1.
Game
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A game is a structured form of play, usually undertaken for enjoyment and sometimes used as an educational tool. Games are distinct from work, which is carried out for remuneration, and from art. However, the distinction is not clear-cut, and many games are considered to be work or art. Key components of games are goals, rules, challenge, games generally involve mental or physical stimulation, and often both. Many games help develop practical skills, serve as a form of exercise, or otherwise perform an educational, simulational, attested as early as 2600 BC, games are a universal part of human experience and present in all cultures. The Royal Game of Ur, Senet, and Mancala are some of the oldest known games, ludwig Wittgenstein was probably the first academic philosopher to address the definition of the word game. In his Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein argued that the elements of games, such as play, rules, from this, Wittgenstein concluded that people apply the term game to a range of disparate human activities that bear to one another only what one might call family resemblances. A piece of entertainment is an if it is interactive. Movies and books are cited as examples of non-interactive entertainment, if no goals are associated with a plaything, it is a toy. If it has goals, a plaything is a challenge, if a challenge has no active agent against whom you compete, it is a puzzle, if there is one, it is a conflict. Finally, if the player can only outperform the opponent, but not attack them to interfere with their performance, however, if attacks are allowed, then the conflict qualifies as a game. Crawfords definition may thus be rendered as, an interactive, goal-oriented activity made for money, with agents to play against. A game is a system in which players engage in a conflict, defined by rules. A game is a form of art in which participants, termed players, according to this definition, some games that do not involve choices, such as Chutes and Ladders, Candy Land, and War are not technically games any more than a slot machine is. A game is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context, a game is a form of play with goals and structure. When you strip away the differences and the technological complexities, all games share four defining traits, a goal, rules, a feedback system. Games can be characterized by what the player does and this is often referred to as gameplay. Major key elements identified in this context are tools and rules that define the context of game
2.
Easter
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It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
3.
Earth
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Earth, otherwise known as the World, or the Globe, is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life. It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets, according to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Earths gravity interacts with objects in space, especially the Sun. During one orbit around the Sun, Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times, thus, Earths axis of rotation is tilted, producing seasonal variations on the planets surface. The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides, stabilizes the Earths orientation on its axis, Earths lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of Earths surface is covered with water, mostly by its oceans, the remaining 29% is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes, rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. The majority of Earths polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet, Earths interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the Earths magnetic field, and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics. Within the first billion years of Earths history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earths atmosphere and surface, some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earths distance from the Sun, physical properties, in the history of the Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events. Over 99% of all species that lived on Earth are extinct. Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely, over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival. Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures, politically, the world has about 200 sovereign states, the modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms, which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their proto-Germanic root has been reconstructed as *erþō, originally, earth was written in lowercase, and from early Middle English, its definite sense as the globe was expressed as the earth. By early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and the became the Earth. More recently, the name is simply given as Earth. House styles now vary, Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the. It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as what on earth are you doing, the oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4. 5672±0.0006 billion years ago. By 4. 54±0.04 Gya the primordial Earth had formed, the formation and evolution of Solar System bodies occurred along with the Sun
4.
Paganism
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Paganism is a term that derives from Latin word pagan, which means nonparticipant, one excluded from a more distinguished, professional group. The term was used in the 4th century, by early Christian community, the term competed with polytheism already in use in Judaism, by Philo in the 1st century. Pagans and paganism was a pejorative for the same polytheistic group, Paganism has broadly connoted religion of the peasantry, and for much of its history a derogatory term. Alternate terms in Christian texts for the group was hellene. In and after the Middle Ages, paganism was a pejorative that was applied to any non-Abrahamic or unfamiliar religion, there has been much scholarly debate as to the origin of the term paganism, especially since no one before the 20th century self-identified as a pagan. In the 19th century, paganism was re-adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the ancient world. Forms of these religions, influenced by various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe, exist today and are known as contemporary or modern paganism, while most pagan religions express a worldview that is pantheistic, polytheistic, or animistic, there are some monotheistic pagans. It is crucial to stress right from the start that until the 20th century people did not call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practised, the notion of paganism, as it is generally understood today, was created by the early Christian Church. It was a label that Christians applied to others, one of the antitheses that were central to the process of Christian self-definition, as such, throughout history it was generally used in a derogatory sense. The term pagan is from Late Latin paganus, revived during the Renaissance and it is related to pangere and ultimately comes from Proto-Indo-European *pag-. The evolution occurred only in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church, elsewhere, Hellene or gentile remained the word for pagan, and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace. However, this idea has multiple problems, first, the words usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that period in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centered on cities, the concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans during Early Christianity. Third, unlike words such as rusticitas, paganus had not yet acquired the meanings used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans. Paganus more likely acquired its meaning in Christian nomenclature via Roman military jargon, Early Christians adopted military motifs and saw themselves as Milites Christi. As early as the 5th century, paganos was metaphorically used to persons outside the bounds of the Christian community. In response, Augustine of Hippo wrote De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos, in it, he contrasted the fallen city of Man to the city of God of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the invaders were not of the city or rural
5.
Christian
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A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations
6.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
7.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
8.
