1.
James Chadwick
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Sir James Chadwick, CH, FRS was an English physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932. In 1941, he wrote the draft of the MAUD Report. He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during the Second World War and he was knighted in England in 1945 for his achievements in physics. Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford, at Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913. The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 and he elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin. Using Geigers recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, still in Germany when the First World War broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp. Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass and he anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer. During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build a bomb, while his Liverpool lab. When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he part of the British Mission. He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R. Groves, for his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945. In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test, after this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, Chadwick became the Master of Gonville, James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant. He was named James after his paternal grandfather, in 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents. Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester and he now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert, a sister had died in infancy. At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them, Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908. He meant to study maths, but enrolled in physics by mistake, like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles to the university and back each day. At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics, the idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 gram of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie. Rutherfords suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, the results became Chadwicks first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912
2.
Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position
3.
Poor Law
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In English and British history, poor relief refers to government and ecclesiastical action to relieve poverty. Over the centuries various authorities have needed to decide whose poverty deserves relief, alongside ever-changing attitudes towards poverty, many methods have been attempted to answer these questions. In the late 15th century, parliament took action on the problem of poverty, focusing on punishing people for being vagabonds. In 1495, during the reign of King Henry VII, Parliament enacted the Vagabond Act, as historian Mark Rathbone has discussed in his article Vagabond. In addition, the Act failed to recognise the impotent poor and these included the sick, the elderly, and the disabled. This lack of a definition of a vagabond would hinder the effectiveness of the Vagabond Act for years to come. The problem of poverty in England was exacerbated during the early 16th century by an increase in the population. This rose …from little more than 2 million in 1485, … about 2.8 million by the end of Henry VIIs reign, the population was growing faster than the economys ability to provide employment opportunities. One consequence was the Dissolution of the Monasteries in England and Wales and this had a devastating impact on poor relief. In 1531, the Vagabonds and Beggars Act was revised, the sick, the elderly, and the disabled were to be issued with licenses to beg. But those who were out of work and in search of employment were not spared punishment. Throughout the 16th century, a fear of social unrest was the motive for much legislation that was passed by parliament. This fear of social unrest carried into the reign of Edward VI of England, a new level of punishment was introduced in the Duke of Somersets Vagrancy Act of 1547. Two years servitude and branding with a V was the penalty for the first offense, fortunately for vagabonds during this era, there is no evidence that the Act was enforced. In 1550 these punishments were revised in a new act that was passed, following the revision of the Duke of Somerset’s Act of 1547, parliament passed a new Act in 1552. This focused on using the parishes, which were the areas attached to a parish church and this statute appointed two overseers from each parish to collect money to be distributed to the poor who were considered to belong to the parish. However, at times such a meeting with the bishop would often fail to achieve its object. However, even this Act still suffered from shortcomings, because individuals could decide for themselves how much money to give in order to gain their freedom, a more structured system of donations was established by the Act of 1572
4.
Sanitation
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These hazards may be physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause problems include human and animal excreta, solid wastes, domestic wastewater, industrial wastes. Hygienic means of prevention may involve engineering solutions, simple technologies, or even simply by behavior changes in personal hygiene practices, providing sanitation to people requires a systems approach, rather than only focusing on the toilet or wastewater treatment plant itself. The experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, treatment, the main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. The World Health Organization defines the term sanitation as follows, Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the disposal of human urine. The word sanitation also refers to the maintenance of conditions, through services such as garbage collection. There are some variations on the definition of sanitation in use. For example, for many organisations, hygiene promotion is seen as an part of sanitation. Despite the fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often use side by side as sanitation and wastewater management, Sanitation should be regarded with a systems approach in mind which includes collection/containment, conveyance/transport, treatment, disposal or reuse. Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to break the transmission cycle. This aspect is visualised with the F-diagram where all routes of fecal-oral disease transmission begin with the letter F, feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids. Container-based sanitation is usually provided as a service involving provision of types of portable toilets. In most cases, CBS is based on the use of urine-diverting dry toilets, the term dry sanitation is somewhat misleading as sanitation includes hand-washing and can never be dry. A more precise term would be dry excreta management, when people speak of dry sanitation they usually mean sanitation systems with dry toilets with urine diversion, in particular the urine-diverting dry toilet. Put in other words, Ecosan systems safely recycle excreta resources to crop production in such a way that the use of resources is minimised. Ecosan is also called resource-oriented sanitation, environmental sanitation encompasses the control of environmental factors that are connected to disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise, improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply
5.
Public health
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It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, Public health incorporates the interdisciplinary approaches of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health and occupational safety, the focus of public health intervention is to improve health and quality of life through prevention and treatment of disease and other physical and mental health conditions. This is done through surveillance of cases and health indicators, there is a great disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming, many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations, Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization is the agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, for example, in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response. The Public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state-owned health care facilities. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011. Although the prioritization of pressing public health issues is important, Laurie Garrett argues that there are following consequences, when foreign aid is funnelled into disease-specific programs, the importance of public health in general is disregarded. This public health problem of stovepiping is thought to create a lack of funds to other existing diseases in a given country. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people suffer from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by the year 2030, the risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO’s latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1.5 billion adults were overweight in 2008, the United States is the leading country with 30. 6% of its population being obese
6.
Jeremy Bentham
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Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, Bentham defined as the fundamental axiom of his philosophy the principle that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and he advocated individual and economic freedom, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual acts. He called for the abolition of slavery, the abolition of the penalty. He has also known in recent years as an early advocate of animal rights. Though strongly in favour of the extension of legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights. On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected, and then to be preserved as an auto-icon. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on display at University College London. Because of his arguments in favour of the availability of education. However, he played only a direct part in its foundation. Bentham was born in Houndsditch, London, to a family that supported the Tory party. He was reportedly a child prodigy, he was found as a sitting at his fathers desk reading a multi-volume history of England. He had one surviving sibling, Samuel Bentham, with whom he was close. He attended Westminster School and, in 1760, at age 12, was sent by his father to The Queens College, Oxford and he trained as a lawyer and, though he never practised, was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of the English legal code, among his many proposals for legal and social reform was a design for a prison building he called the Panopticon. Although the prison was never built, the concept had an important influence on generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that the Panopticon was paradigmatic of several 19th-century disciplinary institutions, Bentham became convinced that his plans for the Panopticon had been thwarted by the King and an aristocratic elite acting in their own interests. More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the Pool of London and this resulted in the Thames Police Bill of 1798, which was passed in 1800
7.
