1.
Fred Holland Day
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Fred Holland Day was an American photographer and publisher. He was the first in the United States to advocate that photography should be considered a fine art, Day was the son of a Boston merchant, and was a man of independent means for all his life. Days life and works had long been controversial, since his subjects were often nude male youths. Day spent much time among poor immigrant children in Boston, tutoring them in reading and mentoring them, one in particular, the 13-year-old Lebanese immigrant Kahlil Gibran, went on to fame as the author of The Prophet. Day co-founded and self-financed the publishing firm of Copeland and Day, the firm was influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement and William Morriss Kelmscott Press. He is known to have traveled, beaumont Newhall states that he visited Algiers, possibly as a result of reading Wilde and Gide. There is a photo Portrait of F. Holland Day in Arab Costume,1901 by Frederick H. Evans. He was a friend of Louise Imogen Guiney and Ralph Adams Cram and he was a major patron of Aubrey Beardsley. He was also a bibliophile and collector. Most notable among his collections was his world-class collection on the poet John Keats, at the turn of the century, his influence and reputation as a photographer rivaled that of Alfred Stieglitz, who later eclipsed him. The high point of Days photographic career was probably his organization of an exhibition of photographs at the Royal Photographic Society in 1900. New School of American Photography presented 375 photographs by 42 photographers,103 of them by Day, the popularist Photographic News saw it as the result. Of a diseased imagination, of which much has been fostered by the ravings of a few lunatics, Day belonged to the pictorialist movement which regarded photography as a fine art and which often included symbolist imagery. The Photo-Secessionists invited him to join, but he declined the offer, as was common at the time, his photographs allude to classical antiquity in manner, composition and often in theme. From 1896 through 1898 Day experimented with Christian themes, using himself as a model for Jesus, neighbors in Norwood, Massachusetts assisted him in an outdoor photographic staged photography re-enactment of the crucifixion of Jesus. This culminated in his series of self-photographs, The Seven Last Words and he often made only a single print from a negative. He used only the process, being unsatisfied with any other. Day became all but forgotten for a number of reasons and he was eclipsed by his rival, Stieglitz
2.
Luxembourg
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Luxembourg /ˈlʌksəmbɜːrɡ/, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east and its culture, people and languages are highly intertwined with its neighbours, making it essentially a mixture of French and Germanic cultures. It comprises two regions, the Oesling in the north as part of the Ardennes massif. With an area of 2,586 square kilometres, it is one of the smallest sovereign states in Europe, Luxembourg had a population of 524,853 in October 2012, ranking it the 8th least-populous country in Europe. As a representative democracy with a monarch, it is headed by a Grand Duke, Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Luxembourg is a country, with an advanced economy and the worlds highest GDP per capita. Luxembourg is a member of the European Union, OECD, United Nations, NATO, and Benelux, reflecting its political consensus in favour of economic, political. The city of Luxembourg, which is the capital and largest city, is the seat of several institutions. Luxembourg served on the United Nations Security Council for the years 2013 and 2014, around this fort, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a state of great strategic value. In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors, in the following centuries, Luxembourgs fortress was steadily enlarged and strengthened by its successive occupants, the Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns and the French. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was disputed between Prussia and the Netherlands and this arrangement was revised by the 1839 First Treaty of London, from which date Luxembourgs full independence is reckoned. In 1842 Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union, the King of the Netherlands remained Head of State as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, maintaining a personal union between the two countries until 1890. At the death of William III, the throne of the Netherlands passed to his daughter Wilhelmina and this allowed Germany the military advantage of controlling and expanding the railways there. In August 1914, Imperial Germany violated Luxembourgs neutrality in the war by invading it in the war against France and this allowed Germany to use the railway lines, while at the same time denying them to France. Nevertheless, despite the German occupation, Luxembourg was allowed to maintain much of its independence, in 1940, after the outbreak of World War II, Luxembourgs neutrality was again violated when the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany entered the country, entirely without justification. A government in exile based in London supported the Allies, sending a group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion. Luxembourg was liberated in September 1944, and became a member of the United Nations in 1945. Luxembourgs neutral status under the constitution formally ended in 1948, in 2005, a referendum on the EU treaty establishing a constitution for Europe was held
3.
West Redding, Connecticut
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Redding is a town in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 9,158 at the 2010 census. According to the United States Census Bureau, Redding has an area of 32.1 square miles, of which 31.5 square miles is land and 0.6 square miles. Redding borders Bethel, Danbury, Easton, Newtown, Ridgefield, Redding has four primary sections, Redding Center, Redding Ridge, West Redding, and Georgetown, which is situated at the junction of Redding, Ridgefield, Weston and Wilton. Reddings topography is dominated by three ridges, running north to south, with intervening valleys featuring steep slopes and rocky ledges in some sections. Four streams flow south through Redding toward Long Island Sound, the Aspetuck River, the Little River, the Norwalk River, the Saugatuck River flows through the Saugatuck Reservoir, Reddings largest body of water which stretches south into Weston. The reservoir was created in 1938 through the flooding of a portion of the Saugatuck River Valley, as of the census of 2010, there were 9,158 people,3,470 households, and 2,593 families residing in the town. Redding has the third lowest population density in Fairfield County at 285.3 people per square mile, between 2000 and 2010, Reddings population increased 10. 7%. There were 3,811 housing units as of 2010, up 23. 5% from a decade earlier, for an average density of 118.7 units per square mile. The racial makeup of the town as of 2010 was 94. 90% White,0. 70% African American,0. 10% Native American,2. 20% Asian,2. 10% from other races or from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 60% of the population, individuals comprised 21. 3% of all households and 12. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the family size was 3.07. In the town, the population was out with 26. 0% under the age of 18,3. 2% from 18 to 24,16. 3% from 25 to 44,36. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 46.4 years, for every 100 females there were 92.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.4 males, the median income for a household in 2000 was $104,137, and the median income for a family was $109,250. In 2009, the family income rose to $141,609. Males had an income of $77,882 versus $52,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $50,687, about 1. 2% of families and 1. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2. 1% of those under age 18 and 3. 5% of those age 65 or over
4.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
5.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
6.
Luxembourgish American
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Luxembourgish Americans are Americans of Luxembourgish ancestry. According to the United States 2000 Census, there are 45,139 Americans of full or partial Luxembourgish descent, in 1940 the number of Americans with Luxembourgish ancestry was around 100,000. The first families from Luxembourg arrived in the United States, around 1842, fleeing of the overpopulation and they worked in the field, as was traditional in their country. Luxembourgish Americans are overwhelmingly concentrated in the Midwest, where most originally settled in the nineteenth century, at the 2000 Census, the states with the largest self-reported Luxembourg American populations were Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and California. Between the mid-19th century and the early 20th century, approximately one-third of the Luxembourgish population emigrated, Luxembourg was, at the time, a poor country with an economy dominated by agriculture. The United States was a destination for Luxembourgers, as it was for many other European emigrants of the period. The number of Luxembourgers who emigrated to the US in the 19th century is thought to be around 60, substantial Luxembourgish emigration to America took off from about 1845, for several reasons. Advances in medicine caused the rate of infant mortality to decline, the lack of work in industry led many to despair. The country could no longer feed its population, in the large families of the time, the dividing up of inheritances led to fragmentation of land ownership. The portion of each child was reduced to a few hectares, selling ones portion to the elder brother, however, provided enough money for the other siblings to pay for the voyage to America and to start a new life there. Travelling was becoming easier in this period as well, previously, it had taken as long to go from Luxembourg to Paris as from there to America. After a while, the news came to Europe that there was much unused land available in America, the Homestead Act offered fertile land for low prices. Many therefore took the step of attempting a new start, since staying in ones home country would mean death by starvation, Luxembourgers arriving in the United States would not necessarily be registered as such by the authorities, but instead as Belgians or Germans. After arriving in New York, Luxembourgers tended to move on to Chicago, as well as Iowa, Minnesota, a small number stayed in New York
7.
Art museum
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An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
8.
Museum
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Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
9.
Curator
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A curator is a manager or overseer. Traditionally, a curator or keeper of a heritage institution is a content specialist charged with an institutions collections. A traditional curators concern necessarily involves tangible objects of some sort—artwork, collectibles, historic items, more recently, new kinds of curators have started to emerge, curators of digital data objects and biocurators. In smaller organizations, a curator may have responsibility for acquisitions. In very small, volunteer-based museums such as historical societies. Such institutions can have multiple curators, each assigned to a collecting area. In the museum setting, a curator in the United Kingdom may also be called a keeper, in Scotland, the term curator is also used to mean the guardian of a child. In the United States, this job is multifaceted and dependent on the particular institution, however, in recent years, the role of a curator has evolved alongside the changing role of museums. As museums in the United States have become increasingly more digitized, curators find themselves constructing narratives in both the material and digital worlds. Historian Elaine Gurian has called for museums in which “visitors could comfortably search for answers to their own regardless of the importance placed on such questions by others. ”This would change the role of curator from teacher to “facilitator and assistor. ”In this sense, the role of curator in the United States is precarious, as digital and interactive exhibits often allow the public to become their own curator. Citizens are then able to educate themselves on the subject they are interested in. More recently, advances in new technologies have led to a widening of the role of curator. This has been a focus in major art institutions internationally and has become an object of academic study, in contemporary art, the title curator is given to a person who selects and often interprets works of art. In addition to selecting works, the curator often is responsible for writing labels, catalog essays, such curators may be permanent staff members, guest curators from an affiliated organization or university, or freelance curators working on a consultant basis. The late twentieth century saw an explosion of artists organizing exhibitions, the artist-curator has a long tradition of influence. Notable among these was Sir Joshua Reynolds, founder of the Royal Academy of Arts, in some US organizations, the term curator is also used to designate the head of any given division of a cultural organization. This has led to the proliferation of such as Curator of Education. The term literary curator has been used to persons who work in the field of poetry
10.