Nave
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The nave /ˈneɪv/ is the central aisle of a basilica church, or the main body of a church between its western wall and its chancel. It is the zone of a church accessible by the laity, the nave extends from the entry — which may have a separate vestibule — to the chancel and may be flanked by lower side-aisles separated from the nave by an arcade. If the aisles are high and of a width comparable to the central nave and it provides the central approach to the high altar. The term nave is from medieval Latin navis, a ship was an early Christian symbol. The term may also have suggested by the keel shape of the vaulting of a church. The earliest churches were built when builders were familiar with the form of the Roman basilica and it had a wide central area, with aisles separated by columns, and with windows near the ceiling. Old St. Peters Basilica in Rome is a church which had this form. It was built in the 4th century on the orders of Roman emperor Constantine I, the nave, the main body of the building, is the section set apart for the laity, while the chancel is reserved for the clergy. In medieval churches the nave was separated from the chancel by the rood screen, medieval naves were divided into bays, the repetition of form giving an effect of great length, and the vertical element of the nave was emphasized. During the Renaissance, in place of dramatic effects there were more balanced proportions, longest nave in Denmark, Aarhus Cathedral,93 metres. Longest nave in England, St Albans Cathedral, St Albans,84 metres, longest nave in Ireland, St Patricks Cathedral, Dublin,91 metres. Longest nave in France, Bourges Cathedral,91 metres, including choir where a crossing would be if there were transepts, longest nave in Germany, Cologne cathedral,58 metres, including two bays between the towers. Longest nave in Italy, St Peters Basilica in Rome,91 metres, longest nave in Spain, Seville,60 metres, in five bays. Longest nave in the United States, Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, New York City, highest vaulted nave, Beauvais Cathedral, France,48 metres high but only one bay of the nave was actually built but choir and transepts were completed to the same height. Highest completed nave, Rome, St. Peters, Italy,46 metres high, abbey, with architectural discussion and groundplans Cathedral architecture Cathedral diagram List of highest church naves
9.
Water balloon
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A water balloon or water bomb is a latex rubber balloon filled with water. Water balloons are used in a summer pastime of cooling off through water balloon wars, water balloons are also popular for celebrations, including celebrating Holi and Carnival in India, Nepal, and several other countries. Gas balloons may be used as water balloons, but are not typically preferred because the wall thickness is different. Mainly for safety reasons, water balloon walls are designed to be enough to be held without bursting yet thin enough to burst upon impact. In a similar process to gas balloons, water balloons may be molded into various shapes at manufacturing, one process involves a patented mandrel for making elastomeric articles. Water balloons are common in sizes from an inch and a half to four inches though larger sizes are available, typically water balloons are sold in quantity and often include a filling nozzle in the packaging. Many of the low cost brands use small water balloons and generic nozzles which both tend to be difficult to use, another form of water bomb is a sheet of paper folded to form a roughly spherical container capable of holding water. These are then filled and used in a way to latex versions. Water balloons are filled at an indoor faucet, an outside tap. Multiple types of filling nozzles are available on the consumer market, non-threaded nozzles are called filling funnels and may be difficult to use. Some brands of nozzles are called loader instead of nozzle, nozzles may include a valve feature for turning the water source on or off as needed. Homemade water balloon filling stations may incorporate water balloon nozzles or valves that are on the market or use common plumbing fixtures and these stations may have one or more nozzles or valves. Portable and fixed station designs each have distinct pros and cons depending on the location of use, number of users. Multiple toy companies have created balloon tying and filling devices, enabling the user to easily fill, water balloons, like air balloons, are generally made from latex, which naturally decomposes. While there still could be some environmental impact if burst water balloons are left behind in the wild animals might ingest them. However, some air balloons are made from mylar, which does not decompose, if mylar balloons are used as water bombs, then littering or leaving behind mylar balloons will have a much bigger environmental impact. The use of mylar balloons might be problematic in closed controlled environments where the material is subsequently collected and recycled. Yo-yo balloons, also known as Yo-yo Tsuris, are a type of water balloon found at matsuri festivals in Japan
10.
Grangeville, Idaho
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Grangeville is the largest city in and the county seat of Idaho County, Idaho, United States, in the north central part of the state. Its population was 3,141 at the 2010 census, down from 3,228 in 2000, Grangeville enjoys close access to scenic and wildlife areas. Whitewater rafting is a pursuit and the Clearwater River, Snake River. Salmon and steelhead fishing is often a choice of recreation, many residents of Grangeville hunt deer, elk, and turkeys in the nearby forests. Hiking is also popular in the Nez Perce National Forest, the Gospel Hump Wilderness, the city operates the nearby Snowhaven ski area for winter recreation. Many residents of Grangeville depend on the forests for their livelihoods. In addition to harvesting, the U. S. Forest Service is a major source of employment in the region. Grangevilles Border Days is a public celebration on the weekend of July 4, which features the states oldest rodeo as well as parades, art shows. Grangevilles public schools are operated by the Mountain View School District #244, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.45 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 3,141 people,1,389 households, the population density was 2,166.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,527 housing units at a density of 1,053.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 94. 8% White,0. 2% African American,1. 4% Native American,0. 6% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 9% from other races, and 1. 9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 6% of the population,35. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 15. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the family size was 2.83. The median age in the city was 44 years. 23. 1% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24,21. 5% were from 25 to 44,28. 8% were from 45 to 64, and 20. 3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 7% male and 51. 3% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 3,228 people,1,333 households, and 857 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,366.4 people per square mile, there were 1,474 housing units at an average density of 1,080.6 per square mile
11.
