and held his Parliament in the Great Hall during the English Civil War. In the evening of 29 May 1645, during the siege of Oxford. During the Commonwealth, John Owen attained considerable eminence, the Visitor of Christ Church is the reigning British sovereign, and the Bishop of Oxford is unique among English bishops in not being the Visitor of his own cathedral. The head of the college is the Dean of Christ Church, There are a senior and a junior censor the former of whom is responsible for academic matters, the latter for undergraduate discipline
29.
Reform Act 1867
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The Representation of the People Act 1867,30 &31 Vict. c.102 was a piece of British legislation that enfranchised part of the urban male working class in England and Wales for the first time. Before the Act, only one million of the seven million adult males in England and Wales could vote, moreover, by the end of 1868 all male heads of household were enfranchised as a result of the end of compounding of rents. However, the Act introduced only a negligible redistribution of seats, the overall intent was to help the Conservative Party, yet it resulted in their loss of the 1868 general election. After 1848, this movement declined rapidly, and elite opinion began to change and it was thus only 28 years after the initial, quite modest, Great Reform Act that leading politicians thought it prudent to introduce further electoral reform. Lord John Russell, who in 1861 became the first Earl Russell, attempted this in 1860, but the Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, when Palmerston died in 1865, however, the floodgates for reform were opened. Influential commentators included Walter Bagehot, Thomas Carlyle, Anthony Trollope, Karl Marx, in 1866, the Prime Minister, Lord Russell, introduced a Reform Bill. It was a bill, which proposed to enfranchise respectable working men, excluding unskilled workers and what was known as the residuum. This was ensured by a £7 householder qualification, which had been calculated to require an income of 26 shillings a week and this entailed two fancy franchises, emulating measures of 1854, a £10 lodger qualification for the boroughs, and a £50 savings qualification in the counties. Liberals claimed that the classes, strengthened by the best of the artisans. When it came to the vote, however, this split the Liberal Party, a split partly engineered by Benjamin Disraeli. On one side were the reactionary conservative Liberals, known as the Adullamites, the Adullamites were supported by Tories and the liberal Whigs were supported by radicals and reformists. The bill was defeated and the Liberal government of Russell resigned. The Conservatives formed a ministry on 26 June 1866, led by Lord Derby as Prime Minister and they were faced with the challenge of reviving Conservatism, Palmerston, the powerful Liberal leader, was dead and the Liberal Party split and defeated. Thanks to manoeuvring by Disraeli, Derbys Conservatives saw an opportunity to be a strong, viable party of government, however, the Adullamites, led by Robert Lowe, had already been working closely with the Conservative Party. Despite the fact that he had blocked the Liberal Reform Bill, in February 1867, by this time the attitude of many in the country had ceased to be apathetic regarding reform of the House of Commons. Huge meetings, especially the ‘Hyde Park riots, and the feeling that many of the working class were respectable, had persuaded many that there should be a Reform Bill. However, wealthy Conservative MP Lord Cranborne resigned his government ministry in disgust at the bills introduction, the Reform League, agitating for universal suffrage, became much more active, and organized demonstrations of hundreds of thousands of people in Manchester, Glasgow, and other towns. Though these movements did not normally use revolutionary language as some Chartists had in the 1840s, the high point came when a demonstration in May 1867 in Hyde Park was banned by the government
30.
Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the childs immediate family. Given names are used in a familiar and friendly manner in informal situations. In more formal situations the surname is commonly used, unless it is necessary to distinguish between people with the same surname. The idioms on a basis and being on first-name terms allude to the familiarity of addressing another by a given name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe. The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is used in East Asia, as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India. The order given name - fathers family name - mothers family name is used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain using given name - mothers family name - fathers family name, under the common Western naming convention, people may have one or more forenames. If more than one, there is usually a main forename for everyday use, sometimes however two or more forenames may carry equal weight. There is no particular ordering rule for forenames – often the main forename is at the beginning, a childs given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a ceremony, with family. In most jurisdictions, a name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate. In western cultures, people normally retain the same name throughout their lives. However, in some cases names may be changed by petitioning a court of law. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions, in France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, like in Sweden, restrict the spelling of names, parents may choose a name because of its meaning
31.