Alfred Stieglitz
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Alfred Stieglitz was an American photographer and modern art promoter who was instrumental over his fifty-year career in making photography an accepted art form. In addition to his photography, Stieglitz was known for the New York art galleries that he ran in the part of the 20th century. He was married to painter Georgia OKeeffe, Stieglitz was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, the first son of German-Jewish immigrants Edward Stieglitz and Hedwig Ann Werner. His father was a lieutenant in the Union Army and he had five siblings, Flora, twins Julius and Leopold, Agnes and Selma. Alfred Stieglitz, seeing the relationship of the twins, wished he had a soul mate of his own during his childhood. Stieglitz attended Charlier Institute, a Christian school and the best private school in New York, the following year, his family began spending the summers at Lake George in the Adirondack Mountains, a tradition that continued into Stieglitzs adulthood. So that he would qualify for admission to the City College of New York, Stieglitz was enrolled in a school for his senior year of high school. In 1881, Edward Stieglitz sold his company for US$400,000, Alfred Stieglitz enrolled in the Realgymnasium in Karlsruhe. The next year, Stieglitz studied mechanical engineering at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin and he enrolled in a chemistry class taught by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel, a scientist and researcher, who worked on the chemical processes for developing photographs. In Vogel, Stieglitz found both the challenge he needed and an outlet for his growing artistic and cultural interests. He received an allowance of $1,200 a month, German artists Adolf von Menzel and Wilhelm Hasemann were his friends. He bought his first camera and traveled through the European countryside, taking photographs of landscapes and peasants in Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. In 1884, his parents returned to America, but 20-year-old Stieglitz remained in Germany and collected books on photography and photographers in Europe, through his self-study, he saw photography as an art form. In 1887, he wrote his very first article, A Word or Two about Amateur Photography in Germany and he then wrote articles on the technical and aesthetic aspects of photography for magazines in England and Germany. He won first place for his photography, The Last Joke, Bellagio, the next year he won both first and second prizes in the same competition, and his reputation began to spread as several German and British photographic magazines published his work. In 1890, his sister Flora died while giving birth, Stieglitz considered himself an artist, but he refused to sell his photographs. His father purchased a small business for him so that he could earn a living in his chosen profession. Because he demanded high quality images and paid his employee high wages and he regularly wrote for The American Amateur Photographer magazine
11.
Camera Work
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Camera Work was a quarterly photographic journal published by Alfred Stieglitz from 1903 to 1917. It is known for its many high-quality photogravures by some of the most important photographers in the world, at the start of the 20th century Alfred Stieglitz was the single most important figure in American photography. He was not successful in the latter, and as a result by the spring of 1902 he was frustrated and exhausted. Rather than continue to battle against these challenges, he resigned as editor of Camera Notes and spent the summer at his home in Lake George, New York, thinking about what he could do next. His close friends and fellow photographers, led by Joseph Keiley, encouraged him to carry out his dream and it did not take him long to come up with a new plan. To emphasize the fact that this was an independent journal every cover would proclaim Camera Work, A Photographic Quarterly, Edited and Published by Alfred Stieglitz, Stieglitz was determined from the start that Camera Work would be the finest publication of its day. Even the advertisements at the back of issue were creatively designed and presented. Eastman Kodak took the cover of almost every issue. Gravures were produced from the original negatives whenever possible or occasionally from the original prints. If the gravure came from a negative this fact was noted in the text. Stieglitz, always a perfectionist, personally tipped in each of the photogravures in every issue and this time-consuming and exhausting work assured only the highest standards in every copy but sometimes delayed the mailing of the issues since Stieglitz would not allow anyone else to do it. The visual quality of the gravures was so high that when a set of prints failed to arrive for a Photo-Secession exhibition in Brussels, most viewers assumed they were looking at the original photographs. Before the first issue was printed, Stieglitz received 68 subscriptions for his new publication. With his typical extravagant aesthetic taste and unwillingness to compromise, Stieglitz insisted that 1000 copies of every issue be printed regardless of the number of subscriptions, under financial duress he reduced the number to 500 for the final two issues. The annual subscription rate at the start was US$4, or US$2 for single issues, the inaugural issue of Camera Work was dated January 1903, but was actually mailed on 15 December 1902. Such supervision will be given to the illustrations that appear in each number of Camera Work. Nevertheless, the Pictorial will be the feature of the magazine. In his first editorial Stieglitz expressed gratitude to a group photographers to whom he was indebted, over the next fourteen years he showed a decided bias by publishing many of their photographs while other talented photographers barely received notice
12.
291 (Art Gallery)
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291 is the commonly known name for an internationally famous art gallery that was located in Midtown Manhattan at 291 Fifth Avenue in New York City from 1905 to 1917. Originally known as the Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession, the gallery was created and managed by photographer Alfred Stieglitz, the gallery is famous for two reasons. First, the exhibitions there helped bring art photography to the same stature in America as painting, pioneering artistic photographers such as Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, Alvin Langdon Coburn, Gertrude Käsebier and Clarence H. White all gained critical recognition through exhibitions at 291. At the beginning of the 20th century photographys place in the world of art was still very indefinite. Although there had been major exhibitions of photography in the Europe, photographers were not considered real artists, even though many photographers had won awards in international salons. Stieglitz himself had won over 150 awards throughout the world by the end of the 1890s. After more than a year of arguing with the directors of the Camera Club, many of whom did not have any passion for photography as art, Stieglitz gave up and began looking for other forums. In late 1900 he met Edward Steichen, who had trained as a painter. Steichen shared the enthusiasm and passion of Stieglitz, and soon the two were planning how to change the course of photography in America. By the following year they had conceived of an exhibition of photography, the first to be judged by photographers themselves. In March 1902, an exhibition of American Pictorial Photography, arranged by The Photo-Secession opened to critical acclaim, while the journal give him a respected forum for showcasing pictorial photography and for publishing his viewpoints, it was not a financial success. By the end of 1904 Stieglitz was in a difficult position and it was judged by a jury of eminent American painters, including William Merritt Chase and Robert Henri, which gave it considerable standing in the art world. Stieglitz and other saw it as a direct challenge to Stieglitzs reputation. Stieglitz countered this move by trying to get some of the best known photographers of Europe to join him as part of a united front. He traveled to London to meet some of the founders of the important photographic group The Linked Ring, including J. Crag Annan, Frederick H. Evans, Alvin Langdon Coburn. He was hoping to convince them to start a chapter of the Linked Ring in the United States and he also met with playwright George Bernard Shaw, who was an avid amateur photographer, about ways to promote photography as an art form. Unfortunately Stieglitz took ill before any of these led to anything. He was tired, frustrated and seeking a new way to carry out his mission of promoting photography for photographys sake – independent of any other art form
13.
Fashion photography
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Fashion photography is a genre of photography which is devoted to displaying clothing and other fashion items. Fashion photography is most often conducted for advertisements or fashion such as Vogue, Vanity Fair. Over time, fashion photography has developed its own aesthetic in which the clothes, fashion photography has been in existence since the earliest days of photography. In 1856, Adolphe Braun published a book containing 288 photographs of Virginia Oldoini, Countess di Castiglione, the photos depict her in her official court garb, making her the first fashion model. In the first decade of the 20th century, advances in halftone printing allowed fashion photographs to be featured in magazines, fashion photography made its first appearance in French and American magazines such as La mode pratique and Harpers Bazaar. In 1909, Condé Nast took over Vogue magazine and also contributed to the beginnings of fashion photography. In 1911, photographer Edward Steichen was dared by Lucien Vogel, Steichen then took photos of gowns designed by couturier Paul Poiret. These photographs were published in the April 1911 issue of the magazine Art et Décoration, according to Jesse Alexander, This is. now considered to be the first ever modern fashion photography shoot. That is, photographing the garments in such a way as to convey a sense of their quality as well as their formal appearance. Vogue was followed by its rival, Harpers Bazaar, and the two companies were leaders in the field of photography throughout the 1920s and 1930s. House photographers such as Edward Steichen, George Hoyningen-Huene, Horst P. Horst, in the mid-1930s as World War II approached, the focus shifted to the United States, where Vogue and Harpers continued their old rivalry. In 1936, Martin Munkacsi made the first photographs of models in sporty poses at the beach, under the artistic direction of Alexey Brodovitch, Harpers Bazaar quickly introduced this new style into its magazine. House photographers such as Irving Penn, Martin Munkacsi, Richard Avedon, Richard Avedon revolutionized fashion photography — and redefined the role of the fashion photographer — in the post-World War II era with his imaginative images of the modern woman. From 1939 and onward, what had previously been the flourishing and sizeable industry of fashion photography all, the United States and Europe quickly diverged from one another. What had previously been a togetherness and inspired working relationship divulged as Paris was occupied, Paris, the main fashion-power house of the time quickly became isolated from the United States—especially with French Vogue shutting down for a brief hiatus in 1940. With these changes, the photography based out of the USA gained a distinct Americana vibe—models often posed with flags, American brand cars, what did remain of the French and British fashion photography on the other hand often had a wartime overlay to the content. Cecil Beaton’s ‘Fashion is Indestructible’ from 1941 displays a woman viewing the rubble that once was Middle Temple in London. Images such as these remain scarred into the face of photography of the time and display a common sentiment among the fashionable world
14.