Guinness World Records
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The book itself holds a world record, as the best-selling copyrighted book of all time. As of the 2017 edition, it is now in its 63rd year of publication, the international franchise has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe. That evening at Castlebridge House, he realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europes fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated nightly in pubs throughout Ireland and abroad and he realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beavers idea became reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended University friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, the twin brothers were commissioned to compile what became The Guinness Book of Records in August 1954. A thousand copies were printed and given away, after the founding of The Guinness Book of Records at 107 Fleet Street, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British best seller lists by Christmas. The following year, it launched in the US, and sold 70,000 copies, since then, Guinness World Records has become a household name and the global leader in world records. Because the book became a hit, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years, Ross McWhirter was assassinated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975. Following Ross assassination, the feature in the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot, Guinness Superlatives Limited was formed in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades, and, under their management, the group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment. Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002, with offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records global headquarters remain in London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida, US. Recent editions have focused on record feats by person competitors, many records also relate to the youngest person who achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, being Maurizio Giuliano. Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness database, as well as new records. The majority of records are no longer listed in the book or on the website. For those unable to wait the 4–6 weeks for a reply, the Guinness Book of Records is the worlds most sold copyrighted book, earning it an entry within its own pages
12.
Jewett, Texas
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Jewett is a city in Leon County, Texas, United States. The population was 1,167 at the 2010 census, Jewett is the birthplace of Alger Texas Alexander, Fritz Von Erich and Romus Burgin. It was laid out in 1871 by the International Railroad Company, Jewett is located at 31°21′44″N 96°8′41″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.1 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 861 people,333 households, the population density was 418.4 people per square mile. There were 399 housing units at a density of 193.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 75. 15% White,7. 67% African American,14. 87% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 23. 58% of the population. 30. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.22. In the city, the population was out with 31. 6% under the age of 18,10. 1% from 18 to 24,27. 4% from 25 to 44,18. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 31 years, for every 100 females there were 94.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.6 males, the median income for a household in the city was $26,250, and the median income for a family was $33,500. Males had an income of $31,667 versus $20,347 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,469, about 21. 4% of families and 26. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29. 7% of those under age 18 and 21. 0% of those age 65 or over. The City of Jewett is served by the Leon Independent School District, the climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Jewett has a subtropical climate
13.
Hagerstown Suns
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The Hagerstown Suns are a Minor League Baseball team based in Hagerstown, Maryland, United States. The team, which plays in the South Atlantic League, is a Class A affiliate of the Washington Nationals and they play in Municipal Stadium, which was opened in 1930 and seats 4,600 fans. The team mascot is Woolie, a giant Woolly Bear Caterpillar, professional baseball has been played in Hagerstown since the late nineteenth century. The Hagerstown Lions played for one season in the independent Cumberland Valley League during 1896, the league began on June 19 and lasted until August 9, when it disbanded due to the disbandment of one of the teams, the Chambersburg Maroons, on August 7. The Lions finished the season in first place with a record of 26-12, the Lions also dominated statistically, having the league leaders in runs, hits, wins by a pitcher, and winning percentage by a pitcher. Lipp and another Lion, John Gochnaur, were the first Hagerstown players to make it to the major leagues, in 1915, the class D Blue Ridge League was formed with its headquarters in Hagerstown. Hagerstown fielded a team for the next 16 seasons, throughout this time, they won five pennants and donned four different names, the Blues, the Terriers, the Champs and the Hubs. Before the beginning of the 1931 season, the Blue Ridge League disbanded, the club was then affiliated with the class C Middle Atlantic League, but on June 28,1931, the club moved to Parkersburg, West Virginia. The Hagerstown players with the most major league experience during this era were Mike Mowrey, Frankie Pytlak, professional baseball returned to Hagerstown in 1941 when Oren E. Sterling moved his Sunbury Indians franchise to town and became a Detroit Tigers affiliate, the newly named Hagerstown Owls joined the Class B Interstate League. Gene Raney purchased the team from Sterling in 1950, and the renamed Hagerstown Braves became an affiliate of the Boston Braves, the team moved to the Piedmont League in 1953 and once again had a name and affiliation change. The new Washington Senators affiliate, the Hagerstown Packets, competed until the league disbanded after the 1955 season, Hagerstown was without a professional team until 1981 when Lou Eliopulos purchased the Rocky Mount Pines Class A Carolina League franchise and moved them north to Hagerstown. The newly named Hagerstown Suns proceeded to win the Carolina League championship in their season by defeating the Peninsula Pilots. In 1982, the Suns began an affiliation with the Baltimore Orioles. The 1982 Suns had a record than the 1981 team. For 1983, despite winning 84 games, the Suns finished 10.5 games behind the North Division champion Lynchburg Mets, the winner of the South Division was the Winston-Salem Red Sox, who won 10 games less than the Suns. Hagerstown also led the Carolina League in attendance during 1983 with 153,660 fans as compared to Durhams 142,370 and they experienced their first losing season in franchise history in 1984, finishing 30 games behind the first place Lynchburg Mets. One reason may have been the fact the team had three different managers during the season, in 1985, the Suns played an exhibition game with the parent club Baltimore Orioles
14.
World Egg Throwing Federation
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The World Egg Throwing Federation is an organization that promotes the sport of egg throwing. They promote a number of different variations of games including Russian egg roulette, throw and catch, static relay, target throwing, the organization discourages the use of eggs in the role of vandalism. The championship is annually in Swaton, England since 2006. The World Egg Throwing Federation home page
15.