Longsight
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Longsight is an inner city area of Manchester, England, about 3 miles south of the city centre. Historically in Lancashire, it had a population of 15,429 at the 2011 census, Longsight is an ethnically diverse area, with high levels of poverty, deprivation and crime. For many years, Longsight has been plagued by gang related violence, most of the violence came from tensions between two rival gangs which fought turf wars with each other since the 1990s, resulting in many shootings and several deaths. Longsight has been in the constituency of Manchester Gorton since boundary changes in 1983. Since that year, Gorton was represented in the House of Commons by the Labour MP, the Rt Hon Sir Gerald Kaufman until his death in 2017. At the 2015 General Election, Labour won 28,187 votes and 67. 1% of the vote, the Greens came second with 4,108 votes and the Conservatives third with 4,063. Councillors The area is represented on Manchester City Council by three councillors, currently Luthfur Rahman, Abid Chohan and Suzanne Richards, Abid Chohan was initially a Lib Dem councillor but defected to Labour ahead of the local council elections in 2010. Previously known as Grindlow Marsh, it was incorporated into the City of Manchester in 1890, the district is bordered by Ardwick to the north, Rusholme to the west, Levenshulme to the south, and Gorton to the east. The old Roman road to Buxton roughly bisects the area, Longsight has a very ethnically diverse population. According to the 2011 UK census,72. 9% of the population is from ethnic groups. This includes 55. 3% who describe themselves as Asian or Asian British, the largest religious group is Muslim with 53. 8% of the population, compared with the 2001 figure of 34. 7% Muslim and 38. 6% Christian. Only 7. 0% of the population declined to state a religion, the census tended to underestimate immigrant communities, and it is likely that these groups in Longsight were underestimated are now proportionately larger. The main shopping centre is near the corner of Stockport Road and Dickenson Road, Longsight Market, one of the busiest markets in the North West of England, is located on Dickenson Road. It can be spotted by its brightly coloured profiled roofs. The market hosts a market every Wednesday, Friday and Saturday. The area of Longsight contains many of the buildings of Victoria Park. Pankhursts family house is situated on the edge of Longsight at Plymouth Grove. Larger Victorian period properties are clustered around the leafy western parts of Longsight
8.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
9.
John Dalton
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John Dalton FRS was an English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist. He is best known for his work in the development of modern atomic theory and his research into colour blindness. John Dalton was born into a Quaker family in Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth and he received his early education from his father and from Quaker John Fletcher, who ran a private school in the nearby village of Pardshaw Hall. With his family too poor to support him for long, he began to earn his living at the age of ten in the service of a wealthy local Quaker, Elihu Robinson. It is said he began teaching at a school at age 12. He joined his older brother Jonathan at age 15 in running a Quaker school in Kendal, around age 23 Dalton may have considered studying law or medicine, but his relatives did not encourage him, perhaps because being a Dissenter, he was barred from attending English universities. He acquired much scientific knowledge from informal instruction by John Gough, at age 27 he was appointed teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at the New College in Manchester, a dissenting academy. He remained there until age 34, when the colleges worsening financial situation led him to resign his post and begin a new career as a tutor for mathematics. During his years in Kendal, Dalton contributed solutions of problems and questions on subjects to The Ladies Diary. In 1787 at age 21 he began to keep a diary in which, during the succeeding 57 years. He also rediscovered George Hadleys theory of atmospheric circulation around this time, Daltons first publication was Meteorological Observations and Essays at age 27 in 1793, which contained the seeds of several of his later discoveries. However, in spite of the originality of his treatment, little attention was paid to them by other scholars, a second work by Dalton, Elements of English Grammar, was published at age 35 in 1801. In fact, a shortage of colour perception in people had not even been formally described or officially noticed until Dalton wrote about his own. Since both he and his brother were colour blind, he recognized that this condition must be hereditary, examination of his preserved eyeball in 1995 demonstrated that Dalton actually had a less common kind of colour blindness, deuteroanopia, in which medium wavelength sensitive cones are missing. The altitude achieved was estimated using a barometer and this meant that, until the Ordnance Survey started publishing their maps for the Lake District in the 1860s, Dalton was one of the few sources of such information. Dalton was often accompanied by Jonathan Otley, who was one of the few other authorities on the heights of the Lake District mountains and he became both an assistant and a friend. These four essays were presented between 2 and 30 October 1801 and published in the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester in 1802. It seems, therefore, that general laws respecting the absolute quantity and he thus enunciated Gay-Lussacs law, published in 1802 at age 36 by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
10.
John Wesley
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John Wesley was an Anglican cleric and theologian who, with his brother Charles and fellow cleric George Whitefield, founded Methodism. Educated at Charterhouse School and Christ Church, Oxford, Wesley was elected a fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford in 1726, after an unsuccessful ministry of two years at Savannah in the Georgia Colony, Wesley returned to London and joined a religious society led by Moravian Christians. On 24 May 1738 he experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion and he subsequently departed from the Moravians, beginning his own ministry. A key step in the development of Wesleys ministry was, like Whitefield, to travel, in contrast to Whitefields Calvinism, Wesley embraced the Arminian doctrines that dominated the Church of England at the time. Moving across Great Britain and Ireland, he helped form and organise small Christian groups that developed intensive and personal accountability, discipleship, most importantly, he appointed itinerant, unordained evangelists to travel and preach as he did and to care for these groups of people. Under Wesleys direction, Methodists became leaders in social issues of the day, including prison reform. Although he was not a theologian, Wesley argued for the notion of Christian perfection and against Calvinism—and, in particular. He held that, in life, Christians could achieve a state where the love of God reigned supreme in their hearts. Throughout his life, Wesley remained within the established Church of England, in 2002, he was placed at number 50 in the BBCs poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. John Wesley was born in 1703 in Epworth,23 miles north-west of Lincoln, as the child of Samuel Wesley. Samuel Wesley was a graduate of the University of Oxford and a poet who and he married Susanna, the twenty-fifth child of Samuel Annesley, a dissenting minister, in 1689. Ultimately, she bore nineteen children, of nine lived beyond infancy. She and Samuel Wesley had become members of the Church of England as young adults, as in many families at the time, Wesleys parents gave their children their early education. Each child, including the girls, was taught to read as soon as they could walk and talk and they were expected to become proficient in Latin and Greek and to have learned major portions of the New Testament by heart. Susanna Wesley examined each child before the meal and before evening prayers. Children were not allowed to eat meals and were interviewed singularly by their mother one evening each week for the purpose of intensive spiritual instruction. In 1714, at age 11, Wesley was sent to the Charterhouse School in London, apart from his disciplined upbringing, a rectory fire which occurred on 9 February 1709, when Wesley was five years old, left an indelible impression. Some time after 11,00 p. m. the rectory roof caught on fire, with stairs aflame and the roof about to collapse, Wesley was lifted out of a window by a parishioner standing on another man’s shoulders
11.