Vogue (magazine)
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Vogue is an American fashion and lifestyle magazine made up of many components including fashion, beauty, culture, living, and runway. Vogue began as a newspaper in 1892 in the United States. The British Vogue was the first international edition launched in 1916, Turnures intention was to create a publication that celebrated the ceremonial side of life, one that attracts the sage as well as debutante, men of affairs as well as the belle. From its inception, the magazine targeted the new New York upper class, the magazine at this time was primarily concerned with fashion, with coverage of sports and social affairs included for its male readership. Despite the magazines content, it very slowly during this period. Condé Montrose Nast purchased Vogue in 1905 one year before Turnures death and he changed it to a bi-weekly magazine and started Vogue overseas in the 1910s. Under Nast, the magazine shifted its focus to women. The magazines number of publications and profit increased dramatically under Nasts management, by 1911, the Vogue brand had garnered a reputation that it continues to maintain, targeting an elite audience and expanding into the coverage of weddings. According to Condé Naste Russia, after the First World War made deliveries in the Old World impossible, the decision to print in England proved to be successful causing Nast to release the first issue of French Vogue in 1920. The magazines number of subscriptions surged during the Great Depression, during this time, noted critic and former Vanity Fair editor Frank Crowninshield served as its editor, having been moved over from Vanity Fair by publisher Condé Nast. In July of 1932, American Vogue placed its first color photograph on the cover of the magazine, the photograph was taken by photographer Edward Steichen and portrays a woman swimmer holding a beach ball in the air. Nast was responsible for introducing color printing and the two-page spread and he greatly impacted the magazine and turned it into a successful business and the womens magazine we recognize today and greatly increased the sales volumes until his death in 1942. Toward this end, Vogue extended coverage to include East Village boutiques such as Limbo on St, marks Place, as well as including features of downtown personalities such as Andy Warhols Superstar Jane Holzers favorite haunts. Vogue also continued making household names out of models, a practice continued with Suzy Parker, Twiggy, Jean Shrimpton, Lauren Hutton, Veruschka, Marisa Berenson, Penelope Tree. In 1973, Vogue became a monthly publication, under editor-in-chief Grace Mirabella, the magazine underwent extensive editorial and stylistic changes to respond to changes in the lifestyles of its target audience. Mirabella states that she was chosen to change Vogue because women werent interested in reading about or buying clothes that served no purpose in their changing lives and she was selected to make the magazine appeal to the the free, working, liberated woman of the seventies. She changed the magazine by adding text with interviews, arts coverage, when that type of stylihtic ceange f ell out of favor in the 1980s, Mirabella was brutally fired. Her take on it, For a magazine devoted to style, in July of 1988, after Vogue had began to lose ground to a three-year-old upstart Elle, Anna Wintour was named editor-in-chief
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J. Walter Thompson
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J. Walter Thompson, part of the WPP Group, is the world’s best-known marketing communications brand. Headquartered in New York, J. Walter Thompson is a global network with more than 200 offices in over 90 countries employing over 12,000 marketing professionals. JWT’s services and offerings include brand building, social, activation, data, internal communications, digital transformation, media, innovation, trends, insights, analytics and sector expertise. Other notable clients include Avon, Treasury Wine Estates, Edgewell/Schick, Tudor, HSBC, Johnson & Johnson, Newell, Air Canada and the United States Marine Corps. J. Walter Thompson traces its origins to the Carlton & Smith agency, founder William James Carlton started selling advertising space in religious magazines. Almost nothing is known about the Smith partner, in 1868, Carlton hired James Walter Thompson as a bookkeeper. Eventually Thompson found that soliciting and sales were more profitable. In 1877, Thompson bought the agency for $500 and renamed it J. Walter Thompson Company, notably, Thompson paid $800 for the Carlton and Smith furniture in the same transaction. Thompson, who was serving as a U. S. Marine, had first been employed by Carlton & Smith to sell space in religious publications, under his leadership, the agency became the exclusive buyer of advertising space in many American magazines and periodicals. By 1889,80 percent of the advertising in the United States was placed through J. Walter Thompson, J. Walter Thompson became the first American agency to expand internationally with the opening of J. Walter Thompson London in 1899. The business subsequently expanded across the globe, being one of the first American agencies in Egypt, South Africa, J. Walter Thomson was among the first agencies to employ writers and artists to create interesting advertisements for their clients, replacing the standard ads created by in-house businesses. It was also the first agency to provide a range of advertising services to clients, including, copy, layout, package design, trademark development. The agency is credited with hiring the first female copywriter, Helen Lansdowne Resor, while with the agency, she pioneered ideas including celebrity testimonials, sex appeal and was responsible for developing its reputation as an agency where bright young women could succeed. Lansdowne went on to become the first creative director in the industry, to honor this legacy, in 2014 J. Walter Thompson announced a $250,000 scholarship opportunity called the Helen Lansdowne Resor Scholarship. It will assist and promote talented female creative advertising students who aspire to join the ranks of creative leadership, in 1987, J. Walter Thompson was acquired by the WPP Group. In 2005, the agency was rebranded by shortening its name to JWT, J. Walter Thompson’s network has nearly 10,000 employees in more than 200 offices in over 90 countries, who serve over 1,200 clients. In 2015, J. Walter Thompson announced the launch of Mirum, the agencies that merged include, Digitaria, XM, CASA, ActivearkJWT, Twist Image, Lunchbox, i-Cherry, HeathWallace, Quirk, Clarus and X-Prime. J. Walter Thompson has also acquired majority share in Chinas largest Retail Marketing and Brand Activation agency and this provides J. Walter Thompson, with all round capabilities to efficiently handle through-the-line campaigns and break into the ever growing Chinese market
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Documentary film
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A documentary film is a nonfictional motion picture intended to document some aspect of reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction, education, or maintaining a historical record. Documentary has been described as a practice, a cinematic tradition. Polish writer and filmmaker Bolesław Matuszewski was among those who identified the mode of documentary film and he wrote two of the earliest texts on cinema Une nouvelle source de lhistoire and La photographie animée. Both were published in 1898 in French and among the written works to consider the historical. Matuszewski is also among the first filmmakers to propose the creation of a Film Archive to collect, the American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as a factual film which is dramatic. Others further state that a documentary stands out from the types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion. Documentary practice is the process of creating documentary projects. Documentary filmmaking can be used as a form of journalism, advocacy, early film was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. They were single-shot moments captured on film, a train entering a station and these short films were called actuality films, the term documentary was not coined until 1926. Many of the first films, such as made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in length. Films showing many people were made for commercial reasons, the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment. One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a half, using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the United States, in May 1896, Bolesław Matuszewski recorded on film few surigical operations in Warsaw and Saint Petersburg hospitals. In 1898, French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen invited Bolesław Matuszewski and Clément Maurice and they started in Paris a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898. Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations, Doyen said that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. These and five other of Doyens films survive, all these short films have been preserved. I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to me, unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way. Travelogue films were popular in the early part of the 20th century
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The Fighting Lady
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The Fighting Lady is a 1944 documentary film produced by the U. S. Navy and narrated by Lt. Robert Taylor USNR. The plot of the film revolves around the life of seamen on board an aircraft carrier. Because of war time restrictions, the name of the carrier was disguised as the Fighting Lady. A few shots of aircraft landing were filmed aboard the Yorktowns sister ship USS Ticonderoga, frequently mentioned is the adage that war is 99% waiting. The film provides views of a series of airstrikes at Japanese bases in the Pacific theatre. Following an attack on Kwajalein in early 1944, intelligence reports that an armada of Japanese ships is massing near Truk, a major Japanese logistical base in the Carolines. The Fighting Lady and some of her task force are sent on a hit and run mission to neutralize it and return to Marcus, but not to attempt a landing. Once the ship returns from the massive, two-day Truk raid, it is sent to the waters off the Marianas. At the very end some of the servicemen who appeared in the film are reintroduced to us, the film uses Technicolor footage shot by gun cameras mounted directly on aircraft guns during combat. Boyington had been captured by the Japanese and was being transported to a camp on the Truk islands when the raid began. According to Boyington, the film shows a crater from a two-thousand pound bomb that landed just fifteen feet from the pit. Due to her heritage, and to honor all carrier sailors and airmen. Alfred Newmans musical theme originally appeared in Vigil in the Night and was reused in Hell and High Water, list of Allied propaganda films of World War II The Fighting Lady is available for free download at the Internet Archive The Fighting Lady at the Internet Movie Database
18.
Academy Award
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The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette, officially called the Academy Award of Merit, which has become commonly known by its nickname Oscar. The awards, first presented in 1929 at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, are overseen by AMPAS, the awards ceremony was first broadcast on radio in 1930 and televised for the first time in 1953. It is now live in more than 200 countries and can be streamed live online. The Academy Awards ceremony is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music and recording – are modeled after the Academy Awards. The 89th Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2016, were held on February 26,2017, at the Dolby Theatre, in Los Angeles, the ceremony was hosted by Jimmy Kimmel and was broadcast on ABC. A total of 3,048 Oscars have been awarded from the inception of the award through the 88th, the first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16,1929, at a private dinner function at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel, the cost of guest tickets for that nights ceremony was $5. Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the industry of the time. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes, winners were announced to media three months earlier, however, that was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11,00 pm on the night of the awards. The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in The Last Command and he had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier, this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, for the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27,1957, until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, since 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies always end with the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting, see also § Awards of Merit categories The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. The five spokes represent the branches of the Academy, Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers. The model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor Emilio El Indio Fernández, sculptor George Stanley sculpted Cedric Gibbons design. The statuettes presented at the ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze
19.
Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
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The Family of Man
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The Family of Man was an ambitious photography exhibition curated by Edward Steichen, the director of the Museum of Modern Arts Department of Photography. More than 9 million people viewed the exhibit, according to Steichen, the exhibition represented the culmination of his career. The physical collection is archived and displayed at Clervaux Castle in Luxembourg and it was first presented there in 1994 after restoration of the prints. In 2003 the Family of Man photographic collection was added to UNESCOs Memory of the World Register in recognition of its historical value. The United States Information Agency toured the photographs throughout the world in five different versions for seven years, the collections overtones of peace and human brotherhood symbolized a lifting of the overhanging danger of an atomic war for Soviet citizens. This meaning seemed to be grasped especially by Russian students and intellectuals, carl Sandburg, Steichens brother-in-law,1951 recipient of the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, wrote an accompanying poetic commentary displayed as text panels throughout the exhibition. There is only one man in the world and his name is All Men, There is only one woman in the world and her name is All Women. There is only one child in the world and the name is All Children. Flung wide and far, born into toil, struggle, blood and dreams, everywhere is love and love-making, weddings and babies from generation to generation keeping the Family of Man alive and continuing. If the human face is the masterpiece of God it is then in a thousand fateful registrations. Often the faces speak that words can never say, some tell of eternity and others only the latest tattings. Faces have land and sea on them, faces honest as the morning sun flooding a clean kitchen with light, faces crooked and lost, some of them are worth a long look now and deep contemplation later. The physical installation and layout of the Family of Man exhibition aimed to enable the visitor to read this as a photo-essay about human development and cycles of life. However, open spaces within the layout required viewers to make their own decisions about their passage through the exhibition, enlarged, often mural scale images, angled, floated or curved, some even displayed on the ceiling, were grouped together according to diverse themes. These ranged from lovers, to childbirth, to household, and careers, then to death and finally, full cycle, photos were chosen according to their capacity to communicate a story, or a feeling, that contributed to the overarching narrative. Each grouping of images builds upon the next, creating a story of human life. The design of the built on trade displays and Steichens 1945 Power In The Pacific exhibition which was designed by George Kidder Smith for MoMA. The permanent installation of the exhibition today at Chateau Clervaux in Luxembourg follows the layout of the exhibition at MoMA in order to recreate the original viewing experience
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Lithography
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
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Eastman Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
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Naturalization
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Naturalization is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen in a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done by a statute, without any effort on the part of the individual, or it may involve an application, an oath or pledge of allegiance is also sometimes required. In some rare cases, laws for mass naturalization were passed, since World War II, the increase in international migrations created a new category of refugees, most of them economic refugees. The Peoples Republic of China gives citizenship to persons with one or two parents with Chinese nationality who have not taken residence in other countries, the country also gives citizenship to people born on its territory to stateless people who have settled there. Furthermore, individuals may apply for nationality if they have a relative with Chinese nationality, if they have settled in China. In practice, only few people gain Chinese citizenship, as of 2010, the naturalization process starts with a written application. Applicants must also submit original copies of a passport, a residence permit, a permanent residence permit. The Indian citizenship and nationality law and the Constitution of India provides single citizenship for the entire country, the provisions relating to citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution are contained in Articles 5 to 11 in Part II of the Constitution of India. Relevant Indian legislation is the Citizenship Act 1955, which has been amended by the Citizenship Act 1986, the Citizenship Act 1992, the Citizenship Act 2003, and the Citizenship Ordinance 2005. The Citizenship Act 2003 received the assent of the President of India on 7 January 2004, the Citizenship Ordinance 2005 was promulgated by the President of India and came into force on 28 June 2005. Following these reforms, Indian nationality law largely follows the jus sanguinis as opposed to the jus soli, Indonesian nationality is regulated by Law No. The Indonesian nationality law is based on jus sanguinis and jus soli, the Indonesian nationality law does not recognize dual citizenship except for persons under the age of 18. After reaching 18 years of age individuals are forced to choose one citizenship, Israels Declaration of Independence was made on 14 May 1948, the day before the British Mandate was due to expire as a result of the United Nations Partition Plan. The Israeli parliament created two laws regarding immigration, citizenship and naturalization, the Law of Return and the Israeli nationality law, the Law of Return, enacted on July 15,1950, gives Jews living anywhere in the world the right to immigrate to Israel. This right to immigrate did not and still does not grant citizenship, in fact, for four years after Israel gained independence, there were no Israeli citizens. On July 14,1952, the Israeli parliament enacted the Israeli Nationality Law. The Nationality Law naturalized all citizens of Mandated Palestine, the inhabitants of Israel on July 15,1952, because of Israels relatively new and culturally mixed identity, Israel does not grant citizenship to persons born on Israeli soil. Instead, the government chose to enact a jus sanguinis system, there is currently no legislation on second-generation immigrants
24.
Henri Matisse
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Henri-Émile-Benoît Matisse was a French artist, known for both his use of colour and his fluid and original draughtsmanship. He was a draughtsman, printmaker, and sculptor, but is primarily as a painter. Although he was labelled a Fauve, by the 1920s he was increasingly hailed as an upholder of the classical tradition in French painting. His mastery of the language of colour and drawing, displayed in a body of work spanning over a half-century. Matisse was born in Le Cateau-Cambrésis, in the Nord department in northern France and he grew up in Bohain-en-Vermandois, Picardie, France. In 1887 he went to Paris to study law, working as an administrator in Le Cateau-Cambrésis after gaining his qualification. He first started to paint in 1889, after his mother brought him art supplies during a period of following an attack of appendicitis. He discovered a kind of paradise as he described it. In 1891 he returned to Paris to study art at the Académie Julian and became a student of William-Adolphe Bouguereau, initially he painted still lifes and landscapes in a traditional style, at which he achieved reasonable proficiency. Chardin was one of the painters Matisse most admired, as an art student he made copies of four of Chardins paintings in the Louvre, in 1896 and 1897, Matisse visited the Australian painter John Peter Russell on the island Belle Île off the coast of Brittany. Russell introduced him to Impressionism and to the work of van Gogh and he later said Russell was my teacher, and Russell explained colour theory to me. In 1896 Matisse exhibited five paintings in the salon of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, with the model Caroline Joblau, he had a daughter, Marguerite, born in 1894. In 1898 he married Amélie Noellie Parayre, the two raised Marguerite together and had two sons, Jean and Pierre, Marguerite and Amélie often served as models for Matisse. In 1898, on the advice of Camille Pissarro, he went to London to study the paintings of J. M. W. Turner and then went on a trip to Corsica. Upon his return to Paris in February 1899, he worked beside Albert Marquet and met André Derain, Jean Puy, Matisse immersed himself in the work of others and went into debt from buying work from painters he admired. The work he hung and displayed in his home included a plaster bust by Rodin, a painting by Gauguin, a drawing by van Gogh, in Cézannes sense of pictorial structure and colour, Matisse found his main inspiration. Many of Matisses paintings from 1898 to 1901 make use of a Divisionist technique he adopted after reading Paul Signacs essay and his paintings of 1902–03, a period of material hardship for the artist, are comparatively somber and reveal a preoccupation with form. Having made his first attempt at sculpture, a copy after Antoine-Louis Barye, in 1899, he devoted much of his energy to working in clay, fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910
25.
Mary Calderone
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Mary Steichen Calderone was a physician and a public health advocate for sexual education. Her most notable feat was overturning the American Medical Association policy against the dissemination of birth information to patients. Calderone served as president and co-founder of the Sex Information and Education Council of the United States from 1954 to 1982 and she was also the medical director for Planned Parenthood. She wrote many publications advocating open dialogue and access to information at all ages and her extensive work with popularizing sexuality education has often been compared to the Margaret Sanger campaign for birth control. She was born in New York, New York on July 1,1904, biographer Jeffrey Moran suggests that her bohemian childhood and Quaker upbringing influenced her liberal outlook on sex as well as contributed to her opinionated and passionate nature. When Calderone was six, for instance, she berated the family-friend and sculptor Constantin Brâncuși for his horizontal-headed bird pieces, Brâncuși complied and began sculpting birds with more upturned heads. Calderone attended the Brearley School in New York City for her secondary education, after graduation, she entered Vassar College, graduating in 1925 with an A. B. in Chemistry. Calderone decided to go into theatre after graduation and studied for three years at the American Laboratory Theater and she married actor W. Lon Martin and had two daughters, Nell and Linda. She abandoned acting and divorced in 1933, the death of her eight-year-old daughter Nell, along with dashed acting dreams and a divorce, plunged Calderone into depression. After a series of tests, she decided to return to school. She obtained her M. D. degree from the University of Rochester medical school in 1939 and she then received her M. P. H. from Columbia University in 1942. During this time she interned at hospitals and clinics, one belonging to Dr. Frank A. Calderone, Frank Calderone was then a district health officer in New York and eventually became the chief administrative officer of the World Health Organization. Mary Calderone worked as a physician in the Great Neck, New York public school system, in 1953, Calderone joined the staff of the controversial Planned Parenthood Federation of America as its Medical Director. In 1958 she organized a conference which instigated the movement to legalize abortion. Her biggest success at Planned Parenthood came in 1964, when she overturned the American Medical Association policy against physicians disseminating information on birth control, Calderone did not believe that her work should be limited to preventive measures against pregnancy. Letters arrived at Planned Parenthood daily asking questions about not just sex, Calderone came to the realization that sexuality did not just equate genitality, and that sex education was sorely lacking from American society. Calderone and her organization became recognized and respected with the message of sex as a positive force, targeted SIECUS, calling Calderone the SIECUS Sexpot and claiming that she wanted to undermine Christian morality and corrupt children. By 1969 Calderone’s influence had been weakened by attacks, and she stepped down as President
26.
