1.
Essex, Massachusetts
–
Essex is a town in Essex County, Massachusetts,26 miles north of Boston. The population was 3,504 at the 2010 census, the central village areas of Essex and South Essex make up the census-designated place of Essex. Essex was incorporated as a town in 1819 and it was previously a part of the town of Ipswich and was then called Chebacco Parish. The first European settlers arrived in 1634, at that time, the land formed part of an area inhabited by Native Americans of the Agawam tribe. The name Chebacco is Agawam in origin and refers to a lake whose waters extend into neighboring Hamilton. Conomo Point, the easternmost part of the town, is named for the Sagamore or Chief of the Agawams, Masconomo, early on, Chebacco Parish lobbied for status as an independent town, asking for permission to build a meeting house. In colonial times, the existence of a house in a settlement conferred de facto autonomy. It is reported that a woman, Madam Varney, assembled the towns women. Jeremiah Shepard was a minister at the church in Chebacco Parish from 1678 to 1680 and he was succeeded by John Wise, who was pastor of Chebacco Parish from 1680 to his death in 1725. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 15.9 square miles, of which 14.0 square miles is land and 2.0 square miles. The town does not have any access to Ipswich Bay. The central part of Essex lies on land that surrounds the Essex River. Essex River feeds Essex Bay, along with Castle Neck River and several creeks, including Walker Creek, Hardys Creek, the land that makes up the limits of the town is close to sea level, with a few low hills dotting the landscape. Chebacco Lake and the surrounding wetlands make up most of the part of the town. Essexs population has increased at a rate over the last quarter century, so it still maintains a certain rural quality with abundant forested areas, wetlands. There are several protected areas within town, including the Allyn-Cox Reservation, a portion of Crane Wildlife Refuge, the Stavros Reservation, the Crane Wildlife Refuge covers several of the islands in Essex Bay, including Choate Island. Essex is bordered by Hamilton to the west, Manchester-by-the-Sea to the south, Gloucester to the east, Essex is located 11 miles northeast of Salem and 33 miles northeast of Boston. Though not accessible directly by a highway, Route 128 clips the corner of town, with exits located in neighboring Manchester-by-the-Sea
Essex, Massachusetts
–
Essex in early autumn, showing the Essex River and surrounding wetlands
Essex, Massachusetts
–
Essex Town Hall and TOHP Burnham Library (built 1893-94)
Essex, Massachusetts
–
First Universalist Church
2.
Massachusetts
–
It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
Massachusetts
–
A portion of the north-central
Pioneer Valley in
Sunderland
Massachusetts
–
Flag
Massachusetts
–
Many coastal areas in Massachusetts provide breeding areas for species such as the
piping plover
Massachusetts
–
The
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882). The
Pilgrims were a group of
Puritans who founded
Plymouth in 1620.
3.
Gaff rigged
–
Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
Gaff rigged
–
Reliance, a competitor in the 1903
America's Cup and the largest Gaff rigged cutter ever built
Gaff rigged
–
A gaff rigged sail and its surrounding spars
Gaff rigged
–
The gaff-rigged schooner Rose Dorothea won the 1907 Lipton's Cup, despite a broken foretopmast (pictured)
Gaff rigged
–
Gaff rigged schooner
J. & E. Riggin. Her sails, from left to right, are:
jib,
staysail, gaff foresail, gaff mainsail, and, above that, a main
gaff topsail
4.
Schooner
–
A schooner /ˈskuːnər/ is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts, the foremast being shorter than the main and no taller than the mizzen if there is one. While the schooner was originally gaff-rigged, modern schooners typically carry a Bermuda rig, such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century. They were further developed in North America from the early 18th century, the most common type, with two masts, were popular in trades requiring speed and windward ability, such as slaving, privateering, blockade running, and offshore fishing. In the Chesapeake Bay area several distinctive schooner types evolved, including the Baltimore clipper, bugeye, schooners were also popular among pirates in the West Indies during the Golden Age of Piracy, for their speed and agility. They could also sail in shallow waters, and while being smaller than other ships of the time period. Schooners first evolved in the late 17th century from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast, most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility. Following the arrival of the Dutch monarch William of Orange on the British throne and this vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling, North American shipbuilders quickly developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language scholar Walter William Skeat, the term comes from scoon. The Dutch word schoone means nice, good looking, robinson replied, A schooner let her be. The launch is variously described as being in 1713 or 1745, naval architects such as Howard Chapelle have dismissed this invention story as a childish fable, but some language scholars feel that the legend may support a Gloucester origin of the word. Other sources state the etymology as unknown and uncertain, the first detailed definition of a schooner, describing the vessel as two-masted vessel with fore and aft gaff-rigged sails appeared in 1769 in William Falconers, Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Although a schooner may have up to four masts, the schooner has only two, with the foremast shorter than the mainmast. There may be a bowsprit to help balance the rig, the principal issue with a schooner sail plan is how to fill the space between the two masts most effectively. Traditional schooners were rigged, and the trapezoid shape of the foresail occupied the inter-mast space to good effect, with a useful sail area. A Bermuda rigged schooner typically has four sails, a mainsail, a main staysail abaft the foremast, plus a forestaysail. An advantage of the schooner is that it is easily handled and reefed by a small crew. The main staysail will not overlap the mainsail, and so little to prepare the wind for the mainsail
Schooner
–
A traditional gaff topsail schooner
Schooner
–
Rig of topsail schooner
Shenandoah without sails
Schooner
–
1793 newspaper ad for a packet schooner,
Chestertown, Maryland
Schooner
–
Schooner Governor Ames preparing for launch,
Waldoboro, Maine
5.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
National Register of Historic Places
–
Logo used for the NRHP.
National Register of Historic Places
–
Old Slater Mill, a historic district in
Pawtucket, Rhode Island, was the first property listed in the National Register on November 13, 1966.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The
Loren Andrus Octagon House in
Washington, Michigan has been on the NRHP since September 3, 1971.
National Register of Historic Places
–
Built in 1800 by
Samuel McIntire in
Salem, the
Stephen Phillips House is operated as a
historic house museum by
Historic New England and open for public tours.
6.
National Historic Landmark
–
A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
National Historic Landmark
–
USS Constitution
National Historic Landmark
–
Frank Lloyd Wright 's
Taliesin is a National Historic Landmark
National Historic Landmark
–
The
American Legation in Tangiers, Morocco, was the first National Historic Landmark on foreign soil.
National Historic Landmark
–
Navajo Nation Council Chamber, the seat of government for the
Navajo Nation,
Window Rock, Arizona.
7.
New Bedford, Massachusetts
–
New Bedford is a city in Bristol County, Massachusetts, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 95,072. The city, along with Fall River and Taunton, make up the three largest cities in the South Coast region of Massachusetts, the Greater Providence-Fall River-New Bedford area is home to the largest Portuguese-American community in the United States. Their population is believed to have been about 12,000, while exploring New England, Bartholomew Gosnold landed on Cuttyhunk Island on May 15,1602. From there, he explored Cape Cod and the neighboring areas, however, rather than settle the area, he returned to England at the request of his crew. Europeans first settled New Bedford in 1652, English Plymouth Colony settlers purchased the land from chief Massasoit of the Wampanoag tribe. Whether the transfer of the land was legitimately done has been the subject of intense controversy, like other native tribes, the Wampanoags did not share the settlers concepts of private property. The tribe may have believed they were granting usage rights to the land, the settlers used the land to build the colonial town of Old Dartmouth. The name was suggested by the Russell family, who were prominent citizens of the community, the Dukes of Bedford, a leading English aristocratic house, also bore the surname Russell. The late-18th century was a time of growth for the town, New Bedfords first newspaper, The Medley, was founded in 1792. On June 12,1792, the set up its first post office. William Tobey was its first postmaster, the construction of a bridge between New Bedford and present-day Fairhaven in 1796 also spurred growth. In 1847 the town of New Bedford officially became a city, at approximately the same time, New Bedford began to supplant Nantucket as the nations preeminent whaling port, thanks to its deeper harbor and location on the mainland. Whaling dominated the economy of the city for much of the century, many families of the city were involved with it as crew and officers of ships. Until 1800, New Bedford and its communities were, by and large, populated by Protestants of English, Scottish. During the first half of the 19th century many Irish people came to Massachusetts, in 1818, Irish immigrants established the Catholic mission that built St. Marys Church. As the Portuguese community began to increase, they established the first Portuguese parish in the city, French Canadians also secured a foothold in New Bedford at about the same time, and they built the Church of the Sacred Heart in 1877. Similarly, Polish immigrants began arriving in the late 19th century, a number of Jewish families, arriving in the late 19th century, were active in the whaling industry, selling provisions and outfitting ships
New Bedford, Massachusetts
–
New Bedford Harbor
New Bedford, Massachusetts
–
North Congregational Church, Purchase Street, 1906
New Bedford, Massachusetts
–
New Bedford City Hall
New Bedford, Massachusetts
–
View of historic New Bedford harbor
8.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
9.
Robert Bartlett (explorer)
–
Captain Robert Bob Abram Bartlett was a Newfoundland-American Arctic explorer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Born in Brigus, Newfoundland, Bartlett was the oldest of ten born to William James Bartlett and Mary J. Leamon. He grew up in Hawthorne Cottage in Brigus, by the age of 17, he mastered his first ship and began a lifelong love affair with the Arctic. Bartlett spent more than 50 years mapping and exploring the waters of the Far North and led over 40 expeditions to the Arctic, Bartlett was captain of the Roosevelt and accompanied Commander Robert Peary on his attempts to reach the North Pole. Bartlett took a ship and was the first person to sail north of 88° N, in 1914, Bartlett’s leadership in the doomed Karluk Expedition helped save the lives of most of its stranded participants after leader Vilhjalmur Stefansson abandoned the expedition. He received the highest award from the Royal Geographical Society for his outstanding heroism, in 1917, Bartlett rescued the members of Donald Baxter MacMillans ill-fated Crocker Land Expedition, who had been stuck on the ice for four years. He also helped to survey the Arctic for the United States Government during World War II, Bartlett died when he was 70 in a New York City hospital from pneumonia and was buried in his hometown of Brigus, Newfoundland and Labrador. Hawthorne Cottage, Bartletts place of residence in Brigus, is a National Historic Site of Canada, in 1909, Bartlett was awarded the Hubbard Medal by the National Geographic Society which is awarded for distinction in exploration, discovery, and research. In 1927, the Boy Scouts of America made Bartlett an Honorary Scout, among others who were awarded this distinction were included Richard E. Byrd, Charles Lindbergh, and Orville Wright. He was awarded an Honorary Fellowship from the American Geographical Society in 1918, in 1944, he was awarded the Peary Polar Expedition Medal. The Canadian Coast Guard vessel CCGS Bartlett is named for Bartlett, Canada Post featured Bartlett on a Canadian postage stamp released on July 10,2009. Author Eric Walters documented some of the aspects of his journey to find Arctic islands in the historical novels Trapped in Ice, Bartlett and Kataktoviks journey through Chukotka, Siberia is recounted as an episode in Chukchi author Yuri Rytkheus novel A Dream in Polar Fog. Harold Horwood, Bartlett, The Great Explorer, Toronto, Doubleday,1977, the Last Voyage of the Karluk. The Ice Master, The Doomed 1913 Voyage of the Karluk and the Miraculous Rescue of her Survivors
Robert Bartlett (explorer)
–
Capt. Robert (Bob) Bartlett
Robert Bartlett (explorer)
–
Captain Robert Bartlett
10.