Lancashire
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Lancashire is a non-metropolitan ceremonial county in north west England. The county town is Lancaster although the administrative centre is Preston. The county has a population of 1,449,300, people from Lancashire are known as Lancastrians. The history of Lancashire begins with its founding in the 12th century, in the Domesday Book of 1086, some of its lands were treated as part of Yorkshire. The land that lay between the Ribble and Mersey, Inter Ripam et Mersam, was included in the returns for Cheshire, when its boundaries were established, it bordered Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire. Lancashire emerged as a commercial and industrial region during the Industrial Revolution. Liverpool and Manchester grew into its largest cities, dominating global trade, the county contained several mill towns and the collieries of the Lancashire Coalfield. By the 1830s, approximately 85% of all cotton manufactured worldwide was processed in Lancashire, Accrington, Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Bury, Chorley, Colne, Darwen, Manchester, Nelson, Oldham, Preston, Rochdale and Wigan were major cotton mill towns during this time. Blackpool was a centre for tourism for the inhabitants of Lancashires mill towns, the detached northern part of Lancashire in the Lake District, including the Furness Peninsula and Cartmel, was merged with Cumberland and Westmorland to form Cumbria. Lancashire lost 709 square miles of land to other counties, about two fifths of its area, although it did gain some land from the West Riding of Yorkshire. Today the county borders Cumbria to the north, Greater Manchester and Merseyside to the south and North and West Yorkshire to the east, with a coastline on the Irish Sea to the west. The county palatine boundaries remain the same with the Duke of Lancaster exercising sovereignty rights, including the appointment of lords lieutenant in Greater Manchester, the county was established in 1182, later than many other counties. During Roman times the area was part of the Brigantes tribal area in the zone of Roman Britain. The towns of Manchester, Lancaster, Ribchester, Burrow, Elslack, in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal in 410AD the northern parts of the county probably formed part of the Brythonic kingdom of Rheged, a successor entity to the Brigantes tribe. During the mid-8th century, the area was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, in the Domesday Book, land between the Ribble and Mersey were known as Inter Ripam et Mersam and included in the returns for Cheshire. Although some historians consider this to mean south Lancashire was then part of Cheshire and it is also claimed that the territory to the north formed part of the West Riding of Yorkshire. It bordered on Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire, the county was divided into hundreds, Amounderness, Blackburn, Leyland, Lonsdale, Salford and West Derby. Lonsdale was further partitioned into Lonsdale North, the part north of the sands of Morecambe Bay including Furness and Cartmel
12.
Stockport
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Stockport /ˈstɒkpɔːrt/ is a large town in Greater Manchester, England,7 miles south-east of Manchester city centre, where the River Goyt and Tame merge to create the River Mersey. The town is the largest settlement in the borough of the same name. Historically, most of the town was in Cheshire, but the area to the north of the Mersey was in Lancashire. Stockport in the 16th century was a small town entirely on the bank of the Mersey. In the 18th century the town had one of the first mechanised factories in the British Isles. However, Stockports predominant industries of the 19th century were the cotton, Stockport was also at the centre of the countrys hatting industry, which by 1884 was exporting more than six million hats a year, the last hat works in Stockport closed in 1997. Dominating the western approaches to the town is the Stockport Viaduct, built in 1840, the viaducts 27 brick arches carry the mainline railways from Manchester to Birmingham and London over the River Mersey. This structure featured as the background in many paintings by L. S. Lowry, Stockport was recorded as Stokeport in 1170. The currently accepted etymology is Old English port, a place, with stoc, a hamlet, hence. Older derivations include stock, a place or castle, with port. The castle probably refers to Stockport Castle, a 12th-century motte-and-bailey first mentioned in 1173, other derivations are based on early variants such as Stopford and Stockford. There is evidence that a ford across the Mersey existed at the foot of Bridge Street Brow, Stopford retains a use in the adjectival form, Stopfordian, for Stockport-related items, and pupils of Stockport Grammar School style themselves Stopfordians. By contrast, former pupils of Stockport School are known as Old Stoconians, Stopfordian is used as the general term, or demonym used for people from Stockport, much as someone from London would be a Londoner. Stockport has never been a sea or river port as the Mersey is not navigable here, in the centre of Stockport it has been culverted and the main shopping street, Merseyway, built above it. The earliest evidence of occupation in the wider area are microliths from the hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic period and weapons. Early Bronze Age remains include stone hammers, flint knives, palstaves, there is a gap in the age of finds between about 1200 BC and the start of the Roman period in about 70 AD, which may indicate depopulation, possibly due to a poorer climate. Despite a strong tradition, there is little evidence of a Roman military station at Stockport. It is assumed that roads from Cheadle to Ardotalia and Manchester to Buxton crossed close to the town centre
13.
Henry Chadwick (writer)
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He edited the first baseball guide that was sold to the public. He is credited with creating box scores, as well as creating the abbreviation K that designates a strikeout and he is said to have created the statistics of batting average and earned run average. He was posthumously inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, Chadwick was born in Exeter, England. His grandfather, Andrew Chadwick, had been a friend of theologian John Wesley. His father, James Chadwick, was a supporter of the French Revolution who also tutored John Dalton in music, James Chadwick had served as editor of a publication known as the Western Times. Edwin Chadwicks mother had made James Chadwick a widower shortly after Edwins birth, Chadwick moved to Brooklyn with his family at the age of 12. He began to write music and to piano and guitar. In 1848, Chadwick married Jane Botts from Richmond, Virginia, Botts father Alexander had been president of the Virginia State Council. She was also related to politician John Botts, Chadwick edited John Botts work titled The Great Rebellion. Chadwick and his wife had three children, Richard Westlake Chadwick, in 1849, Susan Mary Chadwick, in 1851, Chadwick became a frequent player of cricket and similar ball games such as rounders. He began covering cricket for local newspapers such as the Long Island Star. He first came across organized baseball in 1856 as a reporter for The New York Times. Chadwick was one of the movers in the rise of baseball to its popularity at the turn of the 20th century. He also served on baseball rules committees and influenced the game itself and he is sometimes referred to as the father of baseball because he facilitated the popularity of the sport in its early days. Early baseball had a known as the bound rule, which held that a fielder could catch a batted ball on one bounce. Chadwick was a critic of the rule for many years. In 1864, the rule was eliminated for balls hit into fair territory. The bound rule for foul balls persisted into the 1880s, in his 1861 Beadle guide, he listed totals of games played, outs, runs, home runs, and strikeouts for hitters on prominent clubs, the first database of its kind
14.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
15.