Marion H. Beckett
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Marion H. Beckett was an American painter, and daughter of lawyer and former Surrogate Charles H. Beckett. Beckett was born in New York on February 7,1886 and her parents were Charles Henry Beckett, originally from Williamstown, Vermont, and Estelle J. Newman Beckett of Watkins, New York. She was left with a large fortune following her fathers death on November 29,1917 and she was Charles and Estelles only child in 1917. She exhibited a number of paintings at the Annual Philadelphia Water Color Exhibition in 1908, in 1908, Beckett traveled to Paris with Katharine Rhoades and Malvina Hoffman and studied in France for two years. Rhoades had been her friend since 1904 when Rhoades made her debut in New York City, the family was on the Social Register in New York. A member of Alfred Stieglitz’s artistic circle in New York City and her Portrait of Mrs. Charles H. Beckett and Portrait of Mrs. Eduard J. Steichen were exhibited in the 1913 Armory Show. In 1915, Beckett and Rhodes had a joint exhibition at Stieglitz’s 291 Gallery, prior to that, the only works of a female non-photographer that Stieglitz exhibited were that of Pamela Colman Smith in 1907. Marion Beckett and her friends Katharine Rhoades and Agnes Ernst Meyer were known as the Three Graces of 291, Agnes Ernst Meyer described Marion as one of the most beautiful young women that ever walked this earth. She was also described as shy and reserved, in January 1917, Beckett presented a show of portraits at Marius de Zayass Modern Gallery. Among the portraits were one that she made of herself, one of her father, Alfred Stieglitz, a Beckett portrait of Georgia OKeeffe, made in 1916, was chosen to illustrate a Vanity Fair article in 1922 and a New York Sun article about OKeeffes work in 1923. It was also the portrait of Becketts show, which also included a portrait of Katharine Rhoades. In the 1920s, she was the president and a director of the Beckett Water Supply Company, Estelle Beckett was vice-president and a director. Fifteen of her paintings were stored by family members until 1997, including the portraits of OKeeffe, Beckett often traveled to Voulangis, France with Agnes Meyer and Katharine Rhoades to visit artist Edward Steichen and his wife and paint portraits. She was the sole guest at their house at the beginning of World War I in 1914 and they were able to evacuate two days before the Germans arrived at the Steichens house. In 1917, she worked as a canteen worker for the Red Cross in France, by 1919, Beckett established a studio in the Latin Quarter of Paris, where she entertained Steichen. They were believed to have traveled together from France to New York and Vermont, in 1919, Clara Steichen sued Marion Beckett for $200,000 damages for Alienation of affections, claiming that Marion had followed her husband to France and had an affair. Clara was unable to prove her claims and it was reported that Beckett had a ten-year affair with Steichen, until about 1926 when she stopped painting. By 1926, she had a son and daughter
27.
Montauk, New York
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As of the 2010 United States Census, the CDP population was 3,326. The CDP encompasses an area that stretches approximately 12 miles from Napeague, the hamlet encompasses a small area about half way between the two points. Located at the tip of the South Fork peninsula of Long Island,118 miles east of Midtown Manhattan, Montauk has been used as an Army, Navy, Coast Guard and Air Force base. The Montauk Point Light was the first lighthouse in New York state and is the fourth oldest active lighthouse in the United States, Montauk is a major tourist destination and has six state parks. It is particularly famous for its fishing, claiming to have more world saltwater fishing records than any port in the world. Located 20 miles off the Connecticut coast, it is home to the largest commercial and recreational fishing fleet in New York state, Montauk derives its name from the Montaukett tribe, an Algonquian-speaking tribe who lived in the area. In 1614, Dutch explorer Adriaen Block encountered the tribe at Montauk Point, two decades later, in 1637, the Montauketts sided for their own protection with the English in the Pequot War in Connecticut. In the aftermath the Montauketts were to sell Gardiners Island, the western boundary of todays Hither Hills State Park is also known as the 1648 purchase line. In 1653, Narragansetts under Ninigret attacked and burned the Montaukett village, killing 30, the daughter was recovered with the aid of Lion Gardiner. The Montauketts, ravaged by smallpox and fearing extermination by the Narragansetts, were provided refuge by white settlers in East Hampton. Many short but famous battles ensued, Fort Pond Bay derives its name from a Montaukett fort on its shore. A deed was issued in 1661 titled Ye deed of Guift which granted all of the lands east of Fort Pond to be for the use of both the Indians and the townsmen. Further purchase agreements were entered into in 1661,1672 and 1686 which, among other things, while some lands were protected in the agreements as forest land, for the most part all of Montauk was maintained by the townsmen as a private livestock and fisheries operation. As a result of Montauk being operated as an operation it is considered to be the oldest cattle ranch in the United States. In 1660, Wyandanchs widow sold all of Montauk from Napeague to the tip of the island for 100 pounds to be paid in 10 equal installments of Indian corn or good wampum at six to a penny. However, the tribe was to be permitted to stay on the land, to hunt and fish at will on the land, Town officials who bought the land were to file for reimbursement for rum they had plied the tribe. The tribe was to continue residence until the 19th century in the area around Big Reed Pond in what was to be called Indian Fields, in 1686, English New York Governor Thomas Dongan issued a patent creating the governing system for East Hampton. The patent did not extend beyond Napeague to Montauk and this lack of authority has formed the basis for various control disputes ever since
28.
Jo Davidson
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Jo Davidson was an American sculptor. Although he specialized in realistic, intense portrait busts, Davidson did not require his subjects to pose for him, rather, he observed. He worked primarily with clay, while the products were typically cast in terra-cotta, marble. Davidson was born in New York City where he was educated before going to work in the atelier of Hermon Atkins MacNeil and he subsequently moved to Paris to study sculpture at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1907. After returning to the United States, he was befriended by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, in 1911 Davidson secured his first solo gallery shows. He was one of a dozen sculptors invited by the oilman E. W. Marland to compete in his competition for a Pioneer Woman statue in Ponca City in 1927. In 1934 Davidson won the National Academy of Designs Maynard Prize, in 1944, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician. In the summer of 1949, he was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the 3rd Sculpture International held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art and his portraits of world leaders and celebrated personalities gained him international acclaim. He did statues of E. W. Marland and his two grown children. Some of Davidsons work is in the National Gallery of Art and he also designed a statue of Henry D. Thoreau, the author of the book Walden. The statue is located at Walden Pond State Reservation in Concord, in 1946 this group merged with the National Citizens Political Action Committee to become the Progressive Citizens of America, Davidson became co-chairman. PCA struggled during tensions of the Cold War and fought for equality, economic justice. Important segments of the PCA became the base for Henry Wallaces candidacy for U. S. President in 1948 on the Progressive Party ticket, sources Armstrong, Craven et al.220 Years of American Sculpture, Whitney Museum of Art & David R. C. Jo Davison, Sculptor, The Striking Work Of A Man Who Loves His Art More Than He Loves Success, the Worlds Work, A History of Our Time. Homepage of the National Portrait Gallery, Washington, DC, Permanent Exhibitions
29.
Arthur B. Carles
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Arthur Beecher Carles was an American Modernist painter. Carles was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts between 1900 and 1907 and he studied with Thomas Pollock Anshutz, Hugh Breckenridge, Henry McCarter, Cecilia Beaux, and William Merritt Chase. In 1907 he traveled to France where he remained until 1910, in France, he greatly admired the works of Cézanne and Matisse, and became close friends with John Marin and Eduard Steichen. He displayed six landscapes in the Salon dAutomne of 1908, in March 1910 his work was included in the “Younger American Painters” show held at Alfred Stieglitz’s New York City gallery,291. Stieglitz gave Carles his first one-man show at 291 in January 1912 and he returned to France from June to October 1912 and exhibited at the 1912 Salon dAutomne. After his return to America he exhibited at the Armory Show of 1913 and he taught at the Pennsylvania Academy in Philadelphia from 1917 to 1925 and taught privately afterwards. His later years were marked by bouts of alcoholism, in December 1941 he suffered a stroke that left him an invalid until his death in 1952. His daughter Mercedes Matter, also an artist and the founder of the New York Studio School, was married to photographer and designer Herbert Matter. Art historian Barbara Ann Boese Wolanin describes Carles as a link between Philadelphia and Paris, and as one of the most brilliant colorists in the history of American art and she says of him, His paintings range in style from tonalism and Impressionism to prophecies of Abstract expressionism. An expressionist by nature, he was guided by feeling, believing that accuracy is an intellectual quality while art is an affair of the emotions, Carles was given a retrospective exhibition at the Pennsylvania Academy in 1953, and again in 1959 at the Graham Gallery in New York. Wolanin, Barbara Ann Boese,2000, The Paintings of Arthur B, Carles, American Art Review vol XII issue 2, pp. 164–173 Wolanin, Barbara A. Arthur B. The Orchestration of Color, The Paintings of Arthur B, Carles Biography, Hollis Taggart Galleries Arthur B
30.