Arctic
–
The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, the Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold, in recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός, near the Bear, northern, there are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle, the southern limit of the midnight sun. The Arctics climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers and its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall, average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures, the Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the migration of the planets isotherms, the Arctic region is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss, there is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of available for plant growth decreases considerably. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease, trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m in height, sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare, non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses, herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear
Arctic
–
Artificially coloured topographical map of the Arctic region
Arctic
–
Location of the Arctic
Arctic
–
MODIS image of the Arctic
Arctic
–
Muskox
11.
Explorers Club
–
The Explorers Club is an American-based international multidisciplinary professional society with the goal of promoting scientific exploration and field study. The club was founded in New York City in 1905, and has served as a point for explorers. The Explorers Club hosts a dinner to honor accomplishments in exploration. Joining Walsh were Adolphus Greely, Donaldson Smith, Carl Lumholtz, Marshall Saville, Frederick Dellenbaugh, after several further informal meetings, The Explorers Club was incorporated on October 25,1905. Women were first admitted in 1981, with a class including Sylvia Earle, famous honorary members have included Theodore Roosevelt, John Glenn, Jim Fowler, Walter Cronkite, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh and Albert I, Prince of Monaco. The Explorers Club has 26 chapters in the United States and around the world, which serve as contact points for explorers, scientists. Many chapters hold monthly dinners, lectures and seminars, award field-research grants to students, publish newsletters and organize expeditions, field trips and educational events. In 1965, the club purchased its current headquarters on the Upper East Side, a six-story Jacobean revival mansion on East 70th Street, ford Exploration Library, the Sir Edmund Hillary Map Room and a collection of artifacts from more than a century of exploration. The building was previously the home of Stephen C. Clark, in the 1920s, the club began to invite both explorers returning from the field and visiting scientists to relate their experiences and findings. By the 1930s these informal gatherings developed into academic lectures and illustrated talks, the club continues to provide weekly lectures and programs, which are often open to the public at its headquarters. In November 1921, The Explorers Club published the first edition of The Explorers Journal to share news from the field, remarks from headquarters, recent acquisitions, obituaries, the Explorers Journal is still published quarterly, with articles and photography from Explorers Club members in the field. To obtain permission to carry the flag, a member must show that an expedition holds the promise of scientific results. Once approved, the flag must be exhibited at every opportunity on the expedition. Today there are 202 numbered flags, men and women may offer their name for consideration
Explorers Club
–
New York City headquarters
12.
National Geographic Society
–
The National Geographic Society, headquartered in Washington, D. C. United States, is one of the largest nonprofit scientific and educational institutions in the world and its interests include geography, archaeology and natural science, the promotion of environmental and historical conservation, and the study of world culture and history. In partnership with 21st Century Fox, the Society operates the magazine, TV channels, a website that features extra content and worldwide events, the National Geographic Society was founded in 1888 to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge. The Society believes in the power of science, exploration and storytelling to change the world, National Geographic is governed by a board of trustees, whose 21 members include distinguished educators, business executives, former government officials and conservationists. The organization sponsors and funds research and exploration. National Geographic maintains a museum for the public in its Washington and its Education Foundation gives grants to education organizations and individuals to improve geography education. Its Committee for Research and Exploration has awarded more than 11,000 grants for scientific research, National Geographic has retail stores in Washington, D. C. The locations outside of the United States are operated by Worldwide Retail Store S. L and it also publishes other magazines, books, school products, maps, and Web and film products in numerous languages and countries. National Geographics various media properties reach more than 280 million people monthly, the National Geographic Society began as a club for an elite group of academics and wealthy patrons interested in travel. After preparing a constitution and a plan of organization, the National Geographic Society was incorporated two weeks later on January 27, Gardiner Greene Hubbard became its first president and his son-in-law, Alexander Graham Bell, succeeded him in 1897. Bell and Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor devised the successful marketing notion of Society membership, the current National Geographic Society president and CEO is Gary E. Knell. The chairman of the board of trustees is John Fahey, the editor-in-chief of National Geographic magazine is Susan Goldberg. Gilbert Melville Grosvenor, a chairman of the Society board of trustees received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2005 for his leadership in geography education. In 2004, the National Geographic Society headquarters in Washington, D. C. was one of the first buildings to receive a Green certification from Global Green USA. The National Geographic received the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities in October 2006 in Oviedo, in 2013 the society was investigated for possible violation of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act relating to their close association with an Egyptian government official responsible for antiquities. This new, for-profit corporation, will own National Geographic and other magazines, as reported by The Guardian, a spokesman for National Geographic in a November 2,2015 e-mail statement, briefly discussed the rationale for the staff reductions as part of the. Process of reorganizing in order to move forward following the closing the National Geographic Partners deal. Additional specifics were provided to Photo District News by M. J. Jacobsen, National Geographic’s SVP of communications, similar to the contents of a formal announcement by the two companies
National Geographic Society
–
A dancer of the cafes,
Algeria, 1917 photograph from National Geographic magazine
National Geographic Society
–
The diploma presented to Italian Admiral
Ernesto Burzagli when he was awarded membership in the National Geographic Society in 1928.
National Geographic Society
–
Cover of January 1915 National Geographic
National Geographic Society
–
Courtyard entrance to the National Geographic Museum
13.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
14.
United States Department of the Interior
–
The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
United States Department of the Interior
–
Main Interior Building 1849 C Street
NW Washington, D.C., U.S. 38°53′37.11″N 77°2′33.33″W / 38.8936417°N 77.0425917°W / 38.8936417; -77.0425917
United States Department of the Interior
–
Seal of the U.S. Department of the Interior
United States Department of the Interior
–
The
hierarchy of the U.S. Department of the Interior.
15.
Gloucester, Massachusetts
–
Gloucester /ˈɡlɒstər/ is a city on Cape Ann in Essex County, Massachusetts, in the United States. It is part of Massachusetts North Shore, the population was 28,789 at the 2010 U. S. Census. The boundaries of Gloucester originally included the town of Rockport, in an area dubbed Sandy Bay and that village separated formally on February 27,1840. In 1873, Gloucester was reincorporated as a city, Gloucester was founded at Cape Ann by an expedition called the Dorchester Company of men from Dorchester chartered by James I in 1623. It was one of the first English settlements in what would become the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the first company of pioneers made landing at Half Moon Beach and settled nearby, setting up fishing stages in a field in what is now Stage Fort Park. This settlements existence is proclaimed today by a tablet, affixed to a 50-foot boulder in that park. Life in this first settlement was harsh and it was short-lived, around 1626 the place was abandoned, and the people removed themselves to Naumkeag, where more fertile soil for planting was to be found. The meetinghouse was even disassembled and relocated to the new place of settlement, at some point in the following years – though no record exists – the area was slowly resettled. The town was incorporated in 1642. It is at time that the name Gloucester first appears on tax rolls. This new permanent settlement focused on the Town Green area, an inlet in the marshes at a bend in the Annisquam River and this area is now the site of Grant Circle, a large traffic rotary at which Massachusetts Route 128 mingles with a major city street. Here the first permanent settlers built a house and therefore focused the nexus of their settlement on the Island for nearly 100 years. Unlike other early coastal towns in New England, development in Gloucester was not focused around the harbor as it is today and this is evidenced by the placement of the Town Green nearly two miles from the harbor-front. The Town Green is also where the built the first school. By Massachusetts Bay Colony Law, any town boasting 100 families or more had to provide a public schoolhouse and this requirement was met in 1698, with Thomas Riggs standing as the towns first schoolmaster. The White-Ellery House was erected in 1710 upon the Town Green and it was built at the edge of a marsh for Gloucester’s first settled minister, the Reverend John White. Early industry included subsistence farming and logging, because of the poor soil and rocky hills, Cape Ann was not well suited for farming on a large scale. Small family farms and livestock provided the bulk of the sustenance to the population, Fishing, for which the town is known today, was limited to close-to-shore, with families subsisting on small catches as opposed to the great bounties yielded in later years
Gloucester, Massachusetts
–
Man at the Wheel, Fisherman's Memorial Cenotaph
Gloucester, Massachusetts
–
Gloucester Harbor, ca. 1877,
William Morris Hunt
Gloucester, Massachusetts
–
1893 map of Gloucester
Gloucester, Massachusetts
–
Fish Dressing Wharf c. 1908
16.
North Atlantic
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
North Atlantic
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the western coast of
Portugal
North Atlantic
–
The Atlantic Ocean, not including
Arctic and
Antarctic regions
North Atlantic
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from
Atlantic City, New Jersey.
North Atlantic
–
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina view of the Atlantic Ocean.
17.
Pinus classification
–
Pinus, the Pines, is a genus of approximately 111 extant tree and shrub species. The genus is split into two subgenera, subgenus Pinus, and subgenus Strobus. Each of the subgenera have several sections based on chloroplast DNA sequencing. Older classifications split the genus into three subgenera – subgenus Pinus, subgenus Strobus, and subgenus Ducampopinus – based on cone, seed, DNA phylogeny has shown that species formerly in subgenus Ducampopinus are members of subgenus Strobus, so Ducampopinus is no longer used. The species of subgenus Ducampopinus were regarded as intermediate between the two subgenera. In the modern classification, they are placed into subgenus Strobus, in 1888 the Californian botanist John Gill Lemmon placed them in subgenus Pinus. In general, this classification emphasized cone, cone scale, seed, and leaf fascicle and sheath morphology, Pines with one fibrovascular bundle per leaf, were known as haploxylon pines, while pines with two fibrovascular bundles per leaf, were called diploxylon pines. Diploxylon pines tend to have harder timber and an amount of resin than the haploxylon pines. Subgenus Pinus includes the yellow and hard pines, section Pinus is mostly in Europe, Asia, except for P. resinosa in northeast North America and P. tropicalis in Cuba. Subsection Pinus P. densata - Sikang pine P. densiflora - Japanese red pine P. fragilissima P. henryi, P. hwangshanensis - Huangshan pine P. kesiya - Khasi pine P. latteri. †P. peregrinus - Pinus peregrinus - Middle Eocene, Golden Valley Formation, North Dakota, NCBI Taxonomy server files Ducampopinus species above as Strobus
Pinus classification
–
Pinus sylvestris
Pinus classification
–
Pinus roxburghii
Pinus classification
–
Pinus elliottii
Pinus classification
–
Pinus muricata
18.