Inns of Court
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The Inns of Court in London are the professional associations for barristers in England and Wales. All barristers must belong to one such association and they have supervisory and disciplinary functions over their members. The Inns also provide libraries, dining facilities and professional accommodation, several centuries ago the Inns of Court were any of a sizable number of buildings or precincts where barristers traditionally lodged, trained and carried on their profession. The records of Grays Inn begin in 1569, but teaching is thought to have there in the late fourteenth century. The Inns are near the boundary of the City of London, nearby are the Royal Courts of Justice. Each Inn is a complex with a great hall, chapel, libraries, sets of chambers for many hundreds of barristers, and gardens. The layout is similar to that of an Oxbridge college, the chambers were originally used as residences as well as business premises by many of the barristers, but today, with a small number of exceptions, they serve as offices only. Each of the four Inns of Court has three grades of membership, students, barristers, and Masters of the Bench or benchers. The benchers constitute the body for each Inn and appoint new members from among existing barrister members. As a rule, any member of the Inn is eligible for appointment. Prospective students may choose which Inn to apply to for membership, an applicant may choose a particular Inn because he or she knows someone already a member, or it has a student association at their university. It makes no difference which Inn a barrister joins. The senior bencher of each Inn is the Treasurer, a position which is held for one year only, each Inn usually also has at least one Royal Bencher. They may also appoint Honorary Benchers, from academics, the world of politics, all prospective Bar School students must be a member of one of the four Inns, and must attend twelve qualifying sessions before being eligible to qualify as a barrister. Qualifying sessions traditionally comprise formal dinners followed by law-related talks, the Inns still retain the sole right to call qualified students to the bar, a right currently found in section 207 of the Legal Services Act 2007. The Inns disciplinary functions are carried out by a joint Council of the Inns of Court, barristers are prosecuted by the Bar Standards Board. The four Inns are near one another in central London, middle Temple and Inner Temple are liberties of the City of London, which means they are within the historic boundaries of the City but are not subject to its jurisdiction. They operate as their own local authorities and these two Inns neighbour each other and occupy the core of the Temple area
16.
Barrister
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A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
17.
John Stuart Mill
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John Stuart Mill was an English philosopher, political economist and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory, political theory, Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by his predecessor Jeremy Bentham, and contributed significantly to the theory of the scientific method. A member of the Liberal Party, he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for womens suffrage. John Stuart Mill was born on Rodney Street in the Pentonville area of London, the eldest son of the Scottish philosopher, historian and economist James Mill, John Stuart was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place. He was given a rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings. Mill was a precocious child. He describes his education in his autobiography, at the age of three he was taught Greek. By the age of eight, he had read Aesops Fables, Xenophons Anabasis, and the whole of Herodotus and he had also read a great deal of history in English and had been taught arithmetic, physics and astronomy. At the age of eight, Mill began studying Latin, the works of Euclid, and algebra and his main reading was still history, but he went through all the commonly taught Latin and Greek authors and by the age of ten could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father also thought that it was important for Mill to study, one of Mills earliest poetic compositions was a continuation of the Iliad. In his spare time he enjoyed reading about natural sciences and popular novels, such as Don Quixote. In the following year he was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and David Ricardo with his father, Ricardo, who was a close friend of his father, used to invite the young Mill to his house for a walk in order to talk about political economy. At the age of fourteen, Mill stayed a year in France with the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, the mountain scenery he saw led to a lifelong taste for mountain landscapes. The lively and friendly way of life of the French also left an impression on him. In Montpellier, he attended the courses on chemistry, zoology, logic of the Faculté des Sciences. While coming and going from France, he stayed in Paris for a few days in the house of the renowned economist Jean-Baptiste Say, there he met many leaders of the Liberal party, as well as other notable Parisians, including Henri Saint-Simon. Mill went through months of sadness and pondered suicide at twenty years of age, according to the opening paragraphs of Chapter V of his autobiography, he had asked himself whether the creation of a just society, his lifes objective, would actually make him happy. His heart answered no, and unsurprisingly he lost the happiness of striving towards this objective, eventually, the poetry of William Wordsworth showed him that beauty generates compassion for others and stimulates joy
18.
Thomas Southwood Smith
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Southwood Smith was an English physician and sanitary reformer. Smiths life up to 1812 remains poorly documented and he was born at Martock, Somerset, into a Baptist family, his parents being William Smith and Caroline Southwood. In 1802 he was sent to the Baptist Academy in Bristol and he married in 1808, but his wife Anne died in 1812, leaving him two daughters. In this period Smiths contact with William Blake at Crewkerne was significant, another friend, and Unitarian convert from Baptism who became a physician, was Benjamin Spencer. In June 1813 he began a course of fortnightly evening lectures on universal restoration, also in 1813 he founded the Scottish Unitarian Association, with James Yates. In 1816 he took his M. D. degree, and began to practice at Yeovil, Somerset, also becoming minister at a chapel in that town, in 1824 Smith was appointed physician to the London Fever Hospital. The following year he began to write papers on public health and his post gave him the opportunity to study diseases of poverty. In the late 1830s, with Neil Arnott and James Phillips Kay, in 1842 he was one of the founders of an early housing association, the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes. Smith was an ally on public health matters with Edwin Chadwick. From 1848 to 1854 they worked together at the Central Board of Health. But the appointment of Lord Seymour made their work difficult, despite the support of Anthony Ashley-Cooper. Smith was frequently consulted in fever epidemics and on sanitary matters by public authorities and his reports on quarantine, cholera, yellow fever, and on the results of sanitary improvement were of international importance. Smith died in Florence in 1861 and is interred there in the English Cemetery of Florence, his tombstone and his daughter Emily, who died in 1872, is buried beside him. Southwood Smith was a utilitarian, and a close friend of Jeremy Bentham. He had a particular interest in applying his philosophical beliefs to the field of medical research, on 9 June 1832, Southwood Smith carried out the highly controversial public dissection of Jeremy Bentham at the Webb Street School of Anatomy in London. Smiths lobbying helped lead to the 1832 Anatomy Act, the legislation allowed the state to seize unclaimed corpses from workhouses. While this act is credited with ending the practice of grave robbery, in 1830 Smith published A Treatise on Fever, which became a standard authority on the subject. In this book he established a connection between the impoverishment of the poor and epidemic fever
19.
Neil Arnott
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Dr Neil Arnott FRS LLD was a Scottish physician. He was the son of Alexander Arnott and his wife, Ann MacLean of Borreray. After making two voyages to China acting as a surgeon in the service of the British East India Company, he settled in London where he practised from 1811–1854 and he gave lectures at the Philomathic Institution published as Elements of physics. He was one of the founders of the University of London,1836, within a few years he was made physician to the French and Spanish embassies, and in 1837 he became physician extraordinary to the Queen. He was elected to the Fellow of the Royal Society in 1838 and he died in London in 1874 but is buried with his mother in Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. The simple obelisk lies in the north-west section of the original cemetery and he was the author of several works on physical science or its applications, the most important being his Elements of Physics, which went through six editions in his lifetime. In 1838 he published a treatise on warming and ventilating, and in 1855, from his earliest youth, Arnott had an intense love of natural philosophy, and to this added an inventiveness which served him in good stead in his profession. This inventiveness helped him to design the Arnott waterbed in the 19th century that was devised to prevent bedsores in invalids, the bed was composed of a bath of water with a covering of rubber-impregnated canvas, on which lighter bedding was placed. However, Arnott didnt patent his design, and without a patent, the design was later developed into a water-filled chair intended to prevent seasickness. Other inventions include the Arnott ventilator and the Arnott stove, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Arnott, Neil
20.