Swaton
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Swaton is a hamlet and civil parish in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated on the B1394 road, less than 0.5 miles north from the A52 road, Swaton Fen lies to the east. The Eau river rises to the west and runs through the village until it joins the Forty Foot Drain, before the draining of the Fens the Eau river was navigable and a large inland port existed close to the current bridge. The Roman Car Dyke runs to the east of the village, the name comes from Suavetone or Swaffa’s Farmstead. In 1240 William Longespee and his wife Idonea applied for and were granted a Royal charter to run a Friday market in the village and this grant was unsuccessfully challenged by residents of Folkingham and Sleaford who feared it would damage their own Saturday and Monday markets. Nicolaa de la Haye, a former Sheriff of Lincolnshire in the 12th century is buried in the churchyard, Swaton Vintage Day is held each June. The village also hosts the annual World Egg Throwing competition, Egg throwing in this village started circa 1322 when the new Abbot of Swaton, controlling all poultry in the village, used them to provide eggs as alms to those that attended church. When the Eau was in flood these were hurled over the river to waiting peasants. Media related to Swaton at Wikimedia Commons St Michaels church Parish council World Egg Throwing Federation Churchview Equestrian
16.
Disney Channel Games
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Disney Channel Games are a Battle of the Network Stars-based annual television series that aired on the Disney Channel during the summer from 2006 to 2008. The Games were filmed at Disneys Wide World of Sports in Orlando, Disney Channel Games were not aired after 2008, but a similar series called Disneys Friends for Change Games aired in 2011. The Disney Channel Games began as a series of shorts aired during summer 2006. A second edition followed in summer 2007, with the edition of the series airing in summer 2008. The result was Disneys Friends for Change initiative, the series also did not air in 2010. Disneys Friends for Change Games aired on the Disney Channel as part of Disneys Friends for Change initiative and it replaced the Disney Channel Games. The series was hosted by Jason Earles and Tiffany Thornton, Disneys Friends for Change Games premiered on June 24,2011, and aired five episodes through July 31,2011, plus a recap special. The first event was viewed by between 3.4 million and 4.9 million viewers, the finale special was viewed by 3.6 million viewers, with Kids 6–11 and Tweens 9–14 making up a sizable portion of the total. The entire series was viewed by over 37 million unique viewers
17.
Egg rolling
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Egg rolling, or an Easter egg roll is a traditional game played with eggs at Easter. Different nations have different versions of the game, usually played with hard-boiled, decorated eggs, starting in 1835, Jacob Grimm and other writers proposed that the pre-Christian Saxons had a spring goddess Eostre, whose feast was held on the Vernal Equinox, around 21 March. Grimm also suggested that her animal was probably the hare. Some claim that Pope Gregory the Great had ordered his missionaries to use old religious sites and festivals and this tradition, along with others such as the Easter Bunny, were taken to the New World by European settlers. In the United Kingdom the tradition of rolling decorated eggs down grassy hills goes back hundreds of years and is known as pace-egging, in Lancashire there are annual egg rolling competitions at Holcombe Hill near Ramsbottom and Avenham Park in Preston. Egg rolling has been a tradition at Avenham Park for hundreds of years, other traditional egg rolling sites are the castle moat at Penrith, Bunkers Hill in Derby and Arthurs Seat in Edinburgh. Beacon Hill near Newbury, Berkshire is also an ideal spot, the eggs were traditionally wrapped in onion skins and boiled to give them a mottled gold appearance and the children competed to see who could roll their egg the furthest. There is an old Lancashire legend that says the broken eggshells should be carefully crushed afterwards or they will be stolen, at the Wordsworth museum in Grasmere there is a collection of highly decorated eggs made for the poet’s children. In the United States, the Easter Egg Roll is an annual event, the Egg Roll itself is a race, where children push an egg through the grass with a long-handled spoon. Surrounding events include appearances by White House personalities in Easter Bunny costumes, speeches and book-reading by Cabinet secretaries, according to tradition, Dolley Madison, the wife of President James Madison, began the event in 1814 and hundreds of children brought their decorated eggs to join in games. The original site was on the grounds of the United States Capitol, but in 1877 a new lawn was planted, congress then passed a law making it illegal to use the grounds as a childrens playground. At the request of a number of children, including his own, then President Rutherford B. Hayes, in 1953 Mamie Eisenhower proposed that event be opened to black children, who were allowed to participate starting in 1954. On April 13,2009, the Obamas hosted their first White House Easter egg roll, the theme “Let’s go play” was meant to encourage young people to lead healthy, active lives. It was featured in the 2007 film National Treasure, Book of Secrets, in Germany, a prize is awarded to the contestant whose egg rolls fastest down a track made of sticks. In Denmark, decorated eggs are rolled down slopes in grassland or forest - the contestant whose egg rolls furthest is the winner -, the tradition is particularly common around the town of Køge. In Lithuania you collect the eggs that are touched by the one rolled by you, in Egypt, children bowl red and yellow eggs towards another row of eggs and whoever cracks one egg can claim them all. In eastern Europe, there are other such as egg tapping. Egg dance Egg hunt Egg tapping Egg tossing
18.