Boothbay Harbor, Maine
–
Boothbay Harbor is a town in the county of Lincoln, state of Maine, in the United States. The population was 2,165 at the 2010 census, during summer months, the entire Boothbay Harbor region is a popular yachting and tourist destination. The community is served by the 633 exchange in Area Code 207, the area was part of Cape Newagen, where the English established an early seasonal fishing camp. In 1666, Henry Curtis purchased the land from the sachem Mowhotiwormet, commonly known as Chief Robinhood, but the settlement was attacked and burned during King Philips War, resettled shortly afterwards, then destroyed again in 1689 during King Williams War. It was abandoned for 40 years, in 1730, Colonel David Dunbar, the superintendent and governor of the Territory of Sagadahock, laid out a new town, named Townsend after Viscount Townshend. During the Penobscot Expedition, in 1779 Townsend became a point for the American naval fleet prior to its disastrous encounter with the British at Castine. Renamed Boothbay in 1842, the continued to develop as a fishing center. In bad weather, it could hold at a time between 400 and 500 vessels, often Friendship Sloops, seeking shelter. By 1881, it had a fishery and fish oil company, on February 16,1889, the community was set off from Boothbay and incorporated as the town of Boothbay Harbor. Sample shipyard at Boothbay Harbor built minesweepers for the United States Navy during World War II, some location filming for the 1956 movie version of Rodgers and Hammersteins Carousel, notably the June Is Bustin Out All Over sequence, was done there. Each summer, Boothbay Harbor draws crowds of tourists, attractions include the state aquarium, art galleries, restaurants, boat tours to coastal islands and whale watching. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 9.22 square miles. Boothbay Harbor is located on a peninsula in the Gulf of Maine, the town is crossed by state routes 27 and 96. It borders the towns of Southport to the southwest, and Boothbay to the north, as of the census of 2010, there were 2,165 people,1,084 households, and 550 families residing in the town. The population density was 379.8 inhabitants per square mile, there were 2,175 housing units at an average density of 381.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 1% White,0. 6% African American or Black,0. 3% Native American,0. 8% Asian,0. 1% from other races, Latino of any race were 0. 7% of the population. 41. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 22. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 1.90 and the average family size was 2.52. The median age in the town was 55.8 years
Boothbay Harbor, Maine
–
Boothbay Harbor ~1910
Boothbay Harbor, Maine
–
Location in
Lincoln County and the state of
Maine.
Boothbay Harbor, Maine
–
Boothbay Harbor
19.
Digby, Nova Scotia
–
Digby is a town in southwestern Nova Scotia, Canada. It is the Administrative centre and largest population centre in Digby County, the town is situated on the western shore of the Annapolis Basin near the entrance to Digby Gut which connects the basin to the Bay of Fundy. Named after Admiral Robert Digby, RN, the town is famous for its fishing fleet. Digby was called Oositookun, meaning ear of land by the Mikmaq band government, the town developed a sizable shipping fleet in the 19th century. One famous Digby vessel was the brigantine Dei Gratia, which discovered the mystery ship Mary Celeste in 1872. The town became an important regional centre in the 1890s with the arrival of the Dominion Atlantic Railway. Trains connected with a series of such as the City of Monticello. A landmark in this industry was the construction of the Digby Pines Resort on the towns outskirts, built in 1905 and then purchased in 1917 by the Dominion Atlantic Railway, the resort provided a focal point to the local tourism industry with a large expansion in 1927. The Pines attracted notable visitors including early film star Theda Bara who spent her honeymoon there in 1921, expanded several times since, it was bought by the Government of Nova Scotia after the Dominion Atlantic sold its hotels. About 20 additional motels, Inns and Bed and Breakfast operations are based in Digby making tourism an important employer. The annual Scallop Days Festival, held the first week of August annually, brings the fishing and tourism industries together to showcase the town’s history and heritage to the tourists. The festival offers a variety of themed activities for all ages, including scallop shucking contests, a parade, since 2004, Digby has become the destination of the largest motorcycle rally in Atlantic Canada, the annual Wharf Rat Rally. It attracts many times the population, the town of 2,000 residents grows to 50,000 people. So many that schools and some roads have to close for the day due to crowds, the Wharf Rat Rally event is held the weekend of Labour Day in August/September each year. Fishing has been an economic activity since the towns settlement. Digbys schooner fishery reached its peak in the early 1900s, documented by the famous Canadian historian, in later years, trawlers, especially those harvesting scallops became the mainstay. A restaurant in Stornoway, Lewis, Scotland, Digby Chick, is named after a fish from Digby, the town council consists of a mayor and four councilors. The offices of Digby County are located adjacent to the town
Digby, Nova Scotia
–
Digby Harbour
Digby, Nova Scotia
–
Digby, Nova Scotia in 1906.
Digby, Nova Scotia
–
The
Admiral Digby Museum.
Digby, Nova Scotia
–
Main Street of Digby
20.
Nova Scotia
–
Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
Nova Scotia
–
Fort Edward – The oldest
blockhouse in North America (1750).
Nova Scotia
–
Flag
Nova Scotia
–
Sambro Island Lighthouse – oldest lighthouse in
North America (1758)
Nova Scotia
–
Statue of
Joseph Howe,
Province House, created by famed Quebec sculptor
Louis-Philippe Hébert
21.
Brigus, Newfoundland and Labrador
–
Brigus is a small fishing community located in Conception Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Brigus was home to Captain Bob Bartlett and the location of his residence Hawthorne Cottage, incorporated in July 1964, Brigus first Mayor was Fred Bartlett. The present Mayor is Byron Rodway, rev. R. Wells was the first Clergy Mayor elected in the Province. Located in a sheltered bay it has been home to many fishermen, Brigus is located adjacent to Cupers Cove an English settlement established in 1610 by John Guy on behalf of Bristols Society of Merchant Venturers. Brigus is located approximately 80 km west of St. Johns, the name Brigus comes from the Brickhouse which was the name of an old town in England. Brigus history dates back to around 1612, when John Guy sold half of the Harbour to the Spracklin family, at this time Brigus was mostly settled by people from England, Ireland, and Wales. During King Williams War, this village was raided in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign, Brigus is famous for its sea Captains, it was in 1819 when Captain William Munden built the schooner Four Brothers, the first one hundred ton schooner in Newfoundland. S. George s Anglican Church, consecrated in 1845, Brigus United Church, dedicated in 1875 on the site of a church. List of lighthouses in Canada List of communities in Newfoundland and Labrador John Northway Leamon,1998, Brigus, Past Glory, Present Splendour, St. Johns, Harry Cuff Publications
Brigus, Newfoundland and Labrador
–
Brigus
Brigus, Newfoundland and Labrador
–
Coat of arms
22.
Dominion of Newfoundland
–
Newfoundland was a British dominion from 1907 to 1949. The dominion was situated in northeastern North America along the Atlantic coast and comprised the island of Newfoundland, before attaining dominion status, Newfoundland was a British colony, self-governing from 1855. Newfoundland was one of the dominions within the meaning of the Statute of Westminster of 1931. In 1934, Newfoundland became the only dominion to give up its self-governing status and this episode was precipitated by a crisis in Newfoundlands public finances in 1932. Newfoundland had accumulated a significant amount of debt by building a railroad across the island, in November of that year, the government warned that Newfoundland would default on payments on the public debt. The United Kingdom government quickly established the Newfoundland Royal Commission to inquire, the Commissions report was published in October 1933. It recommended that Newfoundland give up its system of self-government temporarily, the dominion was never to be self-governing again. The system of a six-member Commission of Government continued to govern Newfoundland until it joined Canada in 1949 to become Canadas tenth province, the official name of the dominion was “Newfoundland” and not, as is sometimes reported, “Dominion of Newfoundland”. In 1854 the British government established Newfoundlands responsible government, in 1855, Philip Francis Little, a native of Prince Edward Island, won a parliamentary majority over Sir Hugh Hoyles and the Conservatives. Little formed the first administration from 1855 to 1858, Newfoundland rejected confederation with Canada in the 1869 general election. Prime Minister of Canada Sir John Thompson came very close to negotiating Newfoundlands entry into confederation in 1892 and it remained a colony until acquiring dominion status in 1907 after the 1907 Imperial Conference decided to confer dominion status on all self-governing colonies. The annual holiday of Dominion Day was celebrated each 26 September to commemorate the occasion, Newfoundlands own regiment, the 1st Newfoundland Regiment, fought in the First World War. On 1 July 1916, the German Army wiped out most of that regiment at Beaumont Hamel on the first day on the Somme, yet the regiment went on to serve with distinction in several subsequent battles, earning the prefix Royal. In the 1920s, political scandals wracked the dominion, in 1923, the attorney general arrested Newfoundlands prime minister Sir Richard Squires on charges of corruption. Despite his release soon after on bail, the British-led Hollis Walker commission reviewed the scandal, soon after, the Squires government fell. Squires returned to power in 1928 because of the unpopularity of his successors, Alderdice, but found himself governing a country suffering from the Great Depression. Prior to 1867, the Quebec North Shore portion of the Labrador coast had shuttled back, maps up to 1927 showed the coastal region as part of Newfoundland, with an undefined boundary. Quebec has long rejected the outcome, and Quebecs provincially issued maps do not mark the boundary in the way as boundaries with Ontario
Dominion of Newfoundland
–
Colonial Building
Dominion of Newfoundland
–
Flag
Dominion of Newfoundland
–
The
Newfoundland dollar bill issued in 1920
Dominion of Newfoundland
–
Newfoundland postage stamp
23.
Newfoundland and Labrador
–
Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province of Canada. Situated in the countrys Atlantic region, it comprises the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador to the northwest, in 2013, the provinces population was estimated at 526,702. About 92% of the population lives on the island of Newfoundland. The province is Canadas most linguistically homogeneous, with 97. 6% of residents reporting English as their mother tongue in the 2006 census, historically, Newfoundland was also home to unique varieties of French and Irish, as well as the extinct Beothuk language. In Labrador, local dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuktitut are also spoken, Newfoundland and Labradors capital and largest city, St. Johns, is Canadas 20th-largest census metropolitan area and is home to almost 40 percent of the provinces population. St. Johns is the seat of government, home to the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the highest court in the jurisdiction and it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on March 31,1949, as Newfoundland. On December 6,2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the official name to Newfoundland. The name Newfoundland is a translation of the Portuguese Terra Nova, the influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador. Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is located at the corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two divisions, Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands, each side is about 400 km long, and its area is 108,860 km2. Newfoundland and its small islands have a total area of 111,390 km2. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N, Labrador is an irregular shape, the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, most of Labradors southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labradors extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a border with Nunavut. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4. 06% of Canadas area, Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland, gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundlands west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the north-south extent of the province, prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province
Newfoundland and Labrador
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Churchill Falls in Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador
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Flag
Newfoundland and Labrador
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The Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland is extinct. It is represented in museum, historical and archeological records.