James Kay-Shuttleworth
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Sir James Phillips Kay-Shuttleworth, 1st Baronet was a British politician and educationist. He was born James Kay at Rochdale, Lancashire, the son of Robert Kay and he was the brother of Joseph Kay and of Sir Edward Ebenezer Kay. At first engaged in a Rochdale bank, in 1824 he became a student at the University of Edinburgh. Settling in Manchester about 1827, he was instrumental in setting up the Manchester Statistical Society and he worked for the Ardwick and Ancoats Dispensary. While still known simply as Dr, in 1839 he was appointed first secretary of the committee formed by the Privy Council to administer the Government grant for the public education in Britain. In 1840, he founded with E. Carleton Tufnell, the Battersea Normal College for the training of teachers of pauper children and this became the College of St Mark and St John at Battersea, London and later the University College Plymouth St Mark & St John. In 2012 it obtained university status as the University of St Mark & St John. He was created a baronet of Gawthorpe Hall in the County Palatine of Lancaster in 1849, until the end of his life he interested himself in the movements of the Liberal Party in Lancashire, and the progress of education. His Physiology, Pathology and Treatment of Asphyxia became a standard textbook and he was also one of the key figures in the foundation of the Girls Public Day School Company and was a member of their council until shortly before his death. He was High Sheriff of Lancashire for 1864 and he died in 1877 in London and is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. In 1842 he married Janet Shuttleworth, assuming by royal licence his brides name and his wife had inherited the estate centred on Gawthorpe Hall in Padiham at aged four months. He was Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in 1886, the Condition of the Working Class in England. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Dangerous Sexualities, Medico-Moral Politics in England Since 1830, shock Cities, The Environmental Transformation and Reform of Manchester and Chicago. James Kay-Shuttleworth Papers at the John Rylands Library, Manchester
21.
Bethnal Green
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Bethnal Green is a district mostly in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets and partly in the London Borough of Hackney. Located 3.3 miles northeast of Charing Cross, it was historically a hamlet in the ancient parish of Stepney, the parish became the Metropolitan Borough of Bethnal Green in 1900 and the population peaked in 1901, entering a period of steady decline which lasted until 1981. Some 173 people were killed at an incident at Bethnal Green tube station in 1943. Bethnal Green has formed part of Greater London since 1965, the place-name Blithehale or Blythenhale, the earliest form of Bethnal Green, is derived from the Anglo-Saxon healh and blithe, or from a personal name Blitha. Nearby Cambridge Heath, is unconnected with Cambridge and may derive from an Anglo-Saxon personal name. The area was marshland and forest which, as Bishopswood. Over time, the name became Bethan Hall Green, which, a Tudor ballad, the Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green, tells the story of an ostensibly poor man who gave a surprisingly generous dowry for his daughters wedding. The tale furnishes the parish of Bethnal Greens coat of arms, the Blind Beggar public house in Whitechapel is reputed to be the site of his begging. Boxing has an association with Bethnal Green. Daniel Mendoza, who was champion of England from 1792 to 1795 though born in Aldgate, since then numerous boxers have been associated with the area, and the local leisure centre, York Hall, remains notable for presentation of boxing bouts. He was a capable pastoral visitor and established a parochial school, after examining the text of the sermon, the Bishop of London condemned it as containing erroneous and dangerous notions. As a result, the bishop sent Woodard to be a curate in Clapton, the Green and Poors Land is the area of open land now occupied by Bethnal Green Library, the V&A Museum of Childhood and St Johns Church, designed by John Soane. In Stows Survey of London the hamlet was called Blethenal Green and it was one of the hamlets included in the Manor of Stepney and Hackney. From that date, the trust has administered the land and its books are kept in the London Metropolitan Archives. Bethnal House, or Kirbys Castle, was the house on the Green. One of its owners was Sir Hugh Platt, author of books on gardening, under its next owner it was visited by Samuel Pepys. In 1727 it was leased to Matthew Wright and for almost two centuries it was an asylum and its two most distinguished inmates were Alexander Cruden, compiler of the Concordance to the Bible, and the poet Christopher Smart. Cruden recorded his experience in The London Citizen Grievously Injured and Smarts stay there is recorded by his daughter, records of the asylum are kept in the annual reports of the Commissioner in Lunacy
22.
Nassau William Senior
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Nassau William Senior, was an English lawyer known as an economist. He was also a government adviser over several decades on economic and he was born at Compton, Berkshire, the eldest son of Rev. J. R. Senior, vicar of Durnford, Wiltshire. He took the degree of B. A. in 1811, Senior went into the field of conveyancing, with a pupilage under Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. When Sugden rather abruptly informed his pupils in 1816 that he was concentrating on chancery work, Senior took steps to qualify as a Certified Conveyancer, with one other pupil, Aaron Hurrill, he then took over Sugdens practice. Senior was called to the bar in 1819, but problems with public speaking limited his career as an advocate. In 1836, during the chancellorship of Lord Cottenham, he was appointed a master in chancery. On the foundation of the Drummond professorship of political economy at Oxford in 1825, he was elected to fill the chair, which he occupied until 1830 and again from 1847 to 1852. In 1830, he was requested by Lord Melbourne to inquire into the state of combinations and strikes, report on the state of the law, Senior was a member of the Poor Law Inquiry Commission of 1832, and of the Royal Commission of 1837 on handloom weavers. The report of the latter, published in 1841, was drawn up by him and had the substance of the report he had prepared years earlier, on combinations. Senior became a friend of Alexis de Tocqueville whom he met in 1833 for the first time before the publishing of Democracy in America. Senior was in the spring of 1849 legal advisor and counsellor to Jenny Lind and she intended to marry a soldier named Harris, and Senior was supposed to draw up marriage settlements. Senior accompanied Lind and Harriet Grote to Paris, the marriage failed to take place. Senior was indirectly responsible for the contract which Jenny Lind condescended to sign in 1850 with the American promoter P. T. Barnum, Senior was one of the commissioners appointed in 1864 to inquire into popular education in England. He died at Kensington that year, Senior was a contributor to the Quarterly Review, Edinburgh Review, London Review and North British Review. In their pages, he dealt with literary as well as with economic, the London Review was a project of Senior from 1828, for a quarterly periodical. It was backed by Richard Whately and others of the Oriel Noetics, early contributions from John Henry Newman, Edwin Chadwick and Senior himself were not enough to establish it, and it ceased publication in mid-1829. Of the latter, the following were printed, An Introductory Lecture on Political Economy, two Lectures on Population, with a correspondence between the author and Malthus. Three Lectures on the Transmission of the Precious Metals from Country to Country, three Lectures on the Cost of obtaining Money, and on some Effects of Private and Government Paper Money
23.