Egg tapping
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Egg tapping, or also known as egg fight, egg knocking, egg pacqueing, egg boxing, egg picking, or egg jarping is a traditional Easter game. In English folk traditions, the game has variously been known as shackling, jarping or dumping, the rule of the game is simple. One holds an egg and taps the egg of another participant with ones own egg intending to break the others. As with any game, it has been a subject of cheating, eggs with cement, alabaster. The egg was a symbol of rebirth, adopted by early Christians as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus at Easter, during medieval times, egg tapping was practiced in Europe. For instance, the practice was mentioned to have played an important part in the 14th century in Zagreb in relation to the Easter festival, a study of folklore quotes an early 15th-century reference Poland. In North America, In New Amsterdam in the 1650s egg cracking was done on Easter Monday, all the children cracked hard boiled eggs a game, winner keeps both eggs. Reference -book -Peter of New Amsterdam, A Story of Old New York By James Otis, during the Revolutionary war egg picking was observed by a British prisoner of war, Thomas Anbury, in Frederick Town in Maryland in 1781 during the American Revolutionary War. The local custom at that time was to dye the eggs with Logwood or Bloodwood to give them a crimson color which as Anbury observed gave them great strength, Thomas Anbury was a young British officer who travelled extensively as a prisoner-of-war during the American Revolution. Anbury was near Frederick Town in Maryland, July 11,1781, by the mid-20th century, a Baltimore Maryland newspaper, the Evening Sun would devote an editorial column to discussing street cries, ritual, techniques for the game. Clarkson cites the Baltimore Evening Sun for 29 March 1933, in the 21st century Egg Cracking is still practiced every easter by the Saint Nicholas Society of the City of New York at the annual Pass Easter Ball. The world egg-jarping championships have been held each Easter Sunday at Peterlee Cricket And Social Club County Durham, England, proceeds from the event are donated to the Macmillan Cancer Support charity. In many places in Louisiana, egg-tapping is a competition event. Marksville claims to be the first to make it into an event in 1956. In the past some cheaters used guinea hen eggs, which are smaller and have harder shells, nowadays guinea egg knocking is a separate contest category. Preparation for this contest has turned into a serious science, people now know which breeds of chicken lay harder eggs and at what time. The chickens must be fed with food and have plenty of exercise. Proper boiling of the contest eggs is also a serious issue, some rules are well known, such as eggs must be boiled tip down, so that the air pocket is on the butt end
19.
Egg dance
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An egg dance is a traditional Easter game in which eggs are laid on the ground or floor and the goal is to dance among them damaging as few as possible. The egg was a symbol of the rebirth of the earth in Pagan celebrations of spring and was adopted by early Christians as a symbol of the rebirth of man at Easter, another form of egg dancing was a springtime game depicted at the painting of Pieter Aertsen. The goal was to roll an egg out of a bowl while keeping within a circle drawn by chalk and this had to be done with the feet without touching the other objects placed on the floor. An early reference to an egg dance was at the wedding of Margaret of Austria, the event was described in an 1895 issue of The American Magazine as follows. In the UK the dancing takes the form of hopping and sometimes called the hop-egg, there were various forms of egg-dance, but Mark Knowles writes that it was brought to England from Germany by the Saxons as early as in the 5th century. The Saxon word hoppe means to dance The 1867 book The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England writes, for example, the famous United States hornpipe dancer John Durang performed one of his hornpipes blindfolded on a scene covered with eggs. Julian Mates in his book The American Stage before 1800 notes that blindfolded egg dances were popular musical act both in Europe and the United States during the 18th century, Easter egg Egg hunt Egg rolling Egg tapping Pace Egg play
20.
Egg hunt
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An egg hunt is a game during which decorated eggs or Easter eggs are hidden for children to find. The game is played outdoors, but it can also be played indoors. The children typically collect the eggs in a basket, real eggs may further be used in egg tapping contests. If eggs filled with confetti left from Mardi Gras are used, eggs are placed with varying degree of concealment, to accommodate children of varying ages and development levels. In South German folk traditions it was customary to add extra obstacles to the game by placing them into hard-to reach places among nettles or thorns, the egg was a symbol of the rebirth of the earth in pre-Christian celebrations of spring. However, the Easter egg itself was defined by early Christians as an Easter symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, at least since the 17th century the idea of the Easter Bunny to bring the Easter eggs has been known. The novelty of the introduction of Easter egg hunts into England is evidenced by A. E, and when we find them it’s that joy that the women had when they reached the tomb first and found that Jesus was no longer there. Traditionally the game is associated with Easter and Easter eggs, Egg hunts are a subject of the Guinness Book of World Records. For example, Homer, Georgia, United States was listed in 1985 with 80,000 eggs to hunt in a town of 950 people. There have been a number of companies who have use of the popularity of Easter. Most notable have been chocolatiers including Cadbury with their annual Easter Egg Trail, in 2015, the British chocolate company Thorntons worked with the geocaching community to hide chocolate eggs across the United Kingdom. Egg and spoon race Egg dance Egg rolling Egg tapping Pace Egg play Easter egg
21.
Pace Egg play
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The Pace Egg Plays are an Easter tradition in rural English culture (the name is attested 1610, pace Easter being derived from Latin pascha. The tradition was widespread throughout England, but is now only practiced in a few areas, particularly Lancashire. The Pace Egg Plays are traditional village plays in the tradition of the mystery plays in which the figure of St George smites all challengers. The drama takes the form of combat between the hero and villain, in which the hero is killed and brought back to life. Many Pace Egg plays died out after the Great War, when many of the men who took part in them were killed in action, in Middleton, North Manchester, Pace Egging was revived in 1967. The Bury Pace Eggers were revived in 1970, and still perform in pubs and squares around the town, the plays have also enjoyed a remarkable renaissance in Heptonstall, West Yorkshire in recent decades. The origins are uncertain, but some version of the plays have undoubtedly been performed over many hundreds of years and it has become an established Good Friday tradition, and hundreds come to Weavers Square to watch. A2015 video by local film-maker Paul Cooke explains the shows origins, in the play St George takes on contenders such as Bold Slasher, the Black Prince of Paradine and Hector. Saint Georges Day in England Cass, E, the Pace-Egg Plays of the Calder Valley, London, FLS Books,2004. The Lancashire Pace-Egg Play, A Social History, London, FLS Books,2001, pennine Valley, History of Upper Calderdale Dalesman Publishing Co Ltd,1992
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
24.