Newfoundland and Labrador
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L'Anse aux Meadows on Newfoundland, site of a
Norse colony
24.
George P. Putnam
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This article is about the American publisher, the author and explorer who lived from 1887 to 1950 and was famous for being married to Amelia Earhart. For his grandfather, the American book publisher who lived from 1814 to 1872, George Palmer Putnam was an American publisher, author and explorer. Known for his marriage to Amelia Earhart, he had achieved fame as one of the most successful promoters in the United States during the 1930s. Born in Rye, New York, he was the son of John Bishop Putnam and the grandson of his namesake, George Palmer Putnam, and he studied at Harvard University and the University of California. In 1911, Putnam married Dorothy Binney, the daughter of Edwin Binney, inventor and co-owner, harold Smith, of Binney & Smith Inc. the company that made Crayola crayons. They had two sons, David Binney Putnam and George Palmer Putnam, Jr. and for a lived in Bend, Oregon, where Putnam was the publisher and editor of the local newspaper. He was mayor of Bend from 1912 to 1913, Putnam left Bend in 1915 to become the private secretary to Oregon governor James Withycombe. Within a few years, George and Dorothy moved to the East Coast, during World War I, George Putnam served with the United States Army field artillery. In 1926, under the sponsorship of the American Museum of Natural History, he led an expedition to the Arctic, the following year he headed another expedition for the American Geographical Society to collect wildlife specimens on Baffin Island.59. Many thought that George had left his first wife for Amelia Earhart, although for Binney, in 1930, the various Putnam heirs voted to merge the familys publishing firm with Minton, Balch & Co. which became the majority stockholders. Putnam resigned from his position as secretary of G. P. Putnams Sons, a significant event in Putnams personal and business life occurred in 1928, before the merger. Guest asked Putnam to find a candidate and he eventually came up with the then-unknown aviatrix. As it turned out, they shared common interests, hiking, swimming, camping, riding, tennis. When Putnam first met Earhart, he was married to Binney. The resulting Earhart book was 20 Hrs.40 Min, when they began writing, Putnam invited Earhart to live in his home because he felt like it would make the process easier. Shortly after, Binney left for South America which was followed by the divorce of George, Putnam and Earhart made their relationship official shortly after his divorce was finalized, but they didnt marry until 1931. Earharts ideas on marriage were liberal for the time as she believed in equal responsibilities for both breadwinners and pointedly kept her own rather than being referred to as Mrs. Putnam. GP, as she called him, also learned quite soon that he would be called Mr. Earhart, there was no honeymoon for the newlyweds as Earhart was involved in a nine-day cross-country tour promoting autogyros and the tour sponsor, Beech-Nut chewing gum
George P. Putnam
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George P. Putnam and Amelia Earhart c.1935
George P. Putnam
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George P. Putnam
25.
George Palmer Putnam
–
George Palmer Putnam was an important American book publisher. Putnam was born in Brunswick, Maine, on moving to New York City, Putnam was given his first job by Jonathan Leavitt, who subsequently published Putnams first book. In 1838, George Palmer Putnam and John Wiley established the house of Wiley & Putnam in New York City. In 1841, Putnam went to London, UK where he set up a branch office, in 1848 he returned to New York where he dissolved the partnership with John Wiley and established G. Putnam Broadway, publishing a variety of works including quality illustrated books. In 1852, with the assistance of George William Curtis and other partners and it operated until 1856, resumed in 1868, and finally merged with Scribners Monthly. His company was the publisher to the 1853 New York Worlds Fair. George Putnam published the books of many classic American authors including his close friend Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, James Fenimore Cooper and he served as secretary for the Publishers Association for many years and was an advocate of the creation of International Copyright Law. He was also chairman of the Committee on Art at the Vienna Universal Exposition and he is believed to have been the first publisher to offer royalties to authors like Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Thomas Carlyle. Their daughter, Mary Corinna Putnam was a female doctor. One of their sons, Herbert Putnam, became a librarian who served as the United States Librarian of Congress. On Putnams death in 1872 his sons George and John inherited the business, George Palmer Putnams grandson and namesake, George P. Putnam, was part of the family business but was also an author and explorer who was married to the famous aviatrix Amelia Earhart. His granddaughter Brenda Putnam was a sculptor and author
George Palmer Putnam
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George Palmer Putnam
George Palmer Putnam
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The Raven and Other Poems, by Edgar Allan Poe, Wiley and Putnam, New York and London, 1845.
26.
University of Michigan
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The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan. It moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres of what is now known as Central Campus, the University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States, Michigans body of living alumni comprises more than 540,000 people, one of the largest alumni bases of any university in the world. Besides academic life, Michigans athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Wolverines. They are members of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26,1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard, Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships, and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships. Concurrently, Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres in the hopes of being selected as the state capital, but when Lansing was chosen as the state capital, the city offered the land for a university. What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason, the original 40 acres was the basis of the present Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen, eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845. By 1866, enrollment increased to 1,205 students, many of whom were Civil War veterans, Women were first admitted in 1870. U-M also became the first American university to use the method of study. Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa, who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and he returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high-ranking posts in the government. In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed a committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives. The university became a choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of its standards, U-M gained the nickname Harvard of the West. During World War II, U-Ms research supported military efforts, such as U. S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. After the war, enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950, it reached 21,000, as the Cold War and the Space Race took hold, U-M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy
University of Michigan
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University of Michigan (1855)
Jasper Francis Cropsey
University of Michigan
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Seal of the University of Michigan
University of Michigan
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The Central Campus Diag, viewed from the Graduate Library, looking North
University of Michigan
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Law Library Interior
27.
American Geographical Society
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The American Geographical Society is an organization of professional geographers, founded in 1851 in New York City. Most fellows of the society are Americans, but among them have always been a significant number of fellows from around the world and it is the oldest nationwide geographical organization in the United States. Over the century and a half of its existence, the AGS has been interested in three regions, the Arctic, the Antarctic, and Latin America. A signature characteristic of the AGS-sponsored exploration was the requirement that its expeditions produce tangible scientific results, the AGS was founded by 31 New Yorkers, who were wealthy philanthropists, historians, publishers and editors. In September 1851, the committee formed to draft a constitution, on October 9, this committee undertook the constitution at a meeting held in the Geographical and Statistical Library in New York City. In 1871, the AGS amended its Charter and dropped and Statistical from its title, the Societys first and most ambitious attempt to influence governmental policy was made early in 1862. On January 7, a committee was appointed to devise a taxation system to correspond with the present state of public affairs. The committee prepared a report which was printed and distributed to members of the Society, members of Congress, the Society also began to integrate globally within the International Geographical Community, when the AGS sent a council member to attend the 1st International Geographical Congress. During World War I, the interdisciplinary, government-sponsored Inquiry in preparation for the Paris Peace Conference was led by the AGS, after the Armistice in 1918, President Woodrow Wilson and the American Delegation sailed for France. The AGS was instrumental in providing technical and professional support to the polar expeditions of Louise Arner Boyd during the 1930s. Her long-time friendship with geographer and photographer, Isaiah Bowman, helped inspire in Louise a lifelong interest in geography and photography, which proved invaluable on all her expeditions. The AGS published her book, The Fiord Region of East Greenland, the AGS published her second book, Rural Poland. After World War I, the Society undertook an effort to map Hispanic America as part of the international effort to map the entire world at 1,1,000,000. The venture lasted from 1920 to 1945 and eventually produced 107 map sheets at a total cost of more than one-half million dollars, during World War II, the Society assisted more than forty agencies of the U. S. government. Military Intelligence in the efforts to defuse Axis strongholds in Eastern Europe, the headquarters of the American Geographical Society were initially established at New York University in Washington Square. The University’s chapel was used for some of the Society’s lectures, later, two rooms located in Clinton Hall, formerly the Astor Opera House, became the Society’s next home in December 1858. In 1866, the American Geographical Society moved to Cooper Union at Cooper Square on Ninth Street, in 1911, the AGS moved to 3755 Broadway at 156th Street. This three story building was built on donated by Archer Milton Huntington’s mother and designed by Charles Pratt Huntington
American Geographical Society
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History of geography
American Geographical Society
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Broadway at 156th St.
American Geographical Society
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Fliers’ & Explorers’ Globe.
28.
National Museum of the American Indian
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It has three facilities, the National Museum of the American Indian on the National Mall in Washington, D. C. Passed as Public Law 101-185, it established the National Museum of the American Indian as a memorial to Native Americans. Since 1989 the Smithsonian has repatriated over 5,000 individual remains – about 1/3 of the estimated human remains in its collection. C. of indigenous people to its time. The creation of the museum brought together the collections of the George Gustav Heye Center in New York City, founded in 1922, the Heye collection became part of the Smithsonian in June 1990, and represents approximately 85% of the holdings of the NMAI. The Heye Collection was formerly displayed in the Audubon Terrace location, the current arrangement represented a political compromise between those who wished to keep the Heye Collection in New York, and those who wanted it to be part of the new NMAI in Washington, DC. The NMAI was initially housed in lower Manhattan at the Alexander Hamilton U. S, custom House, which was refurbished for this purpose and remains an exhibition site, its building on the Mall in Washington, DC opened in 2005. The site on the National Mall opened in September 2004, fifteen years in the making, it is the first national museum in the country dedicated exclusively to Native Americans. The five-story,250, 000-square-foot, curvilinear building is clad in a golden-colored Kasota limestone designed to evoke natural rock formations shaped by wind, the museum is set in a 4.25 acres -site and is surrounded by simulated wetlands. The museum’s east-facing entrance, its window and its 120-foot high space for contemporary Native performances are direct results of extensive consultations with Native peoples. The museum’s architect and project designer is the Canadian Douglas Cardinal, its design architects are GBQC Architects of Philadelphia, disagreements during construction led to Cardinals being removed from the project, but the building retains his original design intent. His continued input enabled its completion, the structural engineering firm chosen for this project was Severud Associates. The landscape architects are Jones & Jones Architects and Landscape Architects Ltd. of Seattle and EDAW, donna E. House, the Navajo and Oneida botanist who supervised the landscaping, has said, The landscape flows into the building, and the environment is who we are. We are the trees, we are the rocks, we are the water, and that had to be part of the museum. This theme of organic flow is reflected by the interior of the museum, whose walls are mostly curving surfaces, George Gustav Heye traveled throughout North and South America collecting native objects. His collection was assembled over 54 years, beginning in 1903 and he started the Museum of the American Indian and his Heye Foundation in 1916. The Heye Foundations Museum of the American Indian opened to the public on Audubon Terrace in New York City in 1922. The museum at Audubon Terrace closed in 1994 and part of the collection is now housed at The Museum’s George Gustav Heye Center, the Beaux Arts-style building, designed by architect Cass Gilbert, was completed in 1907. It is a designated National Historic Landmark and a New York City landmark, the center’s exhibition and public access areas total about 20,000 square feet
National Museum of the American Indian
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National Museum of the American Indian
National Museum of the American Indian
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National Museum of the American Indian seen from the north
National Museum of the American Indian
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Interior view looking down toward the entrance
National Museum of the American Indian
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The
Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House, site of the
George Gustav Heye Center
29.