Workhouse
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In England and Wales a workhouse, colloquially known as a spike, was a place where those unable to support themselves were offered accommodation and employment. The earliest known use of the dates from 1631, in an account by the mayor of Abingdon reporting that wee haue erected wthn our borough a workehouse to sett poore people to worke. The New Poor Law of 1834 attempted to reverse the trend by discouraging the provision of relief to anyone who refused to enter a workhouse. Some Poor Law authorities hoped to run workhouses at a profit by utilising the free labour of their inmates, who generally lacked the skills or motivation to compete in the open market. Most were employed on such as breaking stones, crushing bones to produce fertiliser, or picking oakum using a large metal nail known as a spike. Life in a workhouse was intended to be harsh, to deter the able-bodied poor, although workhouses were formally abolished by the same legislation in 1930, many continued under their new appellation of Public Assistance Institutions under the control of local authorities. It was not until the National Assistance Act of 1948 that the last vestiges of the Poor Law disappeared, the Poor Law Act of 1388 was an attempt to address the labour shortage caused by the Black Death, a devastating pandemic that killed about one-third of Englands population. The resulting laws against vagrancy were the origins of state-funded relief for the poor, supporting the destitute was a problem exacerbated by King Henry VIIIs Dissolution of the Monasteries, which began in 1536. They had been a significant source of relief, and provided a good deal of direct and indirect employment. The Poor Relief Act of 1576 went on to establish the principle that if the poor needed support. The Act for the Relief of the Poor of 1601 made parishes responsible for the care of those within their boundaries who. The Act essentially classified the poor into one of three groups and it proposed that the able-bodied be offered work in a house of correction, where the persistent idler was to be punished. The workhouse system evolved in the 17th century, allowing parishes to reduce the cost to ratepayers of providing poor relief and it put the number of parish workhouses in England and Wales at more than 1800, with a total capacity of more than 90,000 places. The growth in the number of workhouses was also bolstered by the Relief of the Poor Act 1782, the able-bodied poor were instead either given outdoor relief or found employment locally. Relatively few Gilbert Unions were set up, but supplementing inadequate wages under the Speenhamland system did become established towards the end of the 18th century. So keen were some Poor Law authorities to cut costs wherever possible that cases were reported of husbands being forced to sell their wives, by the 1830s most parishes had at least one workhouse, but many were badly managed. In his 1797 work, The State of the Poor, Sir Frederick Eden, wrote, The workhouse is an inconvenient building, with windows, low rooms. It is surrounded by a wall, that gives it the appearance of a prison
24.
Reform movement
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A reform movement is the kind of social movement that aims to make gradual change, or change in certain aspects of society, rather than rapid or fundamental changes. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical movements such as revolutionary movements. Reformists ideas are often grounded in liberalism, although they may be rooted in socialist or religious concepts, some rely on personal transformation, others rely on small collectives, such as Mahatma Gandhis spinning wheel and the self-sustaining village economy, as a mode of social change. Reactionary movements, which can arise against any of these, attempt to put back the way they were before any successes the new reform movement enjoyed. The Radical movement campaigned for reform, a reform of the Poor Laws, free trade, educational reform, postal reform, prison reform. Originally this movement sought to replace the political power of the aristocracy with a more democratic system empowering urban areas. Following the Enlightenments ideas, the Reformers looked to the Scientific Revolution, applied to public life, this approach yielded several successful campaigns for changes in social policy. Eventually, in 1859, this movement led to the formation of the Liberal Party. Soon, the gentry, prosperous business men, and high-ranking officials created the Conservative Party to counter the rising strength of liberalism in Parliament. Having achieved the Reform Act of 1832, the Radical alliance was broken until the Liberal-Labour alliance of the Edwardian period, the Chartist movement sought universal suffrage. A historian of the Chartist movement observed that The Chartist movement was essentially a movement with a purely political programme. A period of bad trade and high food prices set in, the London Working Mens Association, under the guidance of Francis Place, found itself in the midst of a great unrest. In the northern textile districts the Chartists, led by Feargus OConnor and this was basically a hunger revolt, springing from unemployment and despair. In Birmingham, the older Birmingham Political Union sprang to life under the leadership of Thomas Attwood, the Chartist movement demanded basic economic reforms, higher wages and better conditions of work, and a repeal of the obnoxious Poor Law Act. The idea of male suffrage, an initial goal of the Chartist movement, was to include all males as voters regardless of their social standing. This later evolved into a campaign for universal suffrage, many consider Mary Wollstonecrafts Vindication of the Rights of Woman to be the source of the reformers long-running campaign for feminist inclusion and the origin of the Womens Suffrage movement. Harriet Taylor was a significant influence on John Stuart Mills work and ideas, mill cites Taylors influence in his final revision of On Liberty, which was published shortly after her death, and she appears to be obliquely referenced in Mills The Subjection of Women. A militant campaign to include women in the electorate originated in Victorian times, emmeline Pankhursts husband, Richard Pankhurst, was a supporter of the womens suffrage movement, and had been the author of the Married Womens Property Acts of 1870 and 1882
25.
Lewis Llewelyn Dillwyn
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Lewis Llewelyn Dillwyn was a Welsh industrialist and Liberal politician who served as MP for Swansea for 37 years. Dillwyn was born in Swansea, Wales, the fourth of six children of Lewis Weston Dillwyn and he had two brothers and three sisters. His grandfather, William Dillwyn, was an American Quaker, who and his father had been sent to Swansea by his father William, to take over the management of the Cambrian Pottery, and lived at Sketty Hall. His father was a friend of the geologist Henry De la Beche and Dillwyn and De la Beche carried out experiments on china clays and granites with the aim of improving the production of earthenware. On 16 March 1838, Dillwyn married de la Beches daughter Elizabeth and, with his wifes artistic guidance and they had four children, the best known of whom was Amy Dillwyn and lived at the newly built Hendrefoilan House in Sketty. Dillwyn followed his father and his Quaker antecedents in pursuing industry and commerce and radical politics and he was head of the firm of Dillwyn and Richards at the Landore spelter-works and began to expand his industrial activities to include silver refining. Dillwyn was also for years an active director of the Great Western Railway. During the 1840s he became a member of both the Swansea Town Council and the Swansea Harbour trust, in 1848 was Mayor of Swansea, during which year the British Association held its annual meeting in the town. In 1852 he conversed with Edwin Chadwick in relation to the construction of a system in Swansea. In 1855 he was elected Member of Parliament for Swansea District and he held the seat with few challenges for thirty years and although opposed in 1874 by Charles Bath of Ffynone he comfortably defeated him. Although not an effective speaker – one obituary even alluded to his inability to make a coherent speech. – Dillwyn earned status as a critic of clerical privilege and it was significant in this respect that Dillwyn was an Anglican and this made his support for the campaigns of the Liberation Society against the status of the established church more effective. He also favoured Local Option, which would entail the closure of all houses within a given area. During this period Dillwyn came to be regarded as a conspicuous Radical and was a supporter of the Reform Act of 1867. At the 1868 General Election he was instrumental in promoting the candidature in Cardiganshire of Evan Matthew Richards, similarly, in the 1880s, he supported the Denbighshire tenantry who agitated against tithes. In 1887 Dillwyn and Stuart Rendel affirmed the Welsh Liberal Partys support of Irish Home Rule, following the redistribution of parliamentary constituencies in 1885, Dillwyn became MP for the new constituency of Swansea Town from 1885 to 1892. Dillwyn was opposed in 1885 by the little known 22-year-old Conservative candidate, Meredyth belonged to a leading Anglo-Irish family and drew much of his support during the campaign from various members of the aristocracy who came to Swansea to support him. In 1886 he increased his majority, one of the lectures was about Labuan, a tiny British colony
26.