Eton College
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Eton College /iːtən/ is an English independent boarding school for boys in Eton, Berkshire, near Windsor. It educates more than 1,300 pupils, aged 13 to 18 years and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as The Kings College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor, making it the 18th oldest Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference school. Eton is one of the seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Eton has educated 19 British prime ministers and generations of the aristocracy and has referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The school is headed by a Provost and Fellows, who appoint the Head Master and it contains 25 boys houses, each headed by a housemaster, selected from the more senior members of the teaching staff, which numbers some 155. Almost all of the pupils go on to universities, about a third of them to Oxford or Cambridge. The Head Master is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. David Cameron was the 19th British prime minister to have attended the school, about 20% of pupils at Eton receive financial support, through a range of bursaries and scholarships. In early 2014, this figure had risen to 263 pupils receiving the equivalent of around 60% of school fee assistance, Eton has been described as the most famous public school in the world, and been referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The Good Schools Guide called the school the number one public school, adding that The teaching. The school is a member of the G20 Schools Group, Eton today is a larger school than it has been for much of its history. In 1678, there were 207 boys, in the late 18th century, there were about 300, while today, the total has risen to over 1,300. Eton College was founded by King Henry VI as a charity school to free education to 70 poor boys who would then go on to Kings College, Cambridge. Henry took Winchester College as his model, visiting on many occasions, borrowing its Statutes and removing its Headmaster, when Henry VI founded the school, he granted it a large number of endowments, including much valuable land. He persuaded the then Pope, Eugene IV, to grant him a privilege unparalleled anywhere in England, the school also came into possession of one of Englands Apocalypse manuscripts. Legend has it that Edwards mistress, Jane Shore, intervened on the schools behalf and she was able to save a good part of the school, although the royal bequest and the number of staff were much reduced. Construction of the chapel, originally intended to be slightly over twice as long, only the Quire of the intended building was completed. Etons first Headmaster, William Waynflete, founder of Magdalen College, Oxford and previously Head Master of Winchester College, as the school suffered reduced income while still under construction, the completion and further development of the school has since depended to some extent on wealthy benefactors
32.
Rotten and pocket boroughs
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The same terms were used for similar boroughs represented in the 18th-century Parliament of Ireland. Old Sarum in Wiltshire was the most notorious pocket borough and it was a possession of the Pitt family from the mid-17th century until 1802, and one of its Members of Parliament was Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder. In 1802 the Pitt family sold it for £60,000, even though the land, a parliamentary borough was a town which was incorporated under a royal charter, giving it the right to send two elected burgesses as Members of Parliament to the House of Commons. As voting was by show of hands at a polling station at a single time. Often only one candidate would be nominated, so that the election was uncontested, many of these ancient boroughs elected two MPs. By the time of the 1831 general election, out of 406 elected members,152 were chosen by fewer than 100 voters each, the Ballot Act 1872 introduced the secret ballot, which greatly hindered patrons from controlling elections by preventing them from knowing how an elector had voted. At the same time, the practice of paying or entertaining voters was outlawed, the word rotten had the connotation of corruption as well as long-term decline. In such boroughs most or all of the few electors could not vote as they pleased, due to the lack of a secret ballot and their dependency on the owner of the borough. Only rarely were the views or personal character of a taken into consideration. Some had once been important places or had played a role in Englands history. Despite this dramatic loss of population, the borough of Old Sarum retained its right to elect two MPs. Commonly also they sold them for money or other favours, the peers who controlled such boroughs had an influence in Parliament as they themselves held seats in the House of Lords. This patronage was based on property rights which could be inherited and passed on to heirs, or else sold, one seat was controlled from the mid-17th century to 1832 by the Treby family of Plympton House. Bramber in West Sussex had 35 houses and 20 voters Callington in Cornwall had 225 houses and 42 voters and it was a pocket borough of the Rolle family of Heanton Satchville and Stevenstone in Devon. Trim in County Meath Before being awarded a peerage, Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, as there was no secret ballot until 1872, the landowner could evict electors who did not vote for the man he wanted. A common expression referring to such a situation was that Mr A had been elected on Lord Bs interest, some rich individuals controlled several boroughs, for example, the Duke of Newcastle is said to have had seven boroughs in his pocket. The representative of a borough was often the man who owned the land. Pocket boroughs were seen by their 19th-century owners as a method of ensuring the representation of the landed interest in the House of Commons
33.