Heye Foundation
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George Gustav Heye was a collector of Native American artifacts. His collection became the core of the National Museum of the American Indian, Heye was the son of Carl Friederich Gustav Heye, and Marie Antoinette Lawrence of Hudson, New York. Carl was a German immigrant who earned his wealth in the petroleum industry, George graduated from Columbia College in 1896 with a degree in electrical engineering. While superintending railroad construction in Kingman, Arizona in 1897, he acquired a Navajo deerskin shirt and he acquired individual items until 1903, then he began collecting material in larger numbers. In 1901, he started a career in investment banking that lasted until 1909, in 1915, Heye worked with Frederick W. Hodge and George H. Pepper on the Nacoochee Mound in White County Georgia. In 1918, Heye and his colleagues published a report entitled The Nacoochee Mound In Georgia and he accumulated the largest private collection of Native American objects in the world. The collection was stored in Heye’s Madison Avenue apartment in New York City. Eventually, the Heye collection was moved to the Heye Foundation’s Museum of the American Indian at 155th Street and Broadway, in 1919, he established the journal Indian Notes and Monographs. Heye died on January 20,1957 and he is interred in Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City. Heye created the Museum of the American Indian in 1916 in New York City and was its director until 1956 and his collection of Native American materials was gathered over a period of 45 years. This collection became the basis of the National Museum of the American Indian, the largest in the world, it contains over one million objects from Native Americans. It was transferred to the Smithsonian in 1989, and about a third of the collection has been repatriated. Artifacts were once stored in The Bronx along the I-95 Expressway corridor, until the land and building was sold, Heye, Frederick W. Hodge, and George H. Pepper, The Nacoochee Mound in Georgia. New York, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,1918, the George Gustav Heye Center National Museum of the American Indian Notes Bibliography Duncan, Kate C.1001 Curious Things, Ye Olde Curiosity Shop and Native American Art. Redman, Samuel J. Bone Rooms, From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums, biography on the site of the Smithsonian
Heye Foundation
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Heye in 1917
Heye Foundation
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The Board of Trustees of the Heye Foundation in 1920; left to right:
Minor Cooper Keith, James Bishop Ford, George Gustav Heye,
Frederick Kimber Seward,
F. Kingsbury Curtis, Samuel Riber, Jr.,
Archer Milton Huntington, and
Harmon Washington Hendricks
Heye Foundation
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Boy holding a very large
Kwakiutl mask, Museum of the American Indian, circa 1920
30.
Robert E. Peary
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Robert Edwin Peary Sr. was an American explorer who claimed to have reached the geographic North Pole with his expedition on April 6,1909. Pearys claim was widely credited for most of the 20th century, rather than the claim by Frederick Cook. Both claims were debated in newspapers until 1913. Based on an evaluation of Pearys records, British polar explorer Wally Herbert concluded in a 1989 book that Peary did not reach the pole and his conclusions have been widely accepted but are in turn disputed by other authorities. Altogether Peary made eight Arctic trips, his last two solely for the purpose of trying to reach the North Pole, Robert Edwin Peary was born on May 6,1856, in Cresson, Pennsylvania, to Charles N. and Mary P. Peary. After his father died in 1859, Pearys mother took the boy with her and settled in Portland, after growing up in Portland, Peary attended Bowdoin College, some 36 miles to the north. He was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon and Phi Beta Kappa fraternities while at college and he graduated in 1877 with a civil engineering degree. After college, Peary worked as a draftsman making technical drawings in Washington, DC, at the US Coast and he joined the United States Navy and on October 26,1881, was commissioned as a civil engineer, with the relative rank of lieutenant. From 1884 to 1885 he was assistant engineer on the surveys for the Nicaragua Canal, as reflected in a diary entry he made in 1885, during his time in the Navy, he resolved to be the first man to reach the North Pole. In April 1886 he wrote a paper for the National Academy of Sciences proposing two methods for crossing Greenlands ice cap, one was to start from the west coast and trek about 400 miles to the east coast. Peary was promoted to the rank of lieutenant commander on January 5,1901, Peary made his first expedition to the Arctic in 1886, intending to cross Greenland by dog sled, taking the first of his own suggested paths. He was given six months leave from the Navy, and he received $500 from his mother to book passage north and he sailed on a whaler to Greenland, arriving in Godhavn on June 6,1886. Peary wanted to make a solo trek but a young Danish official named Christian Maigaard convinced him he would die if he went out alone, Maigaard and Peary set off together and traveled nearly 100 miles due east before turning back because they were short on food. This was the second-farthest penetration of Greenlands ice sheet at that date, Peary returned home knowing more of what was required for long-distance ice trekking. Back in Washington attending with the US Navy, Peary was ordered in November 1887 to survey routes for a proposed Nicaragua Canal. To complete his tropical outfit he needed a sun hat, so he went to a clothing store. There he met 21-year-old Matthew Henson, a man working as a sales clerk. Learning that Henson had six years of seagoing experience as a cabin boy, on assignment in the jungles of Nicaragua, Peary told Henson of his dream of Arctic exploration
Robert E. Peary
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Peary in naval uniform circa 1911
Robert E. Peary
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Peary in arctic furs, c.1909
Robert E. Peary
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Matthew Henson, Peary's assistant, 1910
Robert E. Peary
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Josephine Diebitsch Peary in 1892
31.
Aleutian Islands
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The Aleutian Islands are a chain of 14 large volcanic islands and 55 smaller ones belonging to both the United States and Russia. Crossing longitude 180°, at which point east and west longitude end, the westernmost U. S. island in real terms, however, is Attu Island, west of which runs the International Date Line. The islands, with their 57 volcanoes, are in the part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Physiographically, they are a section of the larger Pacific Border province. These Islands are most known for the battles and skirmishes occurred there during the Aleutian Islands Campaign of World War II. It was one of two attacks on the United States during that war. The largest islands in the Aleutians are Attu, and Unalaska, Umnak, and Unimak in the Fox Islands. The largest of those is Unimak Island, with an area of 1,571.41 mi², followed by Unalaska Island, the axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska has a southwest trend, but near 179° its direction changes to the northwest. This change of direction corresponds to a curve in the line of fissures that have contributed their products to the building of the islands. Such curved chains are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in the Kuril Islands, the Japanese chain, and in the Philippines. All these island arcs are at the edge of the Pacific Plate and experience much seismic activity, but are still habitable, the general elevation is greatest in the eastern islands and least in the western. The island chain is a continuation of the Aleutian Range on the mainland. The coasts are rocky and surf-worn, and the approaches are exceedingly dangerous and these volcanic islands reach heights of 6,200 feet. Makushin Volcano located on Unalaska Island, is not quite visible from within the town of Unalaska, though the steam rising from its cone is visible on a clear day. Residents of Unalaska need only to one of the smaller hills in the area, such as Pyramid Peak or Mt. Newhall. The volcanic Bogoslof and Fire Islands, which rose from the sea in 1796 and 1883 respectively, in 1906 a new volcanic cone rose between the islets of Bogoslof and Grewingk, near Unalaska, followed by another in 1907. These cones were demolished by an explosive eruption on September 1,1907. Newly found information in 2017, the volcanic cone erupted sending ash, the Aleutians seen from space The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and fairly uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall
Aleutian Islands
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Unalaska Island in the Aleutian Islands.
Aleutian Islands
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Aleutian Islands
Aleutian Islands
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The Aleutian Islands from 32,000 feet.
Aleutian Islands
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Image of the islands taken by the
STS-56 crew.
32.
Bering Strait
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The Bering Strait is a strait of the Pacific, which borders with the Arctic to north. It is located between Russia and the United States, named after Vitus Bering, a Danish-born explorer in the service of the Russian Empire, it lies slightly south of the Arctic Circle being at about 65°40 N latitude. The present Russia-US east-west boundary is at 168°5837 W and this view of how Paleo-Indians entered America has been the dominant one for several decades and continues to be the most accepted one. Numerous successful crossings without the use of a boat have also recorded since at least the early 20th century. As of 2012, the Russian coast of the Bering Strait has been a military zone. Through organized trips and the use of permits, it is possible for foreigners to visit. All arrivals must be through an airport or a cruise port, unauthorized travelers who arrive on shore after crossing the strait, even those with visas, may be arrested, imprisoned briefly, fined, deported and banned from future visas. Its depth varies between 30 metres and 50 metres and it borders with the Chukchi Sea to north and with the Bering Sea to south. The eastern coast belongs to the U. S. state of Alaska, notable towns that straddle the Strait include Nome and the small settlement of Teller. The western coast belongs to the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, a Federal subject of Russia, major towns that lie along the Strait include Lorino and Lavrentiya. The Diomede Islands lie midway in the Strait, the village in Little Diomede has a school which belongs to Alaskas Bering Strait School District. The earliest reference of the strait were from maps from the Polo family, from at least 1562, European geographers thought that there was a Strait of Anián between Asia and North America. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov probably passed through the strait, Danish-born Russian navigator Vitus Bering entered it in 1728. In 1732, Mikhail Gvozdev crossed it for the first time, adolf Erik Nordenskiöld in 1878–79 sailed along the northern coast of Siberia, thereby proving that there was no northern land bridge from Asia to North America. In March 1913, Captain Max Gottschalk crossed from the east cape of Siberia to Shishmaref, Alaska, on dogsled via Little and he was the first documented modern voyager to cross from Russia to North America without the use of a boat. In 1987, swimmer Lynne Cox swam a 4. 3-kilometre course between the Diomede Islands from Alaska to the Soviet Union in 3.3 °C water during the last years of the Cold War. In June and July 1989, a British expedition, Kayaks Across the Bering Strait, completed the first sea kayak crossing of the Bering Strait from Wales, Alaska, to Cape Dezhnev, Siberia. The team of Robert Egelstaff, Trevor Potts, Greg Barton and Pete Clark landed on Little Diomede Island, rested a few days and they were escorted to Moscow from where they flew back to London at the end of July
Bering Strait
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Satellite photo of the Bering Strait
Bering Strait
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Defense Mapping Agency topographical map of the Bering Strait, 1973
Bering Strait
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Little Diomede Island (US, left) and Big Diomede Island (Russia, right).
33.