John Marin
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John Marin was an early American modernist artist. He is known for his landscapes and watercolors. Marin was born in Rutherford, New Jersey and his mother died nine days after his birth, and he was raised by two aunts in Weehawken, New Jersey. He attended the Stevens Institute of Technology for a year, from 1899 to 1901, Marin attended the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia. In Philadelphia he studied with Thomas Pollock Anshutz and William Merritt Chase and he also studied at the Art Students League of New York. In 1905, like many American artists Marin went to Europe and he exhibited his work in the Salon, where he also got his first exposure to modern art. He traveled through Europe for six years, and painted in the Netherlands, Belgium, England, in 1909, Marin held his first one-man exhibition at Alfred Stieglitzs 291 gallery in New York City. He had been introduced to Stieglitz by the photographer Edward Steichen, Marins association with Stieglitz would last nearly forty years, and Stieglitzs philosophical and financial support would prove essential. From 1909 until his death in 1946, Stieglitz showed Marins work almost every year in one of his galleries, Marin also participated in the landmark 1913 Armory Show. Marin spent his first summer in Maine in 1914 and almost immediately the rocky coast there became one of his favorite subjects, over the rest of his life, Marin became intimately familiar with the many moods of the sea and sky in Maine. In painting water make the move the way the water moves. Marin had a show in 1936 at the Museum of Modern Art. Late in life Marin achieved tremendous prestige as an American painter, in 1950, he was honored by the University of Maine and Yale University with honorary degrees of Doctor of Fine Arts. Marin was a resident of Cliffside Park, New Jersey in his last years, and also maintained a home in Addison, Maine. He was interred at Fairview Cemetery, John Marin was among the first American artists to make abstract paintings. Marin is often credited with influencing the Abstract Expressionists and his treatment of paint—handling oils almost like watercolors—his forays into abstraction, and his use of evocative stretches of bare canvas caught the eye of younger painters. His experience with architecture might have contributed to the role played by architectural themes in his paintings, the Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and many others. The White House acquired his 1952 painting The Circus No.1 in 2007, Marin, The Late Oils, New York, Adelson Galleries
31.
Marsden Hartley
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Marsden Hartley was an American Modernist painter, poet, and essayist. Hartley was born in Lewiston, Maine, where his English parents had settled and he was the youngest of nine children. His mother died when he was eight, and his father remarried four years later to Martha Marsden and his birth name was Edmund Hartley, he later assumed Marsden as his first name when he was in his early 20s. A few years after his mothers death when Hartley was 14, his family moved to Ohio, Hartley began his art training at the Cleveland Institute of Art after his family moved to Cleveland, Ohio, in 1892. He won a scholarship to the Cleveland School of Art, in 1898, at age 22, Hartley moved to New York City to study painting at the New York School of Art under William Merritt Chase, and then attended the National Academy of Design. Hartley was an admirer of Albert Pinkham Ryder and visited his studio in Greenwich Village as often as possible. His friendship with Ryder, in addition to the writings of Walt Whitman and American transcendentalists Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, Hartley moved to an abandoned farm near Lovell, Maine, in 1908. He considered the paintings he produced there his first mature works, Hartley had his first solo exhibition at Stieglitzs 291 in 1909, and exhibited his work there again in 1912. Stieglitz also provided Hartleys introduction to European modernist painters, of whom Cézanne, Picasso, Hartley first traveled to Europe in April 1912, and he became acquainted with Gertrude Steins circle of avante-garde writers and artists in Paris. Stein, along with Hart Crane and Sherwood Anderson, encouraged Hartley to write as well as paint, in 1913, Hartley moved to Berlin, where he continued to paint and befriended the painters Wassily Kandinsky and Franz Marc. He also collected Bavarian folk art and his work during this period was a combination of abstraction and German Expressionism, fueled by his personal brand of mysticism. The earliest of his Berlin paintings were shown in the landmark 1913 Armory Show in New York, in Berlin, Hartley developed a close relationship with a Prussian lieutenant, Karl von Freyburg, who was the cousin of Hartleys friend Arnold Ronnebeck. References to Freyburg were a recurring motif in Hartleys work, most notably in Portrait of a German Officer, freyburgs subsequent death during the war hit Hartley hard, and he afterward idealized their relationship. Many scholars interpreted his work regarding Freyburg as embodying his homosexual feelings for him, Hartley finally returned to the U. S. in early 1916. He lived in Europe again from 1921 to 1930, when he moved back to the U. S. for good and he painted throughout the country, in Massachusetts, New Mexico, California, and New York. He returned to Maine in 1937, after declaring that he wanted to become the painter of Maine and this aligned Hartley with the Regionalism movement, a group of artists active from the early- to-mid 20th century that attempted to represent a distinctly American art. He continued to paint in Maine, primarily scenes around Lovell and his ashes were scattered on the Androscoggin River. In addition to being considered one of the foremost American painters of the first half of the 20th century, Hartley also wrote poems, essays and his book Twenty-five Poems was published by Robert McAlmon in Paris in 1923
32.
Bates College Museum of Art
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The Bates College Museum of Art is the art museum of Bates College in Lewiston, Maine. It holds various mediums of arts that showcase Maine and the greater American area. The museums collection offers an overview of modern and contemporary art, the Museum publishes numerous art collections, and art publications every year. The primary focuses of the collections are works on paper, including modern and contemporary art including drawings, prints. It is the largest museum of art in the city of Lewiston, Maine, in the 1930s, the college secured a private holding from the Museum of Modern Art of Vincent van Goghs Starry Night, for students participating in the Bates Plan. It holds 5,000 pieces and objects of contemporary domestic, the museum holds over 100 original artworks, photographs and sketches from Marsden Hartley. The MoA offers numerous lectures, artist symposiums, and workshops, the entire space is split into three components, the larger Upper Gallery, smaller Lower Gallery, and the Synergy Gallery which is primarily used for student exhibits and research. Almost 20,000 visitors are attracted to the MoA annually, the museum opened on October 7,1955, as the Treat Gallery by Norma Berger, the niece of Marsden Hartley. With the ushering of the Olin Arts Center on to the campus, the scope was also increased to facilitate educational programming in sync to the scholarly pursuits of the college and with the Lewiston-Auburn community. In 2005, the museum reorganized into four galleries, the Bates Gallery, Collection Gallery, the Underground Synergy Seminar space, as of 2010 the director of the museum is Dan Mills. The Bates College Art Museum was founded in 1955 as the Treat Gallery in the newly constructed Pettigrew Building at Bates College, Norma Berger, the niece of Marsden Hartley, a notable Maine artist, donated a large collection at the founding of the museum. In 1986, the moved to the new Olin Art Center gallery. After the renovation and installation, the new and expanded museum space enabled the Museum to organize major scholarly exhibitions of contemporary, over the past decade, ehe collection has grown to collect more art pieces of all mediums and support educational curriculum across disciplines. In 2005, the museum reorganized into four galleries, the Bates Gallery, Collection Gallery, the Underground Synergy Seminar space, as of 2010 the director of the museum is Dan Mills. As of 2016, it holds over 5,000 objects including select and growing holdings of contemporary Chinese art, pre-Columbian art, Japanese woodblock prints, in addition to the original Marsden Hartley Memorial Collection, the museum contains works by many other notable artists. The museum has focused on collecting works of Maine artists, in the 1930s, the college secured a private holding from the Museum of Modern Art of Vincent van Goghs Starry Night. In 2016, the Museum has the following exhibitions, The View Out His Window by Jeffery Becton, The Art of Occupy, The Occuprint Portfolio, the Bates College Museum of Art also offers curricular involvement with both the college and surrounding communities. The college uses the museum through their exhibitions and collections to teach writing skills and visual literacy, the museum serves as a tool for educators and students
33.
Logo
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A logo is a graphic mark, emblem, or symbol commonly used by commercial enterprises, organizations, and even individuals to aid and promote instant public recognition. There are purely graphic emblems, symbols, icons and logos, in the days of hot metal typesetting, a logotype was one word cast as a single piece of type. By extension, the term was used for a uniquely set. At the level of communication and in common usage, a companys logo is today often synonymous with its trademark or brand. The arts were expanding in purpose—from expression and decoration of an artistic, storytelling nature, to a differentiation of brands, consultancies and trades-groups in the commercial arts were growing and organizing, by 1890, the US had 700 lithographic printing firms employing more than 8,000 people. Artistic credit tended to be assigned to the company, as opposed to the individual artists who usually performed less important jobs. Playful children’s books, authoritative newspapers, and conversational periodicals developed their own visual and editorial styles for unique, as printing costs decreased, literacy rates increased, and visual styles changed, the Victorian decorative arts led to an expansion of typographic styles and methods of representing businesses. A renewal of interest in craftsmanship and quality also provided the artists and companies with a greater interest in credit, leading to the creation of unique logos and marks. By the 1950s, Modernism had shed its roots as an artistic movement in Europe to become an international, commercialized movement with adherents in the United States. Modernist-inspired logos proved successful in the era of mass visual communication ushered in by television, improvements in printing technology, the current era of logo design began in the 1870s with the first abstract logo, the Bass red triangle. As of 2014, many corporations, products, brands, services, agencies, as a result, only a few of the thousands of ideograms in circulation are recognizable without a name. Ideograms and symbols may be effective than written names, especially for logos translated into many alphabets in increasingly globalized markets. For instance, a written in Arabic script might have little resonance in most European markets. By contrast, ideograms keep the general nature of a product in both markets. In non-profit areas, the Red Cross exemplifies a well-known emblem that does not need an accompanying name, the red cross and red crescent are among the best-recognized symbols in the world. National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and their Federation as well as the International Committee of the Red Cross include these symbols in their logos, branding can aim to facilitate cross-language marketing. Consumers and potential consumers can identify the Coca-Cola name written in different alphabets because of the standard color, the text was written in Spencerian Script, which was a popular writing style when the Coca Cola Logo was being designed. Since a logo is the visual entity signifying an organization, logo design is an important area of graphic design, a logo is the central element of a complex identification system that must be functionally extended to all communications of an organization
34.