Lincolnshire
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Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards, Englands shortest county boundary, the county town is Lincoln, where the county council has its headquarters. The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire is composed of the county of Lincolnshire. Therefore, part of the county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. The county is the second-largest of the English ceremonial counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use, the county is fifth largest of the two-tier counties, as the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire are not included. The county can be broken down into a number of geographical sub-regions including, Lincolnshire derived from the merging of the territory of the ancient Kingdom of Lindsey with that controlled by the Danelaw borough of Stamford. For some time the county was called Lindsey, and it is recorded as such in the 11th-century Domesday Book. In 1888 when county councils were set up, Lindsey, Holland and these survived until 1974, when Holland, Kesteven, and most of Lindsey were unified into Lincolnshire. A local government reform in 1996 abolished Humberside, and the south of the Humber was allocated to the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire. These two areas became part of Lincolnshire for ceremonial such as the Lord-Lieutenancy, but are not covered by the Lincolnshire police and are in the Yorkshire. The remaining districts of Lincolnshire are Boston, East Lindsey, Lincoln, North Kesteven, South Holland, South Kesteven and they are part of the East Midlands region. Lincolnshire is home to Woolsthorpe Manor, birthplace and home of Sir Isaac Newton and he attended The Kings School, Grantham and its library has preserved his signature, applied to a window sill when he was a teenager. Lincolnshire is an area, growing large amounts of wheat, barley, sugar beet. In South Lincolnshire, where the soil is rich in nutrients, some of the most common crops include potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers. Most such companies are long gone, and Lincolnshire is no longer an engineering centre, however, as a result of the current economic climate some food production facilities have closed down, this has caused some reduction in the levels of migrant workers. The large number of people from Portugal is still obvious in the town of Boston. A coalition of Conservatives, Liberal Democrats and Independents currently controls Lincolnshire County Council, the Conservative Party comfortably controlled the County Council following the 2009 local elections, in which they increased their majority to 43 seats. The Labour Party lost a total of 15 seats including 7 in Lincoln, the Lincolnshire Independents gained a total of four seats, although one of their number moved to the Conservative group during 2010, increasing the number of Conservative seats to 61
25.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
26.
Apostles' Fast
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The fast begins on the second Monday after Pentecost and continues until the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul on June 29, according to the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar. Having rejoiced for fifty days following Pascha, the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, according to Sacred Tradition, as part of their preparation, they began a fast with prayer to ask God to strengthen their resolve and to be with them in their missionary undertakings. But the days come, when the Bridegroom shall be taken from them. The tradition of the Fast has existed at least since Pope Leo I, as is evidenced by his homilies, the Fast is thought to have been instituted out of thanksgiving to God for the witness of the apostles of Christ. With this Fast, believers express their thanks for the endurance of persecution during their mission. The Apostles Fast is not as severe as Great Lent or the Dormition Fast, but entails fasting from red meat, poultry, meat products, eggs, dairy products, fish, oil, fish, wine and oil are allowed on all days except Wednesdays and Fridays. These fasting rules are much the same as those observed during the Nativity Fast. As with the three other Fasts of the Church year, there is a Great Feast that falls during the Apostles Fast, in this case, in some places, the services on weekdays during the Apostles Fast are similar to the services during Great Lent. Many churches and monasteries in the Russian tradition will perform the services on at least the first day of the Apostles Fast. The length of the Fast is variable, being determined by the date of Pascha, eight weeks after Pascha comes the Sunday of All Saints. The next day, Monday, the Fast of the Holy Apostles begins, the Fast lasts until June 29, the Feast of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul. In other words, depending on the date of Pascha, the Apostles Fast can begin as early as May 18 or as late as June 21, thus, it may be as short as eight days or as long as forty-two days in duration. The Coptic Orthodox Church fasts until 4th Epip according to the Coptic Calendar, Great Lent Nativity Fast Dormition Fast Coptic Lenten Seasons
27.
Bright Week
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Latin Rite and other Christian groups such as Anglicans refer to this period as Easter Week, not to be confused with the Octave of Easter, which includes the following Sunday. The entire week following Pascha is to be set aside by Orthodox Christians for the celebration of the Resurrection, for in this way shall we be exalted with Christ, raised up together with Him. For this reason on the days that by no means there be any horse races or any other public spectacle. In Imperial Russia taverns were closed during Bright Week, and no alcoholic beverages were sold, the entire week is considered to be one continuous day. The name of each day of the week is called Bright, the services are entirely sung, and the Paschal hymns are included with the stichera taken from the Sunday Resurrection propers in the Octoechos, rotating through the various tones. Tone 1 is used Holy Saturday and at Paschal matins on Sunday, tone 2 Sunday night and Monday, etc. skipping the least festive heavy tone and ending with the plagial 4th on Friday night and Saturday. During all of Bright Week the Holy Doors on the Iconostasis are kept open—the only time of the year when this occurs. The open doors represent the stone rolled away from the Tomb of Christ, the doors are closed before the Ninth Hour on the eve of Thomas Sunday. However, the Afterfeast of Pascha will continue until the eve of the Ascension, everything in the services is sung joyfully rather than read. Thus, for example, while censing the church before the Divine Liturgy, normally, the entire Psalter is read during the course of a week, but during Bright Week no psalms at all are read. Each of the Little Hours is replaced by a service known as the Paschal Hours. In Bright Week ordinary fasting is suspended, and the week is fast-free. On the last circuit, there is a reading from the Gospel, the Artos is a loaf of leavened bread impressed before baking with a seal of an icon of the Resurrection that is blessed during the Paschal Vigil. This seal symbolizes the presence of the Resurrected Christ among the Apostles. Throughout the week, whenever anyone enters the church, he or she kisses the Artos, on Bright Friday, a service in honor of the Theotokos as the Life-giving Spring is included in the Paschal service. On Bright Saturday, after the Divine Liturgy, the priest says a prayer over the Artos and it is broken up, Bright Week begins the liturgical season known as the Pentecostarion, the period of fifty days which begins on Pascha and continues to Pentecost and its Afterfeast. The date of Pascha determines liturgical cycles as well as the Epistle, funeral services held during Bright Week have a special rite, consisting entirely of joyous Paschal hymns with only the litanies remaining funereal. Parakleses during Pascha are likewise served according to a special rite, with the canon of Pascha
28.