Stockbridge, Hampshire
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Stockbridge is a small town, civil parish and conservation area in west Hampshire, England,65 miles from London. It has an area of 1,323 acres and a population of little under 600 people according to the 2001 census and it sits astride the Test and at the foot of Stockbridge Down. It is in the Test Valley borough which shares local government with Hampshire County Council, the A30 road goes through the town, which once carried most of the traffic from London to Dorset, south Somerset, Devon and Cornwall in the South West. However, engineering of the A303 dual carriageway today provides a flatter, unimpeded route in the north by Andover used for travel between the regions mentioned, just as the M4 replaced the A4. The bridge over the Test led to the name, allegedly as a coach stop where provisions could be taken aboard, in fact because an earlier bridge was made of stocks. Salisbury is 15 miles by road, Winchester is 8.3 miles by the B3049 road that joins the A30 by the town and this historic town is en route from the medieval cathedral cities of Winchester and Salisbury. The towns street crosses the River Test, marking the border of the parishes of Stockbridge, five smaller river channels flow through the town. For a brief time, to space for fish, these were split into eight artificial ditches just above the town. The town is on a shared pedestrian/footpath, the Test Way, the place-name Stockbridge is first attested in Charter Rolls of 1239, where it appears as Stocbrigge. In Inquisitiones post mortem of 1258 it appears as Stokbregg, the name means stock bridge, referring to a bridge constructed from stocks. Stockbridge was the scene of the capture of Robert of Gloucester by William of Ypres in 1141, Edward I stayed in Stockbridge in August 1294, as did the last Catholic King, James II, on his way to Salisbury to meet the forces of the Prince of Orange. He dined at the Swan Inn in November 1688, which still exists, the town was given the right to hold a market before 1190 in the reign of Richard I, reviewed and confirmed in 1200 and extended to an annual three-day fair by Henry III. As in the 12th century, the town consists almost wholly of one wide street. By the mid-Tudor era, under Edward VI, the wealthy burgages numbered 58, partly in consequence of this, hampshires four tourist Pocket Guides cover the traditional towns of Stockbridge, Alresford, Bishops Waltham and Wickham. Maitland then to Charles Warner then to Francis Hardinge and then to the nationally famous person mentioned below. In 1714, Mr Steele one of the members of parliament was forced out for bribery, the Reform Act 1832 resulted in the end of the borough. Stockbridge had a station on the Andover & Redbridge Railway. This closed in 1967 under the Beeching cuts, only the chancel measuring about 8 metres by 5 metres, some of the windows and the graveyard survive of the original parish church at the eastern end of the town, now known as Old St Peters Church
34.