Typeface
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In typography, a typeface is a set of one or more fonts each composed of glyphs that share common design features. Each font of a typeface has a weight, style, condensation, width, slant, italicization, ornamentation. For example, ITC Garamond Bold Condensed Italic means the bold, condensed-width and it is a different font from ITC Garamond Condensed Italic and ITC Garamond Bold Condensed, but all are fonts within the same typeface, ITC Garamond. ITC Garamond is a different typeface from Adobe Garamond or Monotype Garamond, there are thousands of different typefaces in existence, with new ones being developed constantly. The art and craft of designing typefaces is called type design, designers of typefaces are called type designers and are often employed by type foundries. In digital typography, type designers are also called font developers or font designers. Every typeface is a collection of glyphs, each of which represents a letter, number, punctuation mark. The same glyph may be used for characters from different scripts, e. g. Roman uppercase A looks the same as Cyrillic uppercase А, there are typefaces tailored for special applications, such as map-making or astrology and mathematics. The term typeface is frequently confused with the term font, before the advent of digital typography and desktop publishing, the two terms had more clearly understood meanings. For example, 8-point Caslon Italic was one font, and 10-point Caslon Italic was another, historically, fonts came in specific sizes determining the size of characters, and in quantities of sorts or number of each letter provided. The design of characters in a font took into account all these factors, a font family is typically a group of related fonts which vary only in weight, orientation, width, etc. but not design. For example, Times is a font family, whereas Times Roman, Times Italic, font families typically include several fonts, though some, such as Helvetica, may consist of dozens of fonts. For example, a given typeface such as Arial may include roman, bold, and italic fonts. In the metal era, a font also meant a specific point size. Later examples include Futura, Lucida, ITC Officina, typeface superfamilies began to emerge when foundries began to include typefaces with significant structural differences, but some design relationship, under the same general family name. Arguably the first superfamily was created when Morris Fuller Benton created Clearface Gothic for ATF in 1910, additional or supplemental glyphs intended to match a main typeface have been in use for centuries. In some formats they have been marketed as separate fonts, supplemental fonts have also included alternate letters such as swashes, dingbats, and alternate character sets, complementing the regular fonts under the same family. However, with introduction of font formats such as OpenType, those supplemental glyphs were merged into the main fonts, since Apples and Microsofts operating systems supported different character sets in the platform related fonts, some foundries used expert fonts in a different way
35.
Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession
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291 is the commonly known name for an internationally famous art gallery that was located in Midtown Manhattan at 291 Fifth Avenue in New York City from 1905 to 1917. Originally known as the Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession, the gallery was created and managed by photographer Alfred Stieglitz, the gallery is famous for two reasons. First, the exhibitions there helped bring art photography to the same stature in America as painting, pioneering artistic photographers such as Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, Alvin Langdon Coburn, Gertrude Käsebier and Clarence H. White all gained critical recognition through exhibitions at 291. At the beginning of the 20th century photographys place in the world of art was still very indefinite. Although there had been major exhibitions of photography in the Europe, photographers were not considered real artists, even though many photographers had won awards in international salons. Stieglitz himself had won over 150 awards throughout the world by the end of the 1890s. After more than a year of arguing with the directors of the Camera Club, many of whom did not have any passion for photography as art, Stieglitz gave up and began looking for other forums. In late 1900 he met Edward Steichen, who had trained as a painter. Steichen shared the enthusiasm and passion of Stieglitz, and soon the two were planning how to change the course of photography in America. By the following year they had conceived of an exhibition of photography, the first to be judged by photographers themselves. In March 1902, an exhibition of American Pictorial Photography, arranged by The Photo-Secession opened to critical acclaim, while the journal give him a respected forum for showcasing pictorial photography and for publishing his viewpoints, it was not a financial success. By the end of 1904 Stieglitz was in a difficult position and it was judged by a jury of eminent American painters, including William Merritt Chase and Robert Henri, which gave it considerable standing in the art world. Stieglitz and other saw it as a direct challenge to Stieglitzs reputation. Stieglitz countered this move by trying to get some of the best known photographers of Europe to join him as part of a united front. He traveled to London to meet some of the founders of the important photographic group The Linked Ring, including J. Crag Annan, Frederick H. Evans, Alvin Langdon Coburn. He was hoping to convince them to start a chapter of the Linked Ring in the United States and he also met with playwright George Bernard Shaw, who was an avid amateur photographer, about ways to promote photography as an art form. Unfortunately Stieglitz took ill before any of these led to anything. He was tired, frustrated and seeking a new way to carry out his mission of promoting photography for photographys sake – independent of any other art form
36.
291 (art gallery)
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291 is the commonly known name for an internationally famous art gallery that was located in Midtown Manhattan at 291 Fifth Avenue in New York City from 1905 to 1917. Originally known as the Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession, the gallery was created and managed by photographer Alfred Stieglitz, the gallery is famous for two reasons. First, the exhibitions there helped bring art photography to the same stature in America as painting, pioneering artistic photographers such as Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, Alvin Langdon Coburn, Gertrude Käsebier and Clarence H. White all gained critical recognition through exhibitions at 291. At the beginning of the 20th century photographys place in the world of art was still very indefinite. Although there had been major exhibitions of photography in the Europe, photographers were not considered real artists, even though many photographers had won awards in international salons. Stieglitz himself had won over 150 awards throughout the world by the end of the 1890s. After more than a year of arguing with the directors of the Camera Club, many of whom did not have any passion for photography as art, Stieglitz gave up and began looking for other forums. In late 1900 he met Edward Steichen, who had trained as a painter. Steichen shared the enthusiasm and passion of Stieglitz, and soon the two were planning how to change the course of photography in America. By the following year they had conceived of an exhibition of photography, the first to be judged by photographers themselves. In March 1902, an exhibition of American Pictorial Photography, arranged by The Photo-Secession opened to critical acclaim, while the journal give him a respected forum for showcasing pictorial photography and for publishing his viewpoints, it was not a financial success. By the end of 1904 Stieglitz was in a difficult position and it was judged by a jury of eminent American painters, including William Merritt Chase and Robert Henri, which gave it considerable standing in the art world. Stieglitz and other saw it as a direct challenge to Stieglitzs reputation. Stieglitz countered this move by trying to get some of the best known photographers of Europe to join him as part of a united front. He traveled to London to meet some of the founders of the important photographic group The Linked Ring, including J. Crag Annan, Frederick H. Evans, Alvin Langdon Coburn. He was hoping to convince them to start a chapter of the Linked Ring in the United States and he also met with playwright George Bernard Shaw, who was an avid amateur photographer, about ways to promote photography as an art form. Unfortunately Stieglitz took ill before any of these led to anything. He was tired, frustrated and seeking a new way to carry out his mission of promoting photography for photographys sake – independent of any other art form
37.
Auguste Rodin
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François Auguste René Rodin, known as Auguste Rodin, was a French sculptor. Although Rodin is generally considered the progenitor of modern sculpture, he did not set out to rebel against the past and he was schooled traditionally, took a craftsman-like approach to his work, and desired academic recognition, although he was never accepted into Pariss foremost school of art. Sculpturally, Rodin possessed an ability to model a complex, turbulent. Many of his most notable sculptures were roundly criticized during his lifetime and they clashed with predominant figurative sculpture traditions, in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodins most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory, modeled the human body with realism, Rodin was sensitive to the controversy surrounding his work, but refused to change his style. Successive works brought increasing favor from the government and the artistic community, by 1900, he was a world-renowned artist. Wealthy private clients sought Rodins work after his Worlds Fair exhibit and he married his lifelong companion, Rose Beuret, in the last year of both their lives. His sculptures suffered a decline in popularity after his death in 1917, Rodin remains one of the few sculptors widely known outside the visual arts community. Rodin was born in 1840 into a family in Paris, the second child of Marie Cheffer and Jean-Baptiste Rodin. He was largely self-educated, and began to draw at age ten, between ages 14 and 17, Rodin attended the Petite École, a school specializing in art and mathematics, where he studied drawing and painting. His drawing teacher, Horace Lecoq de Boisbaudran, believed in first developing the personality of his students so that they observed with their own eyes, Rodin still expressed appreciation for his teacher much later in life. It was at Petite École that he first met Jules Dalou, in 1857, Rodin submitted a clay model of a companion to the École des Beaux-Arts in an attempt to win entrance, he did not succeed, and two further applications were also denied. Given that entrance requirements at the Grande École were not particularly high, Rodins inability to gain entrance may have been due to the judges Neoclassical tastes, while Rodin had been schooled in light, 18th-century sculpture. Leaving the Petite École in 1857, Rodin earned a living as a craftsman, Rodins sister Maria, two years his senior, died of peritonitis in a convent in 1862. Rodin was anguished and felt guilty because he had introduced Maria to an unfaithful suitor, turning away from art, he briefly joined a Catholic order, the Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament. Saint Peter Julian Eymard, founder and head of the congregation, recognized Rodins talent and, sensing his lack of suitability for the order and he returned to work as a decorator, while taking classes with animal sculptor Antoine-Louis Barye. The teachers attention to detail – his finely rendered musculature of animals in motion – significantly influenced Rodin, in 1864, Rodin began to live with a young seamstress named Rose Beuret, with whom he would stay – with ranging commitment – for the rest of his life. The couple had a son, Auguste-Eugène Beuret and that year, Rodin offered his first sculpture for exhibition, and entered the studio of Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, a successful mass producer of objets dart
38.
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso, was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, Picassos work is often categorized into periods. Much of Picassos work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in a neoclassical style and his later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Ruiz y Picasso were included for his father and mother, respectively, born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco and María Picasso y López. His mother was of one quarter Italian descent, from the territory of Genoa, though baptized a Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist. Picassos family was of middle-class background and his father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts, Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were piz, piz, a shortening of lápiz, from the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was an academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork, the family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his sketch of a pigeon. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his sister, Conchita. After her death, the moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home, Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, the student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day. Picassos father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrids Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, at age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrolment
39.