Labrador
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Labrador /ˈlæbrədɔːr/ LAB-rə-dor is the distinct northerly region of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It comprises the portion of the province, separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle. It is the largest and northernmost geographical region in Atlantic Canada, Labrador occupies the eastern part of the Labrador Peninsula. It is bordered to the west and the south by the Canadian province of Quebec, Labrador also shares a small land border with the Canadian territory of Nunavut on Killiniq Island. Though Labrador covers 71 percent of the land area, it has only 8 percent of the provinces population. The aboriginal peoples of Labrador include the Northern Inuit of Nunatsiavut, the Southern Inuit-Métis of Nunatukavut, many of the non-aboriginal population in Labrador did not permanently settle in Labrador until the natural resource developments of the 1940s and 1950s. Before the 1950s, very few people lived in Labrador year-round. The few European immigrants who worked seasonally for foreign merchants and brought their families were known as Settlers, Labrador has a roughly triangular shape that encompasses the easternmost section of the Canadian Shield, a sweeping geographical region of thin soil and abundant mineral resources. Its western border with Quebec is the divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands that drain into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, Northern Labradors climate is classified as polar, while Southern Labradors climate is classified as subarctic. Labrador can be divided into four regions, the North Coast, Central Labrador, Western Labrador. Each of those regions is described below, from Cape Chidley to Hamilton Inlet, the long thin northern tip of Labrador holds the Torngat Mountains, named after an Inuit spirit believed to inhabit them. The mountains stretch along the coast from Port Manvers to Cape Chidley, the Torngat Mountain range is also home to Mount Caubvick, the highest point in the province. This area is predominantly Inuit, with the small Innu community of Natuashish being the exception, the north coast is the most isolated region of Labrador, with snowmobiles, boats, and planes being the only modern modes of transportation. The largest community in this region is Nain, Nunatsiavut is an Inuit self-government region in Labrador created on June 23,2000. The Settlement area comprises the majority of Labradors North Coast, while the area also includes land farther to the interior. Nain is the center of Nunatsiavut. The most populous region of Labrador, Central Labrador extends from the shores of Lake Melville into the interior and it contains the Churchill River, the largest river in Labrador and one of the largest in Canada
Labrador
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Innu making canoes ca. 1920
Labrador
Labrador
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Model of
Basque whale oil melting factory at
Red Bay
34.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
Smithsonian Institution
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The
"Castle" (1847), the Institution's first building and still its headquarters
Smithsonian Institution
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Smithsonian Institution Logo of the Smithsonian Institution
Smithsonian Institution
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Aircraft on display at the
National Air and Space Museum, including a
Ford Trimotor and
Douglas DC-3 (top and second from top)
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Castle doorway
35.
New York Botanical Garden
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The New York Botanical Garden is a botanical garden and National Historic Landmark located in the Bronx, New York City. The 250-acre sites verdant landscape supports over one million living plants in extensive collections, the Garden is also a major educational institution. NYBG operates one of the worlds largest plant research and conservation programs, the Lorillard family owned most of the land that later became the New York Botanical Garden. That land and adjacent acreage was acquired by the City of New York and set aside for the creation of a zoo and botanical garden. The Garden was established on 28 April 1891 on part of the grounds of the Lorillard Estate and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1967. The Garden contains 50 different gardens and plant collections, there is a serene cascade waterfall, as well as wetlands and a 50-acre tract of original, never-logged, old-growth New York forest. The forest, which was never logged, contains oaks, American beeches, cherry, birch, tulip and white ash trees, some more than two centuries old. The forest itself is split by the Bronx River, the fresh water river in New York City. Along the shores sits the landmark Stone Mill, previously known as the Lorillard Snuff Mill built in 1840, sculptor Charles Tefft created the Fountain of Life on the grounds in 1905. It was conceived in the spirit of Italian baroque fountains, with the movement of galloping horses. The laboratory is a research institution, with projects more diverse than research in universities. The laboratorys research emphasis is on plant genomics, the study of how genes function in plant development, one question scientists hope to answer is Darwins abominable mystery, when, where, and why flowering plants emerged. The laboratorys research also furthers the discipline of molecular systematics, the study of DNA as evidence that can reveal the evolutionary history, a staff of 200 trains 42 doctoral students at a time, from all over the world. Since the 1890s, scientists from The New York Botanical Garden have mounted about 2,000 exploratory missions worldwide to collect plants in the wild. At the Pfizer Plant Research Laboratory, genomic DNA from many different species of plants is extracted to create a library of the DNA of the worlds plants. This collection is stored in a 768-square-foot DNA storage room with 20 freezers housing millions of specimens, including rare, to protect the collection during winter power outages, there is a backup 300-kilowatt electric generator. The Alfred P. Sloan Foundation has granted the NYBG $572,000 to begin a project called TreeBOL, the Tree Barcode of Life. Prominent civic leaders and financiers, including Andrew Carnegie, Cornelius Vanderbilt, founded in 1899, the LuEsther T. Mertz Library is the largest, most comprehensive botanical library in the Americas
New York Botanical Garden
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Visitor Center
New York Botanical Garden
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New York Botanical Garden
New York Botanical Garden
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The Stone Mill, within NYBG
New York Botanical Garden
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The Peggy Rockefeller Rose Garden
36.
Narwhal
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The narwhal, or narwhale, is a medium-sized toothed whale that possesses a large tusk from a protruding canine tooth. It lives year-round in the Arctic waters around Greenland, Canada and it is one of two living species of whale in the Monodontidae family, along with the beluga whale. The narwhal males are distinguished by a long, straight, helical tusk, the narwhal was one of many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his publication Systema Naturae in 1758. Like the beluga, narwhals are medium-sized whales, for both sexes, excluding the males tusk, the total body size can range from 3.95 to 5.5 m, the males are slightly larger than the females. The average weight of an adult narwhal is 800 to 1,600 kg, at around 11 to 13 years old, the males become sexually mature, females become sexually mature at about 5 to 8 years old. Narwhals do not have a fin, and their neck vertebrae are jointed like those of other mammals, not fused as in dolphins. Found primarily in Canadian Arctic and Greenlandic and Russian waters, the narwhal is a uniquely specialized Arctic predator, in winter, it feeds on benthic prey, mostly flatfish, under dense pack ice. During the summer, narwhals mostly eat Arctic cod and Greenland halibut, each year, they migrate from bays into the ocean as summer comes. In the winter, the male narwhals occasionally dive up to 1,500 m in depth, with dives lasting up to 25 minutes, narwhals, like most toothed whales, communicate with clicks, whistles, and knocks. Narwhals can live up to 50 years and they are often killed by suffocation when the sea ice freezes over. Another cause of fatality, specifically among young whales, is starvation, the current population of the narwhal is about 75,000, so narwhals qualify for Near Threatened under the criterion of the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Narwhals have been harvested for over a thousand years by Inuit people in northern Canada and Greenland for meat and ivory, the narwhal was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae. The scientific name, Monodon monoceros, is derived from the Greek, the narwhal is most closely related to the beluga whale. Together, these two species comprise the extant members of the family Monodontidae, sometimes referred to as the white whales. The Monodontidae are distinguished by size, forehead melons, short snouts. Although the narwhal and the beluga are classified as separate genera, with one each, there is some evidence that they may, very rarely. The complete skull of a whale was discovered in West Greenland circa 1990. The white whales, dolphins and porpoises together comprise the superfamily Delphinoidea, fossil evidence shows that ancient white whales lived in tropical waters
Narwhal
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Narwhal
Narwhal
Narwhal
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Illustration of a narwhal and a beluga, its closest living relative
Narwhal
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Complete skeleton at the
Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences
37.
Pinniped
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Pinnipeds, commonly known as seals, are a widely distributed and diverse clade of carnivorous, fin-footed, semiaquatic marine mammals. They comprise the extant families Odobenidae, Otariidae, and Phocidae, there are 33 extant species of pinnipeds, and more than 50 extinct species have been described from fossils. While seals were historically thought to have descended from two lines, molecular evidence supports them as a monophyletic lineage. Pinnipeds belong to the order Carnivora and their closest living relatives are bears and musteloids, Seals range in size from the 1 m and 45 kg Baikal seal to the 5 m and 3,200 kg southern elephant seal, which is also the largest carnivoran. They have streamlined bodies and four limbs that are modified into flippers, though not as fast in the water as dolphins, seals are more flexible and agile. Otariids use their front limbs primarily to themselves through the water, while phocids. Otariids and walruses have hind limbs that can be pulled under the body, by comparison, terrestrial locomotion by phocids is more cumbersome. Otariids have visible ears, while phocids and walruses lack these. Pinnipeds have well-developed senses—their eyesight and hearing are adapted for both air and water, and they have a tactile system in their whiskers or vibrissae. Some species are adapted for diving to great depths. They have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin to keep warm in the cold water, although pinnipeds are widespread, most species prefer the colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. They spend most of their lives in the water, but come ashore to mate, give birth, molt or escape predators, like sharks. They feed largely on fish and marine invertebrates, but a few, like the seal, feed on large vertebrates, such as penguins. Walruses are specialized for feeding on bottom-dwelling mollusks, male pinnipeds typically mate with more than one female, although the degree of polygyny varies with the species. The males of land-breeding species tend to mate with a number of females than those of ice- or water-breeding species. Male pinniped strategies for reproductive success vary between defending females, defending territories that attract females and performing ritual displays or lek mating, pups are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear almost all the responsibility for raising them. Mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for a short period of time while others take foraging trips at sea between nursing bouts. Walruses are known to nurse their young while at sea, Seals produce a number of vocalizations, notably the barks of California sea lions, the gong-like calls of walruses and the complex songs of Weddell seals
Pinniped
Pinniped
Pinniped
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Restoration of Puijila darwini
Pinniped
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Fossil of Enaliarctos
38.
Oceanographic
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Oceanography, also known as oceanology, is the study of the physical and the biological aspects of the ocean. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past, humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo, early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken. Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Streams cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769-1770, information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanography, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic, during a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1777, he mapped the banks and currents at the Lagullas. He was also the first to understand the nature of the intermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, Robert FitzRoy published a four-volume report of the Beagles three voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology, the first superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory, Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted his time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation, and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of the first comprehensive oceanography studies, many nations sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results worldwide. Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water, almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The Royal Navys efforts to all of the worlds coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans. The seminal event in the founding of the science of oceanography was the 1872-76 Challenger expedition. As the first true oceanographic cruise, this laid the groundwork for an entire academic. In response to a recommendation from the Royal Society, The British Government announced in 1871 an expedition to explore worlds oceans, charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition. The Challenger, leased from the Royal Navy, was modified for scientific work, under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger travelled nearly 70,000 nautical miles surveying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigating the globe,492 deep sea soundings,133 bottom dredges,151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken, around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H. M. S, Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
Oceanographic
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HMS Challenger undertook the first global marine research expedition in 1872.