Burial of Jesus
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The burial of Jesus refers to the burial of the body of Jesus after crucifixion, described in the New Testament. According to the gospel accounts, he was placed in a tomb by a man named Joseph of Arimathea. The earliest reference is in a letter of Paul, writing to the Corinthians around the year 54 CE, he refers to the account he had received of the death and resurrection of Jesus. All four state that, on the evening of the Crucifixion, Joseph of Arimathea asked Pilate for the body, there are significant differences between the four accounts, recording the evolution of the tradition from the earliest gospel to the last. Modern scholarship tends to see the accounts as contradictory. He puts the body in a new shroud and lays it in a tomb carved into the rock, in this account, Joseph does only the bare minimum needed for observance of the law, wrapping the body in a cloth, with no mention of washing or anointing it. This may explain why Mark has a prior to the Crucifixion. The Gospel of Matthew was written around the year 85 or 90, in this account Joseph of Arimathea is not referenced as a member of the Sanhedrin, but a wealthy disciple of Jesus. Many interpreters have read this as an orientation by the author towards wealthy supporters. This version suggests a more honourable burial, Joseph wraps the body in a shroud and places it in his own tomb. The author adds that the Roman authorities made the tomb secure by putting a seal on the stone and this detail may have been added to answer claims by contemporary opponents that the followers of Jesus had stolen his body. The Gospel of Mark is also a source for the account given in the Gospel of Luke, the last of the gospels, John, differs from Mark on this point, depicting Joseph as a disciple who gives Jesus an honourable burial. John says that Joseph was assisted in the process by Nicodemus. N. T. Wright notes that the burial of Christ is part of the earliest gospel traditions, robinson states that the burial of Jesus in the tomb is one of the earliest and best-attested facts about Jesus. Rudolf Bultmann described the story as a historical account which creates no impression of being a legend. John Dominic Crossan, however, suggests that Jesus body was eaten by dogs as it hung on the cross so that there was nothing left to bury. Martin Hengel argued that Jesus was buried in disgrace as a criminal who died a shameful death. This appears to be an early pre-Pauline credal statement, the burial of Christ is specifically mentioned in the Apostles Creed, where it says that Jesus was crucified, dead, and buried
29.
Crucifixion of Jesus
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The crucifixion of Jesus occurred in 1st century Judea, most probably between the years 30 and 33 AD. According to the gospels, Jesus, the Christ, was arrested, tried, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged. Jesus was stripped of his clothing and offered wine mixed with gall to drink and he was then hung between two convicted thieves and according to Marks Gospel, died some six hours later. During this time, the soldiers affixed a sign to the top of the cross stating Jesus of Nazareth and they then divided his garments among them, but cast lots for his seamless robe. After Jesus death they pierced his side with a spear to be certain that he had died, the Bible describes seven statements that Jesus made while he was on the cross, as well as several supernatural events that occurred. Collectively referred to as the Passion, Jesus suffering and redemptive death by crucifixion are the aspects of Christian theology concerning the doctrines of salvation. The baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be two historically certain facts about Jesus, bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him. John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be, eddy and Boyd state that it is now firmly established that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus. Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable. Christopher M. Tuckett states that, although the reasons for the death of Jesus are hard to determine, one of the indisputable facts about him is that he was crucified. While scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason, geza Vermes also views the crucifixion as a historical event but provides his own explanation and background for it. John P. Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that, based on the criterion of embarrassment, Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader. Meier states that a number of criteria, e. g. the criterion of multiple attestation. The crucified man was identified as Yehohanan ben Hagkol and probably died about 70 AD, the analyses at the Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s. The earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels, there are other, more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. In the synoptic gospels, Jesus predicts his death in three separate episodes, all four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and accounts of resurrection. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more detail than any other portion of that Gospels narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening, after being flogged, Jesus was mocked by Roman soldiers as the King of the Jews, clothed in a purple robe, crowned with thorns, beaten and spat on
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Dormition of the Mother of God