La Gazette du Bon Ton
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The Gazette du Bon Ton was a small but influential fashion magazine published in France from 1912 to 1925. Founded by Lucien Vogel, the publication reflected the latest developments in fashion, lifestyle and beauty during a period of revolutionary change in art. Distributed by Condé Nast, the magazine was issued as the Gazette du Bon Genre in the USA, both titles roughly translate as Journal of Good Taste or Journal of Good Style. The magazine strove to present an elitist image to distinguish itself from larger, mainstream competitors like Vogue and Harpers Bazaar in America and Femina, Les Modes and LArt et la Mode in France. It was available only to subscribers and was priced at a steep 100 francs per year, after World War I, a select group of other design firms were added to the magazines repertoire, including the houses of Beer, Lanvin, Patou and Martial & Armand. However, the choice of designers was arbitrary, and a number of the eras most prominent couturiers never contributed to the pages of the Gazette du Bon Ton, among them Chanel. The magazines title was derived from the French concept of bon ton, or timeless good taste, the Gazette du Bon Ton aimed to establish fashion as an art alongside painting, sculpture and drawing. According to the magazines first editorial, The clothing of a woman is a pleasure for the eye that cannot be judged inferior to the other arts and their contributions ranged in tone from irreverent to ironic and mocking. The centerpiece of the Gazette was its fashion illustrations, each issue featured ten full-page fashion plates printed with the color pochoir technique. These artists, rather than simply drawing models in outfits, depicted them in various dramatic, classic Chic, Music, Fashion, and Modernism
40.
Paul Poiret
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Paul Poiret was a leading French fashion designer, a master couturier during the first two decades of the 20th century. His contributions to his field have been likened to Picassos legacy in 20th-century art, Poiret was born on 20 April 1879 to a cloth merchant in the poor neighborhood of Les Halles, Paris. His parents, in an effort to rid him of his natural pride, there, he collected scraps of silk left over from the cutting of umbrella patterns, and fashioned clothes for a doll that one of his sisters had given him. While a teenager, Poiret took his sketches to Louise Chéruit, a prominent dressmaker, Poiret continued to sell his drawings to major Parisian couture houses, until he was hired by Jacques Doucet in 1896. His first design, a red cape, sold 400 copies. Poiret later moved to the House of Worth, where he was responsible for designing simple, the brazen modernity of his designs, however, proved too much for Worths conservative clientele. When Poiret presented the Russian Princess Bariatinsky with a Confucius coat with an innovative kimono-like cut, for instance, she exclaimed, What a horror. When there are low fellows who run after our sledges and annoy us, we have their heads cut off, Poiret established his own house in 1903, and made his name with his controversial kimono coat and similar, loose-fitting designs created specifically for an uncorseted, slim figure. He designed flamboyant window displays and threw parties to draw attention to his work. His instinct for marketing and branding was unmatched by any other Parisian designer, in 1909, he was so famous, Margot Asquith, wife of British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, invited him to show his designs at 10 Downing Street. The cheapest garment at the exhibition was 30 guineas, double the salary of a scullery maid. Poirets house expanded to encompass interior decoration and fragrance, in1911 Poiret unveiled “Parfums de Rosine with a flamboyant soiree held at his palatial home, attended by the cream of Parisian society and the artistic world. Poiret fancifully christened the event “la mille et deuxième nuit”, inspired by the fantasy of a sultans harem and his gardens were illuminated by lanterns, set with tents, and live, tropical birds. Madame Poiret herself luxuriated in a golden cage, Poiret was the reigning sultan, gifting each guest with a bottle of his new fragrance creation, appropriately named to befit the occasion, “Nuit Persane. ”His marketing strategy, played out as entertainment, became the talk of Paris. A second scent debuted in 1912 - “Le Minaret, ” again emphasizing the harem theme, in 1911, publisher Lucien Vogel dared photographer Edward Steichen to promote fashion as a fine art in his work. Steichen responded by snapping photos of gowns designed by Poiret, hauntingly backlit and these were published in the April 1911 issue of the magazine Art et Décoration. However, notable couture names were missing from this brilliant assemblage, including such major tastemakers as Lucile, Jeanne Lanvin, also in 1911, Poiret launched the École Martine, a home decor division of his design house, named for his second daughter. The establishment provided artistically inclined, working-class girls with trade skills, in 1911 Poret leased part of the property at 109 Rue du Faubourg Saint Honoré to his friend Henri Barbazanges, who opened the Galerie Barbazanges to exhibit contemporary art
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United States Army
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The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
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World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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War photography
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War photography involves photographing armed conflict and its effects on people and places. With the invention of photography in the 1830s, the possibility of capturing the events of war to public awareness was first explored. Similar to battle photography, portrait images of soldiers were often staged. In order to produce a photograph, the subject had to be perfectly still for a matter of minutes, so they were posed to be comfortable and minimize movement. A number of daguerreotypes were taken of the occupation of Saltillo during the Mexican–American War, in 1847 by an unknown photographer, John McCosh, a surgeon in the Bengal Army, is considered by some historians to be the first war photographer known by name. He produced a series of photographs documenting the Second Anglo-Sikh War from 1848–49 and he also photographed local people and architecture, artillery emplacements and the destructive aftermath. McCosh later photographed the Second Anglo-Burmese War where he photographed colleagues, captured guns, temple architecture in Yangon, the Hungarian–Romanian Carol Popp de Szathmàri took photographs of various officers in 1853 and of war scenes near Olteniţa and Silistra in 1854, during the Crimean War. He personally offered some 200 pictures albums to Napoleon III of France, the first official attempts at war photography were made by the British government at the start of the Crimean War. In 1854 Gilbert Elliott was commissioned to photograph views of the Russian fortifications along the coast of the Baltic Sea, Roger Fenton was the first official war photographer and the first to attempt a systematic coverage of war for the benefit of the public. Hired by Thomas Agnew, he landed at Balaclava in 1854, the photos were converted into woodblocks and published in The Illustrated London News. Due to the size and cumbersome nature of his photographic equipment, Fenton also photographed the landscape – his most famous image was of the area near to where the Charge of the Light Brigade took place. Fenton left the Crimea in 1855, and was replaced by the partnership of James Robertson, in contrast to Fentons depiction of the dignified aspects of war, Beato and Robertson showed the destruction. They photographed the fall of Sevastopol in September 1855, producing about 60 images, in February 1858, they arrived in Calcutta to document the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. During this time they produced possibly the first-ever photographic images of corpses, in 1860 Beato left the partnership and documented the progress of the Anglo-French campaign during the Second Opium War. Teaming up with Charles Wirgman, a correspondent for The Illustrated London News, beatos photographs of the Second Opium War were the first to document a military campaign as it unfolded, doing so through a sequence of dated and related images. Their reconfigured scenes were designed to intensify the visual and emotional effects of battle, Gardner and Mathew Brady rearranged bodies of dead soldiers during the Civil War in order to create a clear picture of the atrocities associated with battle. In Soldiers on the Battlefield Brady produced a controversial tableau of the dead within a desolate landscape and this work, along with Alexander Gardners 1863 work Home of a Rebel Sharpshooter were images which, when shown to the public, brought home the horrific reality of war. Also during the American Civil War, Charleston photographer George S, the first photographs of South American warfare were published by the Montevideo firm of Bate & Cía
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American Expeditionary Forces
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The American Expeditionary Forces was the expeditionary force of the United States Army during World War I. It was established on July 5,1917, in France under the command of Gen. John J. Pershing, during the United States campaigns in World War I it fought, alongside French and British troops, against the German Empire. Some of the troops fought alongside Italian forces in that same year and it helped the French Army on the Western Front during the Aisne Offensive in June 1918, and fought its major actions in the Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne Offensives in late 1918. Pershing insisted that American soldiers be well-trained before going to Europe, as a result, few troops arrived before 1918. This attitude was not always received by the Allied leaders who distrusted the potential of an army lacking experience in large-scale warfare. In addition the British tried to bargain their spare shipping to make the US put its soldiers into British ranks. The French harbors of Bordeaux, La Pallice, Saint Nazaire and Brest became the points into the French railway system which brought the US forces. American engineers in France built 82 new ship berths, nearly 1,000 miles of additional tracks and 100,000 miles of telephone. The first American troops, who were often called Doughboys, landed in Europe in June 1917, a formation of regular soldiers and the first division to arrive in France, entered the trenches near Nancy. The AEF used French and British equipment, particularly appreciated were the French canon de 75 modèle 1897, the canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider and the canon de 155mm GPF. American aviation units received the SPAD XIII and Nieuport 28 fighters, Pershing established facilities in France to train new arrivals with their new weapons. A fifth division, the 41st Division, had converted into a depot division near Tours. After the first offensive action and American-led AEF victory on 28 May 1918 at the Battle of Cantigny, the rest followed at an accelerating pace during the spring and summer of 1918. The training took a minimum of six due to the inexperience of the servicemen. The first offensive action by AEF units serving under command was 1,000 men. This battle took place under the command of the Australian Corps commander. The Allied force in this battle combined artillery, armor, infantry, and air support, U. S. Army and Marine Corps troops played a key role in helping stop the German thrust towards Paris, during the Second Battle of the Marne in June 1918. The first major and distinctly American offensive was the reduction of the Saint Mihiel salient in September 1918, during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, beginning September 12,1918, Pershing commanded the U. S