Oceanographic
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Thermohaline circulation
Oceanographic
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Ocean currents (1911)
Oceanographic
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Oceanographic Museum Monaco
39.
Hydrography
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The origins of hydrography lay in the making of charts to aid navigation, by individual mariners as they navigated into new waters. These were usually the property, even closely held secrets. National organizations, particularly navies, realized that the collection, systematization and distribution of this gave it great organizational. Thus were born dedicated national hydrographic organizations for the collection, organization, publication and distribution of hydrography incorporated into charts, prior to the establishment of the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, Royal Navy captains were responsible for the provision of their own charts. In practice this meant that ships often sailed with inadequate information for safe navigation, and that when new areas were surveyed, the Admiralty appointed Alexander Dalrymple as Hydrographer in 1795, with a remit to gather and distribute charts to HM Ships. Within a year existing charts from the two centuries had been collated, and the first catalogue published. The first chart produced under the direction of the Admiralty, was a chart of Quiberon Bay in Brittany, under Captain Thomas Hurd the department received its first professional guidelines and the first catalogues were published and made available to the public and to other nations as well. In 1829, Rear-Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, as Hydrographer, developed the eponymous Scale, and introduced the first official tide tables in 1833, the word hydrography comes from the Ancient Greek ὕδωρ, water and γράφω, to write. The science of oceanography is, in part, an outgrowth of classical hydrography, in many respects the data are interchangeable, but marine hydrographic data will be particularly directed toward marine navigation and safety of that navigation. Marine resource exploration and exploitation is a significant application of hydrography, hydrographical measurements include the tidal, current and wave information of physical oceanography. Bottom measurements also include collection of the nature of the bottom as it pertains to effective anchoring, unlike oceanography, hydrography will include shore features, natural and manmade, that aid in navigation. Hydrography, mostly for reasons of safety, adopted a number of conventions that have affected its portrayal of the data on nautical charts, the former are the mariners tools to avoid accident. The latter are best representations of the seabed, as in a topographic map, for scientific. Trends in hydrographic practice since c, 2003–2005 have led to a narrowing of this difference, with many more hydrographic offices maintaining best observed databases, and then making navigationally safe products as required. This has been coupled with a preference for multi-use surveys, so that the data collected for nautical charting purposes can also be used for bathymetric portrayal. For instance, if there is an area that can not be reached because it is surrounded by shallow water. The color filled areas that show different ranges of water are not the equivalent of contours on a topographic map since they are often drawn seaward of the actual shallowest depth portrayed. A bathymetric chart does show marine topology accurately, details covering the above limitations can be found in Part 1 of Bowditchs American Practical Navigator
Hydrography
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HMS Waterwitch, a hydrographic survey vessel
Hydrography
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Table of geography, hydrography, and navigation, from the 1728
Cyclopaedia.
Hydrography
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Alexander Dalrymple, the first
Hydrographer of the Navy in the
United Kingdom, appointed in 1795.
Hydrography
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Biogeography
40.
Meteorological
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Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century, the 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data, Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology, the interactions between Earths atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture. The word meteorology is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros lofty, high and -λογία -logia -logy, varāhamihiras classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD, provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed even in those times. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology, Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle and they are all called swooping bolts because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called smoldering lightning, sometimes it darts quickly along, at other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called forked lightning. When it swoops down upon some object it is called swooping lightning, the Greek scientist Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather, in 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalized the climatic zone system. According to Toufic Fahd, around the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat, ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations. St. Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon, in the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow, in 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by magnetic effluvia moving along the Earths magnetic field lines. In 1441, King Sejongs son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge and these were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmers potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first anemometer, in 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope
Meteorological
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Atmospheric sciences
Meteorological
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Parhelion (sundog) at
Savoie
Meteorological
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Twilight at
Baker Beach
Meteorological
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A hemispherical cup anemometer
41.
US Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
US Navy
US Navy
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United States Navy portal
US Navy
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USS Constellation vs L'Insurgente during the
Quasi-War
US Navy
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USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere during the
War of 1812
42.
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences
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The Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University, formerly the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, is the oldest natural science research institution and museum in the New World. It was founded in 1812, by many of the naturalists of the young American republic with an expressed mission of the encouragement. The Academy also has a tradition of public exhibits and educational programs for both schools and the general public. During the first decades of the United States, Philadelphia was the cultural capital, two of the citys institutions, the Library Company and the American Philosophical Society, were centers of enlightened thought and scientific inquiry. The academy was meant to foster a gathering of fellow naturalists and they frequently looked to their European counterparts for inspiration and expertise and longed to be regarded as equals. On 25 April 1817 they were incorporated into the society under the title of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia by the legislature of Pennsylvania, by 1 January 1818, eight members were published. Within a decade of its founding, the Academy became the center of natural sciences in the United States. Academy members were enlisted to participate in national surveys of the western territories. Corresponding members included such luminaries as Charles Darwin, Asa Gray, for much of its history, new members had to be nominated by two current members and then elected by the remaining members. These requirements were dropped in 1924, notable 20th-century scientists include James Böhlke, James Bond, Henry Weed Fowler, Ruth Patrick, Henry Pilsbry, and Witmer Stone. In 2011, the Academy became affiliated with nearby Drexel University, collections are the hallmark of museums and those at The Academy of Natural Sciences are among the more important of their kind. The size and scope of its collections have grown substantially since the early years, currently, there are over 17 million biological specimens, and hundreds of thousands of volumes, journals, illustrations, photographs, and archival items in its library. Sometimes the Academy is also enlisted to house and care for collections originally gathered by other institutions, for example, a number of the natural history collections at the American Philosophical Society were relocated to the Academy by the end of the 19th century. But these collections are not maintained just to collect dust and they provide a library of biodiversity. In recent decades, research has shifted in emphasis to the science of systematics, either way, the collections are invaluable. They provide the type specimens, the material that helps establish a species identity. They also provide raw materials with which scientists can investigate the nature of species, their relationships with other species, their evolutionary history. New questions and new technology illustrate the importance of these collections, titian Peale may not have been interested in the conservation biology of the butterflies he collected while Henry Pilsbry probably did not consider comparing the DNA of his snails
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences
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Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences
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A 43 ft. (13 m) complete fossil specimen of Mosasaur species
Tylosaurus proriger (with a human for scale) is on display.
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences
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A mummy on display at the Academy
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences
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A display of casts of the 35 bones of the Hadrosaurus
43.
Field Museum
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The Field Museum of Natural History, also known as The Field Museum, is a natural history museum in Chicago, and is one of the largest such museums in the world. Additionally, the Field Museum maintains an exhibition program of traveling shows as well as in-house produced topical exhibitions. The professional staff maintains collections of over 24 million specimens and objects that provide the basis for the scientific research programs. These collections include the range of existing biodiversity, gems, meteorites, fossils, as well as rich anthropological collections. The Field Museum and its collections originated from the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition, during the period from 1943 to 1966, the museum was known as the Chicago Natural History Museum. In 1921, the Museum moved from its location in Jackson Park to its present site on Chicago Park District property near downtown. By the late 1930s the Field emerged as one of the three museums in the United States, the other two being the American Museum of Natural History and the National Museum of Natural History. The Field Museum is part of Chicago’s lakefront Museum Campus that includes the John G. Shedd Aquarium, in 2015, it became public that an employee had defrauded the museum of $900,000 over a seven-year period to 2014. The Hall of Jades focuses on Chinese jade artifacts spanning 8,000 years, the Underground Adventure gives visitors a bugs-eye look at the world beneath their feet. Visitors can see what insects and soil look like from that size, while learning about the biodiversity of soil, inside Ancient Egypt offers a glimpse into what life was like for ancient Egyptians. Twenty-three human mummies are on display as well as many mummified animals, the exhibit features a tomb that visitors can enter, complete with 5, 000-year-old hieroglyphs. There are also many interactive displays, for children and adults, as well as a shrine to the cat goddess Sekhmet and her kinder, less hostile form. A popular feature of the exhibit is the replica of the chapel in the tomb of Unis-Ankh, evolving Planet follows the history and the evolution of life on Earth over 4 billion years, from the first organism to present-day life. Visitors can see how mass extinctions in Earth’s history helped shape all the organisms, there is also an expanded dinosaur hall, with dinosaurs from every era, as well as interactive displays. The Ancient Americas displays 13,000 years of human ingenuity and achievement in the Western Hemisphere, in this large permanent exhibition visitors can learn the epic story of the peopling of these continents, from the Arctic to the tip of South America. Working Laboratories DNA Discovery Center, Visitors can watch real scientists extract DNA from a variety of organisms, Museum goers can also speak to a live scientist through the glass every day and ask them any questions about DNA. McDonalds Fossil Prep Lab, The public can watch as paleontologists prepare real fossils for study, the Regenstein Pacific Conservation Laboratory,1, 600-square-foot conservation and collections facility. Visitors can watch as conservators work to preserve and study anthropological specimens from all over the world, other exhibitions include sections on Tibet and China, where visitors can view traditional clothing
Field Museum
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Field Museum of Natural History
Field Museum
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Stanley Field, Field Museum President, 1906
Field Museum
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Main Hall
Field Museum
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Triceratops skeleton and skull
44.
University of Massachusetts Medical School
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The University of Massachusetts Medical School is one of five campuses of the University of Massachusetts system. One of the academic health centers in the country, UMMS is located in Worcester, Massachusetts, other UMass sites are located in Amherst, Boston, Dartmouth. UMMS is also known as UMass Worcester, the school is ranked 5th in primary-care education and 49th in research among the United States 128 medical schools in the 2015 U. S. News & World Report annual guide, America’s Best Graduate Schools”. During the past four decades UMMS researchers have made advances in a range of disease families, from HIV and infectious diseases to cancer, genetic disorders, diabetes. The School of Medicine accepted its first class of 16 students in 1970, six years later a 371-bed hospital opened on campus, the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences opened in 1979, and the Graduate School of Nursing opened in 1986. Accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education, the School of Medicine grants the MD degree to its graduates, with the exception of MD/PhD students, degree candidates were formerly required to be Massachusetts residents, a policy which has changed beginning with the entering class of 2017. Approximately 125 students enroll annually, and more than 2,700 students have received degrees from UMMS. SCImago Journal Rank listed the university as No.74 in the US, over half of each graduating class enters primary-care residencies, a trend underscoring the school’s founding mission. In addition, a number of graduates practice throughout the state. The institution attributes its success in training physicians, in part. Third-year students are required to complete a program, in which they spend six weeks at a time with community-based physicians. Since the first class of seven students enrolled in 1979, more than 300 students have earned PhDs from the GSBS, the program, is gaining national and international recognition for excellence. Since the opening of the Graduate School of Nursing in 1986, UMMS has emerged on the national scene as a research center. In 1998, UMMS researcher Craig Mello and his colleague Andrew Fire discovered RNA interference, Mello and Fire demonstrated that small pieces of double-stranded RNA had interfered with the expression of a gene whose coding sequence of DNA was similar to that of the RNA they tested. Since the discovery of RNAi, researchers at UMMS and around the world have taken advantage of its technology to speed investigation into a variety of diseases, Mello and Fire received the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries related to RNA interference. UMMS scientists also pioneered the fundamental elements of DNA-based flu vaccines during the 1990s, UMMS Professor of Medicine Shan Lu, leader of the UMMS DNA vaccine efforts, and his colleagues have partnered with PowerMed to advance the development of a potential avian-flu vaccine. Federal and private grants and contracts at UMMS rose from about $2 million in 1977 to more than $307.6 million in 2011. UMMS currently supports more than 260 investigators working on advancements in the treatment of disease, the UMass Medical School is affiliated with a number of healthcare organizations and research programs
University of Massachusetts Medical School
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University of Massachusetts Medical School main building, south side
University of Massachusetts Medical School
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Aaron Lazare Medical Research Building
University of Massachusetts Medical School
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Topics
45.