Joseph Hume
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Joseph Hume FRS was a Scottish doctor and Radical MP. He was born the son of a shipmaster in Montrose, Angus and he studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh and moved to India in 1797. There, he was commissioned as a surgeon to an Army regiment and his knowledge of chemistry helped him provide the administration with a method to recover damp gunpowder in 1802, on the eve of Lord Lakes Maratha war. In 1808, he resigned and returned home with a fortune of about £40,000, between 1808 and 1811, he travelled around England and Europe and, in 1812, published a blank verse translation of The Inferno. In 1812, he purchased a seat in Parliament for Weymouth, Dorset, England, when the parliament was dissolved the patron refused to return his money, and Hume brought an action to recover part of it. Six years later, Hume again entered the House, and made acquaintance with James Mill and the philosophical reformers of the school of Jeremy Bentham. In 1818, soon after his marriage with Miss Burnley, the daughter of an East India Company director, he was returned to Parliament as member for the Aberdeen Burghs, Borders, Scotland. He was afterwards successively elected for Middlesex, England, Kilkenny, Ireland and for the Montrose Burghs, Montrose, Scotland, in the service of which constituency he died. From the date of his re-entering Parliament, Hume became the guardian of the public purse. In 1820, he secured the appointment of a committee to report on the expense of collecting tax revenue and he was very active and became known as someone who gave Chancellors of the Exchequer no peace. He exercised a check on extravagance, and helped to abolish the sinking fund and it was he who caused the word retrenchment to be added to the Radical programme peace and reform. He carried on a successful warfare against the old anti-trade union combination laws that hampered workmen and he brought about the repeal of the laws prohibiting the export of machinery, and of the act preventing workmen from going abroad. He constantly protested against flogging in the army, the impressment of sailors and he was conspicuous in the agitation raised by the so-called Orange plot to set aside William IV of the United Kingdom in favour of Ernest Augustus I of Hanover. His action as trustee for the notorious Greek loan in 1824 was at least not delicate, in 1837 he initiated a plan for a memorial to the Scottish Political Martyrs. In February 1852, a monument to the Scottish Political Martyrs, again initiated by Hume, was unveiled at Nunhead Cemetery. He died at his seat, Burnley Hall, Norfolk in 1855 and is buried to the north-east of the chapel in Kensal Green Cemetery in London next to his good friend William Williams. A memorial of Hume was published by his son Joseph Burnley Hume, a statue of Hume stands in the High Street of Montrose, at its intersection with Hume Street. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Joseph Hume Bio at History of Parliament Online
35.
Church of Ireland
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The Church of Ireland is a Christian church in Ireland and an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion. It is organised on a basis and is the second-largest Christian church on the island after the Catholic Church in Ireland. Like other Anglican churches, it has retained elements of pre-Reformation practice, notably its episcopal polity, nevertheless, in theological and liturgical matters, it incorporates many principles of the Reformation, particularly those espoused during the English Reformation. The church self identifies as being both Catholic and Reformed, within the church, differences exist between those members who are more Catholic-leaning and those who are more Protestant-leaning. For historical and cultural reasons, the Church of Ireland is generally identified as a Protestant church, the Church of Ireland is the second-largest in the Republic of Ireland, with around 130,000 members, and the third-largest in Northern Ireland, with around 260,000 members. The Church of Ireland describes itself as part of the Irish Church which was influenced by the Reformation. However, the Church of Ireland is also Protestant, or Reformed, since it opposes doctrines and ways of worshiping that it considers contrary to scripture and which led to the Reformation. When the Church of England broke communion with the Holy See, all, the church then became the established church of Ireland, assuming possession of most church property. This church-state link was vigorously applied when the Normans came to Ireland in the 12th century, Bishops were required to do homage to the king for their lands, just like earls and barons, who were vassals of the crown. It was therefore accepted, both during and after the Reformation, that the crown should continue to exercise authority over the church. In this way, church property that existed at the time of the Reformation, in Ireland, the substantial majority of the population continued to adhere to Roman Catholicism, despite the political and economic advantages of membership in the state church. Legitimacy for the Norman invasion of Ireland was derived from a Papal Bull of 1155 – Laudabiliter, the bull gave King Henry II of England authority to invade Ireland ostensibly as a means of reforming the church in Ireland