William James Erasmus Wilson
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Sir William James Erasmus Wilson FRCS FRS, generally known as Sir Erasmus Wilson, was an English surgeon and dermatologist. Wilson was born in London, studied at Dartford Grammar School before St Bartholomews Hospital in London, and at Aberdeen, and early in life became known as a skilful surgeon and dissector. It was said that he treated the rich by ordering them to give up luxuries, the poor by prescribing for them proper nourishment, indeed his works on spas, baths, and thermo-therapy were directly related to his work on the health of skin. Moreover, his works had a impact on the hydrotherapy movement of the time. Nor was Wilson shy of saying what needed to be said in the promotion of sanitary reform, in Metcalfes work on sanitary reform and all the above-mentioned overlaps, he describes the Chinese vapour baths. The furnace is outside, and the flues are carried under the centre of the bath, all classes of Chinese frequent these bathing establishments. He visited the East to study leprosy, Switzerland to investigate the causes of goitre and he was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1881, and died at Westgate-on-Sea, Kent in 1884. He had married Charlotte Mary Doherty in 1841, they had no children, after the death of his wife, the bulk of his property, some £200,000, went to the Royal College of Surgeons. He made a fortune by his successful practice and by skilful investments. The British Government had not thought it worth the expense of transportation and this is now one of Londons best known landmarks. Erasmus Wilson was also associated with the Royal Medical Benevolent College in Epsom. One of the boarding houses Wilson House established in 1873 is named after him and carries his name on the stone located to the north east corner of the building. 1878, When the Paris Exhibition closes, electric light will close with it, text above was based on an entry from the 1902 edition of Britannica, It may need some updating or revision Wilson, Erasmus. London, Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longmans, full text at Internet Archive Wilson, Erasmus. The Anatomists Vade Mecum, A System of Human Anatomy, full text at Internet Archive Wilson, Erasmus. On The Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health, full text at Internet Archive Wilson, Erasmus. Fifteen Plates for the edition of Wilson on the Skin. Full text at Internet Archive Wilson, Erasmus, on Syphilis, Constitutional and Hereditary, and on Syphilitic Eruptions
27.
Florence Nightingale
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Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC was an English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing. She came to prominence while serving as a manager of nurses trained by her during the Crimean War and she gave nursing a highly favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of The Lady with the Lamp making rounds of wounded soldiers at night. Some recent commentators have asserted Nightingales achievements in the Crimean War were exaggerated by the media at the time, nevertheless, critics agree on the decisive importance of her follow-up achievements in professionalising nursing roles for women. In 1860, Nightingale laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her school at St Thomas Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of Kings College London, Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills and she also helped popularise the graphical presentation of statistical data. Much of her writing, including her work on religion. Florence Nightingale was born on 12 May 1820 into a rich, upper-class, well-connected British family at the Villa Colombaia, in Florence, Italy, and was named after the city of her birth. Florences older sister Frances Parthenope had similarly named after her place of birth, Parthenope. The family moved back to England in 1821, with Nightingale being brought up in the homes at Embley, Hampshire and Lea Hurst. Her parents were William Edward Nightingale, born William Edward Shore, williams mother Mary née Evans was the niece of Peter Nightingale, under the terms of whose will William inherited his estate at Lea Hurst, and assumed the name and arms of Nightingale. Fannys father was the abolitionist and Unitarian William Smith, in 1838, her father took the family on a tour in Europe where he was introduced to the English-born Parisian hostess Mary Clarke, with whom Florence bonded. She recorded that Clarkey was a hostess who did not care for her appearance. Her behaviour was said to be exasperating and eccentric and she had no respect for upper-class British women and she said that if given the choice between being a woman or a galley slave, then she would choose the freedom of the galleys. She generally rejected female company and spent her time with male intellectuals, however, Clarkey made an exception in the case of the Nightingale family and Florence in particular. She and Florence were to close friends for 40 years despite their 27-year age difference. Clarke demonstrated that women could be equals to men, an idea that Florence had not obtained from her mother, in her youth she was respectful of her familys opposition to her working as a nurse, only announcing her decision to enter the field in 1844
28.
Metropolitan Commission of Sewers
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The Metropolitan Commission of Sewers was one of Londons first steps towards bringing its sewer and drainage infrastructure under the control of a single public body. It was a precursor of the Metropolitan Board of Works, the Commission was formed by the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers Act 1848, partly in response to public health concerns following serious outbreaks of cholera. Commissioners included Sir Edwin Chadwick and Robert Stephenson, pauls Cathedral, but not being in the City of London or the liberties thereof. No area was to be exempt from the jurisdiction by virtue of being extra-parochial or beyond the ebb or flow of the tide. The headquarters of the commission were at 1, Greek Street, the City of London was excluded as it had its own Commission of Sewers dating back to 1669, formed by Act of Parliament. The Commission was notable in that it employed Joseph Bazalgette, first as assistant surveyor, public Health Act 1848 Medical Officer for Health
29.
Knight
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A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country, especially in a military capacity. Historically, in Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors, during the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, often, a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings. The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback, since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, as in the British honours system, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame, furthermore, Geoffroi de Charnys Book of Chivalry expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knights life. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes world, in the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar, have become the subject of legend, each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry, cavalier, the special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world, and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity. The word knight, from Old English cniht, is a cognate of the German word Knecht and this meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages. Middle High German had the phrase guoter kneht, which also meant knight, the Anglo-Saxon cniht had no connection to horsemanship, the word referred to any servant. A rādcniht, riding-servant, was a servant delivering messages or patrolling coastlines on horseback, a narrowing of the generic meaning servant to military follower of a king or other superior is visible by 1100. The specific military sense of a knight as a warrior in the heavy cavalry emerges only in the Hundred Years War. The verb to knight appears around 1300, and, from the same time, an Equestrian was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as knight, the medieval knight, both Greek ἳππος and Latin equus are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word root ekwo-, horse. In the later Roman Empire, the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by the vulgar Latin caballus, sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish caballos. From caballus arose terms in the various Romance languages cognate with the English cavalier, Italian cavaliere, Spanish caballero, French chevalier, Portuguese cavaleiro, the Germanic languages have terms cognate with the English rider, German Ritter, and Dutch and Scandinavian ridder. These words are derived from Germanic rīdan, to ride, in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European root reidh-, in ancient Rome there was a knightly class Ordo Equestris from which European knighthood may have been derived. Some portions of the armies of Germanic peoples who occupied Europe from the 3rd century AD onward had been mounted, in the Early Medieval period any well-equipped horseman could be described as a knight, or miles in Latin
30.