Chicago Zoological Society
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Brookfield Zoo, also known as the Chicago Zoological Park, is a zoo located in the Chicago suburb of Brookfield, Illinois. It houses around 450 species of animals in an area of 216 acres and it opened on July 1,1934, and quickly gained international recognition for using moats and ditches instead of cages to separate animals from visitors and from other animals. The zoo was also the first in America to exhibit giant pandas, one of which has been taxidermied, the Brookfield Zoo is owned by the Cook County Forest Preserve District and managed by the Chicago Zoological Society. The society sponsors numerous research and conservation efforts globally, in 1919, Edith Rockefeller McCormick donated land she had received from her father as a wedding gift to the Cook County Forest Preserve District for development as a zoological garden. The district added 98 acres to that plot and in 1921, serious construction did not begin until 1926, after a zoo tax was approved. Construction slowed during the Great Depression, but regained momentum by late 1931, construction went on at an increased pace and the zoo opened on July 1,1934. By the end of September 1934, over one million people had visited the new zoo, the 1950s saw the addition of a veterinary hospital, a childrens zoo, and the famous central fountain. Tropic World, the then-largest indoor zoo exhibit in the world, was designed by French architect Pierre Venoa and opened in three phases between 1982 and 1984. During the zoos early decades, a mini-railroad existed, which carried guests around the perimeter of the park from the North Gate to the old seven seas dolphin habitat on the parks south end. Great Bear Wilderness, a new, sprawling habitat, opened in 2010, the childrens zoo was dismantled in early 2013, along with the abandoned bear grottos, for future development projects. The building dates back to 1934 and currently houses only rhinoceroses, tapirs, the Brookfield Zoo is also known for its majestic fountain named after the 26th president of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt. On some days, the fountains spouting water can reach up to 60 feet high, dolphins The Seven Seas at CZS or Brookfield Zoo currently has eight Atlantic bottlenose dolphins. Allie, Tapeko, Spree, Noelani, Allison, Merlin, Magic, Ziggy Ziggy was a 6.5 ton male elephant that was kept in an indoor enclosure for nearly thirty years after it attacked its trainer George Slim Lewis in 1941. During the 1960s and 1970s, Ziggy attained a following in the Chicago area. Unfortunately, the elephant fell into his exhibits moat in March 1975, Olga Olga was an Atlantic walrus and a favorite to thousands of visitors between 1962 and 1988, entertaining them with her antics. She is remembered by a bronze statue in the current sea mammal exhibit. Binti Jua Binti Jua is a western lowland gorilla. On August 16,1996, a young boy, visiting the zoo with his parents
Chicago Zoological Society
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Roosevelt Fountain, with Ibex Island in the background
Chicago Zoological Society
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1938
WPA poster
Chicago Zoological Society
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Ibex Island-Demolished
46.
Cleveland Museum of Natural History
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The museum was established in 1920 by Cyrus S. Eaton to perform research, education and development of collections in the fields of anthropology, archaeology, astronomy, botany, geology, paleontology, wildlife biology, donald Johanson was the curator of the museum when he discovered Lucy, the skeletal remains of the ancient hominid Australopithecus afarensis. The current Curator and Head of the Physical Anthropology Department is Yohannes Haile-Selassie, Museum collections total more than four million specimens and include specimens of paleontology, zoology, archaeology, mineralogy, ornithology, and a variety of other scientific subjects. A beloved full-scale model of a Stegosaurus on the lawn delights Cleveland children, some of the more important specimens include, An extensive collection of Late Devonian fossil fish from the Cleveland Shale, including several mounted skulls of the arthrodire placoderm Dunkleosteus. Nine hundred monkey and ape skeletons, and more than 3,100 human skeletons, the only specimen of the small tyrannosaur Nanotyrannus lancensis. The holotype of the Haplocanthosaurus sauropod, the most complete mount of a Coelophysis bauri. Mounted taxidermy remains of Balto the sled dog, an extensive mineralogy collection that includes a moon rock and the Jeptha Wade gem collection. Replica skeletons of Triceratops and Jane, a juvenile tyrannosaurid, a cast of an Australopithecus afarensis skeleton, an early hominid affectionately dubbed Lucy. A new T-rex skeleton that is now on display, the Museums Allosaurus has been remounted and is on display. A collection of 30,000 plant fossils acquired from the University of Cincinnati by former curator of paleobotany, a Foucault Pendulum underneath in which the Bicentennial Education Time Capsule was buried in 1996 and will be opened in 2046 The museum has made many discoveries over the years. Recently, in Vertebrate Paleontology, both the remains of a Titanicthis in Ohio and a new ceratopsian, Albertaceratops nesmoi, have been made, both are expected to go on display eventually. The Hamann-Todd Collection is a collection of more than 3100 human skeletons, the collection was originally housed at Western Reserve University Medical School in a new medical building that was built for that purpose. The first floor of this contained the Hamann Museum of Comparative Anthropology. However, due to the costs of storing the bones, the collection was transferred to the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, in 1893, Carl August Hamann initiated the collection. Its administration was taken over by T. Wingate Todd after Hamann was named dean of Case Westerns medical school in 1912, Todd managed to assemble the great majority of the human skeletons in the collection, over 3000, before his death in 1938. The Ralph Perkins II Wildlife Center and Woods Garden presented by Key Bank, which includes live animals and plants native to Ohio, opened on September 3,2016
Cleveland Museum of Natural History
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Cleveland Museum of Natural History
Cleveland Museum of Natural History
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The museum's cast of
Lucy
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United States National Museum
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
United States National Museum
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The
"Castle" (1847), the Institution's first building and still its headquarters
United States National Museum
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Smithsonian Institution Logo of the Smithsonian Institution
United States National Museum
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Aircraft on display at the
National Air and Space Museum, including a
Ford Trimotor and
Douglas DC-3 (top and second from top)
United States National Museum
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The Smithsonian Castle doorway
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North Pole
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The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earths axis of rotation meets its surface. The North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South Pole and it defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south, all lines of longitude converge there, along tight latitude circles, counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west. The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere, while the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole, however, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since 2002, the Russians have also established a base, Barneo. This operates for a few weeks during early spring, studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later. The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 m by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m by USS Nautilus in 1958. The nearest land is said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km away. The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada, around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent variation of latitude, as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earths surface, the wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the eight-month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer and it is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates to fixed landforms. Of course, given plate tectonics and isostasy, there is no system in all geographic features are fixed. Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System. As early as the 16th century, many eminent people correctly believed that the North Pole was in a sea and it was therefore hoped that passage could be found through ice floes at favorable times of the year. Several expeditions set out to find the way, generally with whaling ships, one of the earliest expeditions to set out with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 reached latitude 82°45′ North. In 1871 the Polaris expedition, a US attempt on the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, another British Royal Navy attempt on the pole, part of the British Arctic Expedition, by Commander Albert H. Markham reached a then-record 83°2026 North in May 1876 before turning back. An 1879–1881 expedition commanded by US naval officer George W. DeLong ended tragically when their ship, over half the crew, including DeLong, were lost
North Pole
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North Pole scenery
North Pole
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An
Azimuthal projection showing the Arctic Ocean and the North Pole. The map also shows the
75th parallel north and
60th parallel north.
North Pole
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Gerardus Mercator 's map of the North Pole from 1595
North Pole
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C.G. Zorgdragers map of the North Pole from 1720
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Louise Arner Boyd
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It was here where Louise and her brothers rode horses, explored Mount Diablo, fished, hunted, camped, and generally led a rugged and adventurous life. When Louise was a teenager, both of her brothers died from disease within a few months of each other. Her parents were devastated and began to lean heavily on Louise for care and it was at this time that the Boyds bequeathed to the City of San Rafael their former gatehouse and some of the family property as a memorial to their two sons. The Victorian-style building is now the home of the Marin History Museum, after her brothers deaths, Louise traveled extensively with her parents making numerous trips to Europe. In the spring of 1919, Louise took a train to Buffalo, N. Y. purchased a car and drove across the United States at a time when there was no highway system and roads were often gravel. This would be the first of many trips that she would take. Upon her parents death in 1919 and 1920, Louise inherited the family fortune after caring for her parents in the last few years of their lives, with her inheritance, Louise Boyd could control her own destiny and indulge her intrepid spirit developed during her active California childhood. She began to travel in the early 1920s, and on a trip to Norway in 1924 she cruised out to sea and this experience proved instrumental in her life and she immediately began planning her own Arctic adventure. She gained international notoriety for her exploits and was dubbed by newspapers around the world, as the, “Arctic Diana” and “The Girl Who Tamed the Arctic”. Louise offered her services and the ship to the Norwegian government to search for Amundsen, saying, nevertheless, the Norwegian government awarded her the Chevalier Cross of the Order of Saint Olav. She was the first American woman to receive the order and the woman in the world to be so honored. Boyd is primarily known for leading a series of expeditions to the east. Louise photographed, surveyed and collected hundreds of specimens, having corresponded and learned from her good friend. The American Geographical Society published her findings and photographs from the 1933 and 1935 expeditions in a book titled The Fiord Region of East Greenland, an area near the De Geer Glacier was later named Louise Boyd Land. The journey, by car, rail, boat and on foot took her first from Lviv to Kovel and she finished the journey in Vilno. Her travel narrative was supplemented with over 500 photographs and published by the American Geographical Society in 1937 as Polish Countrysides. With the outbreak of World War II, the knowledge she had gained in the course of her six previous expeditions to Greenland and she was appointed as the Bureaus consulting expert on a dollar a year basis. At her own expense, she chartered and outfitted the schooner Effie M. Morrissey and this schooner, owned and commanded by captain Robert Bartlett, had been successfully running yearly scientific expeditions to the Arctic since 1926
Louise Arner Boyd
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Louise Boyd in 1928.
United States