more directly under the control of the Holy See. The authorisation from the Holy See was based upon the Donation of Constantine which made every Christian island in the western Roman Empire the property of the Papacy. The Church of Ireland is the second largest church in Ireland, the Church of Ireland began as a reformed church independent of the Catholic Church in 1536 when the Irish Parliament declared King Henry VIII to be the Supreme Head of the Church on earth. He would not legally become king of Ireland until 1541, adrian granted Henry II the Lordship of Ireland, thus, Henrys assumption of the title of King had less to do with dispossessing the native Irish kings than with confronting the Pope. The reformation commenced mainly in Dublin under the auspices of George Browne during Henrys reign, when the Church of England was reformed under King Edward VI of England, so too was the Church of Ireland. All but two of the Irish bishops appointed by Queen Mary accepted the Elizabethan Settlement, although the vast majority of priests, the Church of Ireland claims Apostolic succession because of the unbroken continuity of the episcopal hierarchy, however, this is disputed by the Roman Catholic Church. In this way, they were able to conform to the established church whilst at the same time continuing to worship. in the traditional
36.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
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Lord Lieutenant was the title of the chief governor of Ireland from the Williamite Wars of 1690 till the Partition of Ireland in 1922. This spanned the Kingdom of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the office, under its various names, was often more generally known as the viceroy, from the French vice roi or deputy king, and his wife was known as the vicereine. The government of Ireland in practice was usually in the hands of the Lord Deputy up to the 17th century, although in the Middle Ages some Lords Deputy were Irish noblemen, only men from Great Britain, usually peers, were appointed to the office of Lord Lieutenant. The Kings representative possessed a number of overlapping roles and he was the representative of the King, the head of the executive in Ireland, a member of the English or British Cabinet, the font of mercy, justice and patronage, commander-in-chief in Ireland. His Government exercised effective control of parliament through the exercise of the powers of patronage, namely the awarding of peerages, baronetcies. Critics accused successive viceroys of using their power as a corrupt means of controlling parliament. On one day in July 1777, Lord Buckinghamshire as Lord Lieutenant promoted 5 viscounts to earls,7 barons to viscounts, under-Secretary for Ireland, The head of the civil service in Ireland. Lord Justices, Three office-holders who acted in the Lord Lieutenants stead during his absence, the Lord Justices were before 1800 the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, the Speaker of the Irish House of Commons, and the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh as Primate of All Ireland. Lords Lieutenant were appointed for no set term but served for His/Her Majestys pleasure, in reality that meant for as long as wished by the British Government. Where a ministry fell, the Lord Lieutenant was usually replaced by a supporter of the new ministry, until the 16th century, Irish or Anglo-Irish noblemen such as the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare traditionally held the post of Justiciar or Lord Deputy. Following the plantations, however, noblemen from Great Britain were given the post, the last Irish Catholic to hold the position was Lord Tyrconnell from 1685–91, during the brief Catholic Ascendancy in the reign of James II that was ended by the Williamite war in Ireland. Until 1767 none of the latter lived full-time in Ireland, instead they resided in Ireland during meetings of the Irish Parliament. However the British cabinet decided in 1765 that full-time residency should be required to enable the Lord Lieutenant to keep a eye on public affairs in Ireland. The office was restricted to members of the Anglican faith, the first Catholic appointed to the post since the reign of the Catholic King James II was in fact the last viceroy, Lord FitzAlan of Derwent, in April 1921. His appointment was possible because the Government of Ireland Act 1920 ended the prohibition on Catholics being appointed to the position, FitzAlan was also the only Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ever to hold office when the former Ireland was partitioned into Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland. The post ebbed and flowed in importance, being used on occasion as a form of exile for prominent British politicians who had fallen foul of the Court of St. Jamess or Westminster, on other occasions it was a stepping stone to a future career. Two Lords Lieutenant, Lord Hartington and the Duke of Portland, instead it was the Chief Secretary for Ireland who became central, with he, not the Lord Lieutenant, sitting on occasion in the British cabinet. The official residence of the Lord Lieutenant was the Viceregal Apartments in Dublin Castle, the Geraldine Lords Deputy, the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare, being native Irish, both lived in, among other locations, their castle in Maynooth, County Kildare
37.
Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey
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He also commanded the cavalry at the Battle of Benavente, where he defeated the elite chasseurs of the French Imperial Guard. During the Hundred Days he led the charge of the cavalry against Comte dErlons column at the Battle of Waterloo. At the end of the battle he lost part of one of his legs to a cannonball, in later life he served twice as Master-General of the Ordnance and twice as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He was born Henry Bayley, the eldest son of Henry Bayley-Paget, 1st Earl of Uxbridge and his wife Jane, daughter of the Very Reverend Arthur Champagné, Dean of Clonmacnoise and his father assumed the surname Paget in 1770. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, Paget entered parliament at the 1790 general election as member for Carnarvon, a seat he held until the 1796 general election when his brother Edward was elected unopposed in his place. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars, Paget raised a regiment of Staffordshire volunteers and was given the rank of lieutenant-colonel-commandant in December 1793. As the 80th Regiment of Foot, the took part in the Flanders Campaign of 1794 under Pagets command. He transferred to the command of the 16th Light Dragoons on 15 June 1795, in July 1795 he married Lady Caroline Elizabeth Villiers. Promoted to colonel on 3 May 1796, he was given command of the 7th Light Dragoons on 6 April 1797 and he commanded a cavalry brigade at the Battle of Castricum in October 1799 during the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland. Paget was promoted to major-general on 29 April 1802 and lieutenant-general on 25 April 1808 and his only war service from 1809 to 1815 was in the disastrous Walcheren expedition in 1809, during which he commanded an infantry division. In 1810 he was divorced and then married Lady Charlotte, who had divorced from her husband around the same time. He inherited the title of Earl of Uxbridge on his fathers death in March 1812 and was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 4 January 1815. During the Hundred Days he was appointed commander in Belgium. One of the last cannon shots fired that day hit Paget in the right leg, necessitating its amputation. According to anecdote, he was close to Wellington when his leg was hit, according to his aide-de-camp, Thomas Wildman, during the amputation Paget smiled and said, I have had a pretty long run. I have been a beau these 47 years and it would not be fair to cut the young men out any longer, Paget was created Marquess of Anglesey on 4 July 1815. A 27-metre high monument to his heroism was erected at Llanfairpwllgwyngyll on Anglesey, close to Pagets country retreat at Plas Newydd and he was also appointed a Knight of the Garter on 13 March 1818 and promoted to full general on 12 August 1819. He added the wish, May all your wives be like her, at the coronation of George IV in July 1821, Paget acted as Lord High Steward of England
38.
Slavery Abolition Act 1833
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The Slavery Abolition Act 1833 was an 1833 Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire. The Act was repealed in 1998 as part of a rationalisation of English statute law. In May 1772, Lord Mansfields judgement in the Somersetts Case emancipated a slave in England, the case ruled that slavery was unsupported by law in England and no authority could be exercised on slaves entering English or Scottish soil. In 1785, English poet William Cowper wrote, We have no slaves at home – Then why abroad, slaves cannot breathe in England, if their lungs Receive our air, that moment they are free. They touch our country, and their shackles fall, thats noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. Spread it then, And let it circulate through every vein, by 1783, an anti-slavery movement to abolish the slave trade throughout the Empire had begun among the British public. In 1793 Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada John Graves Simcoe signed the Act Against Slavery, passed by the local Legislative Assembly, it was the first legislation to outlaw the slave trade in a part of the British Empire. In 1808, Parliament passed the Slave Trade Act of 1807, which outlawed the slave trade, the Royal Navy established the West Africa Squadron to suppress the Atlantic slave trade by patrolling the coast of West Africa. It did suppress the trade, but did not stop it entirely. Between 1808 and 1860, the West Africa Squadron captured 1,600 slave ships and they resettled many in Jamaica and the Bahamas. Britain also used its influence to other countries to agree treaties to end their slave trade. In 1823, the Anti-Slavery Society was founded in London, members included Joseph Sturge, Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce, Henry Brougham, Thomas Fowell Buxton, Elizabeth Heyrick, Mary Lloyd, Jane Smeal, Elizabeth Pease, and Anne Knight. William Wilberforce had prior written in his diary in 1787 that his purpose in life was to suppress the slave trade before waging a 20-year fight on the industry. During the Christmas holiday of 1831, a slave revolt in Jamaica, known as the Baptist War. It was organised originally as a strike by the Baptist minister Samuel Sharpe. The rebellion was suppressed by the militia of the Jamaican plantocracy, because of the loss of property and life in the 1831 rebellion, the British Parliament held two inquiries. The results of these contributed greatly to the abolition of slavery with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. The Act had its third reading in the House of Commons on 26 July 1833 and it received the Royal Assent a month later, on 28 August, and came into force the following year, on 1 August 1834
"Stanley, Edward George Geoffrey Smith". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
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