East Sheen
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East Sheen, also known as Sheen, is a suburb of London in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. This commercial thoroughfare, well served by transport, is the Upper Richmond Road West which connects Richmond to Putney. Central to this street is The Triangle, an island with a war memorial. The main railway station serving the area, Mortlake, is centred 300m north of this, the earliest recorded use of the name is c.950 as Sceon and means shed or shelters. The area was designated separately from Sheen from the 13th century, manor and hamlet status East Sheen was a hamlet in the parish of Mortlake, East-Sheen is a pleasant hamlet in this parish, situated on a rising ground considerably above the level of the river. Here are several villas, the vicinity to Richmond-park. Earliest references specifically to the present area of land, rather than references to parts of Mortlake, emerge in the 13th century, generally under its early name of Westhall. Originally one carucate, it was sold in 1473 by Michael Gaynsford and Margaret his wife in the right of Margaret to William Welbeck, citizen and haberdasher, the Welbecks held it until selling in 1587. Later owners of what remained, the Whitfields, Juxons and Taylors were equally not titled, as with Mortlakes manorial owners, nor had an above average size or lavish manor house. Development of the Temple Grove, Palmerston country estate The southern estate of Temple Grove, East Sheen, first belonged to Sir Abraham Cullen and he died in 1668, and his first son Sir John in 1677. It belonged to the Temples until Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston and it was bought by Sir Thomas Bernard, who rebuilt the Jacobean style front of the house shown in a drawing hung in the house of 1611. Sir Thomas sold it about 1811 to Rev. William Pearson who founded the Temple Grove Preparatory School for boys, the school moved in 1907 to Eastbourne and the estate was given over to house and apartment builders. East Sheen was included in the Metropolitan Police District in 1840, before 1900, Mortlake developed a secular vestry to help administer poor relief, maintain roads, ditches and other affairs. From 1892 to 1894 Mortlake formed part of the expanded Municipal Borough of Richmond, in 1894 nearby North Sheen was created as a civil parish, being split off from Mortlake and remaining in the Municipal Borough of Richmond. The remainder of Mortlake was instead transferred to Barnes Urban District, in 1965 North Sheen was incorporated in Kew which, with the rest of the Municipal Borough of Richmond, joined Twickenham and Barnes M. B. s to form the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. In the wards of the United Kingdom, Sheen has the largest share of Richmond Park of its surrounding five wards and this wide-footpath street with bus lanes is the Upper Richmond Road West which connects Richmond to Putney. Central to this street is The Triangle, a traffic island with a war memorial. The main railway station serving the area, Mortlake, is centred 300m north of this, East Sheen lies in the ecclesiastical parish of Mortlake with East Sheen
31.
Surrey
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Surrey is a county in the south east of England. It shares borders with Kent to the east, East Sussex to the south-east, West Sussex to the south, Hampshire to the west and south-west, Surrey County Council sits extraterritorially at Kingston upon Thames, administered as part of Greater London since 1965. With a resident population of 1.1 million, Surrey is the most densely populated and third most populated county in the South East region, after Kent, the London boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Wandsworth, and parts of Lewisham and Bromley were in Surrey until 1889. The boroughs of Croydon, Kingston upon Thames, Merton, Sutton and Richmond upon Thames south of the River Thames were part of Surrey until 1965, when they too were absorbed into Greater London. In the same year, the county was extended north of the Thames by the addition of Spelthorne, due to this expansion, modern Surrey also borders on the London boroughs of Hounslow and Hillingdon. It has the highest GDP per capita of any English county, Surrey is divided in two by the chalk ridge of the North Downs, running east-west. To the north of the Downs the land is mostly flat, the geology of this area is dominated by London Clay in the east, Bagshot Sands in the west and alluvial deposits along the rivers. Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt and it contains a good deal of mature woodland. Among its many notable beauty spots are Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds, Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons. Surrey is the most wooded county in England, with 22. 4% coverage compared to an average of 11. 8%. Box Hill has the oldest untouched area of woodland in the UK. Surrey also contains Englands principal concentration of lowland heath, on soils in the west of the county. Agriculture not being intensive, there are many commons and access lands, together with a network of footpaths and bridleways including the North Downs Way. Accordingly, Surrey provides much in the way of leisure activities. The highest elevation in Surrey is Leith Hill near Dorking and it is either 293,294 or 295 metres above sea level and is the second highest point in southeastern England after Walbury Hill 297 metres in West Berkshire. Surrey has a population of approximately 1.1 million people and its largest town is Guildford, with a population of 66,773, Woking comes a close second with 62,796. They are followed by Ewell with 39,994 people and Camberley with 30,155, towns of between 25,000 and 30,000 inhabitants are Ashford, Epsom, Farnham, Staines and Redhill. Guildford is the county town, although the county administration was moved to Newington in 1791
32.
London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine
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It had a total income of £101.7 million in 2009/10, of which £62.5 million was from research grants and contracts. The school was founded in 1899 by Sir Patrick Manson as the London School of Tropical Medicine, before giving lectures at St Georges Hospital, London, in 1895, Livingstone College afforded Manson his first opportunity to teach courses in tropical medicine. Mansons early career was as a physician in the Far East where he deduced the correct etiology of filariasis, on his return to London, he was appointed Medical Advisor to the Colonial Office. He strongly believed that doctors should be trained in medicine to treat British colonial administrators and others working throughout Britains tropical empire. He also encouraged and mentored Ronald Ross during this period to uncover the correct etiology of malaria, the original school was established as part of the Seamens Hospital Society. This enlarged school, now named the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine was granted its Royal Charter in 1924, the school moved to its present location in Gower Street in 1929. The school is London Universitys major resource for teaching and research in public health. On successful completion of their studies, students gain a University of London degree, a competition to design a new school building to be sited in Gower Street, was held involving five architects, all experienced in laboratory design and construction. This was won in 1925 by Morley Horder and Verner Rees who located the entrance in Keppel Street. This building was opened in 1929 by HRH the Prince of Wales, the purchase of the site and the cost of a new building was made possible through a gift of $2m from the Rockefeller Foundation. It is currently headed by Simon Croft, who is Professor of Parasitology, the Faculty is organised into four large research departments. The range of disciplines represented in the faculty is very broad, the Faculty has overseas links which provide a basis for field studies and international collaborations in developed and developing countries. Funding for research in the Faculty comes from around 45 funding organisations, interests and activities embrace the health needs of people living in countries at all levels of development. The School has the largest numbers of active staff in the areas of epidemiology. The Facultys research programmes, with a spend of over £7m. In addition, staff participate in Centres based in other departments, notably the Malaria Centre, courses are delivered both face-to-face in London and via distance learning in collaboration with the University of London International Programmes. The School also offers access to online courses. The LSHTM won the 2009 Gates Award for Global Health established by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the award recognises organisations that have made an outstanding contribution to improving global health
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Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
34.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
35.
BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole
36.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
37.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
38.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Chadwick, Sir Edwin". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 788.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