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It is celebrated on August 15 as the Feast of the Dormition of the Mother of God. The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates the Dormition not on a fixed date, the Feast of the Dormition is preceded by a two-week fast, referred to as the Dormition Fast. From August 1 to August 14 Orthodox and Eastern Catholics fast from red meat, poultry, meat products, dairy products, fish, oil, and wine. The Dormition Fast is a stricter fast than either the Nativity Fast or the Apostles Fast, with only wine and oil allowed on weekends. As with the other Fasts of the Church year, there is a Great Feast that falls during the Fast, in this case, in some places, the services on weekdays during the Fast are similar to the services during Great Lent. Many churches and monasteries in the Russian tradition perform the services on at least the first day of the Dormition Fast. In the Greek tradition, during the Fast either the Great Paraklesis or the Small Paraklesis is celebrated every evening except Saturday evening and the Eves of the Transfiguration and the Dormition. The first day of the Dormition Fast is a feast day called the Procession of the Cross, on which day it is customary to have an outdoor procession, in Orthodoxy and Catholicism, in the language of the scripture, death is often called a sleeping or falling asleep. A prominent example of this is the name of this feast, another is the Dormition of Anna, up until the 5th century Church Fathers do not mention the Dormition of the Virgin and to the 6th century Dormition was not celebrated among the Christians as a holy day. And yet, nowhere does he say that he took the holy Virgin with him, Scripture simply kept silence because of the overwhelming wonder, not to throw men’s minds into consternation. For I dare not say — though I have my suspicions, perhaps, just as her death is not to be found, so I may have found some traces of the holy and blessed Virgin. The holy virgin may have dead and been buried — her falling asleep was with honor, her death in purity, or she may have remained alive, for God is not incapable of doing whatever he wills. But we must not honor the saints to excess, we must honor their Master and it is time for the error of those who have gone astray to cease. Christians in the late 4th century had different opinions regarding Marys death, for this reason, Ambrose, for example, wrote, Neither the letter of Scripture nor Tradition does not teach us that Mary had left this life as a consequence of suffering from bodily ulcers. One of these placed in the History of the Church Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos. All listed Apocrypha quite late and differ from other content. Therefore, the Church was not taken all their content, but only the idea that the Virgin Mary blissfully rested. According to Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos in his History of the Church, after that Christians in the empire began to celebrate the death of the Virgin Mary
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Easter Monday
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Easter Monday is the day after Easter Sunday and is a holiday in some countries. Easter Monday in the Western Christian liturgical calendar is the day of Eastertide. Formerly, the post-Easter festivities involved a week of secular celebration, in the Eastern Orthodox Church and Byzantine Rite Catholic Churches, this day is called Bright Monday or Renewal Monday. In Australia, Easter Monday is a public holiday, people enjoy outdoor sporting events, such as the Oakbank Easter Racing Carnival in South Australia, Australian Three Peaks Race in Tasmania as well as the Stawell Gift in Victoria. In Egypt, the ancient festival of Sham El Nessim is celebrated on the Coptic Easter Monday and it is celebrated by both Egyptian Christians and Muslims as an Egyptian national holiday rather than as a religious one. Traditional activities include painting eggs, taking meals outdoors, and eating feseekh, in the Republic of Ireland it is a day of remembrance for the men and women who died in the Easter Rising which began on Easter Monday 1916. Until 1966, there was a parade of veterans, past the headquarters of the Irish Republican Army at the General Post Office on OConnell Street, Śmigus-dyngus is the name for Easter Monday in Poland and the diaspora. In the Czech Republic it is called velikonoční pondělí, in Slovakia veľkonočný pondelok, also called Šibačka/Polievačka or Oblievačka. All countries practice a unique custom on this day, another related custom, unique to Poland, is that of sprinkling bowls of ashes on people or houses, celebrated a few weeks earlier at the półpoście. This custom is almost forgotten, but still practiced in the area around the borders of Mazuria and Masovia, in Germany, people go out into the fields early in the morning and hold Easter egg races. For Roman Catholics, Easter Monday is also a Holy Day of Obligation in Germany. Though not largely observed in the United States, the day remains informally observed in areas such as the state of North Dakota, and some cities in New York, Michigan. Easter Monday was a holiday in North Carolina from 1935 to 1987. Texas and Maryland schools often have two holidays on Good Friday and Easter Monday, in some states and districts, public schools and universities are closed on Easter Monday, often part of spring break. Traditionally Polish areas of the such as Chicago, and more recently Cleveland. Dyngus Day celebrations are widespread and popular in Buffalo, New York, Wyandotte and Hamtramck in Michigan, South Bend and La Porte in Indiana, the worlds largest organized Dyngus Day celebration occurs in Buffalo, New York. In Buffalos eastern suburbs and the citys Historic Polonia District, Dyngus Day is celebrated with a level of enthusiasm. Although Dyngus Day was celebrated in traditional Polish neighborhoods of Buffalo dating back to the 1870s, judge Ann T. Mikoll and her late husband Theodore V. Mikoll held the first party at the Societys clubrooms in the Buffalo Central Terminal
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Easter Vigil
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Easter Vigil, also called the Paschal Vigil or the Great Vigil of Easter, is a service held in traditional Christian churches as the first official celebration of the Resurrection of Jesus. Historically, it is during this service that people are baptized, the original twelve Old Testament readings for the Easter Vigil survive in an ancient manuscript belonging to the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem. In the earliest Jerusalem usage the vigil began with Psalm 117 sung with the response, then followed twelve Old Testament readings, all but the last being followed by a prayer with kneeling. Genesis 1, 1--3,24, Genesis 22, 1-18, Exodus 12, 1-24, Jonah 1, 1--4,11, Exodus 14, 24--15,21, Isaiah 60, 1-13, Job 38, 2-28,2 Kings 2, 1-22, Jeremiah 31, 31-34, Joshua 1, 1-9, Ezekiel 37, 1-14, Daniel 3, 1-29. The twelfth reading leads into the Song of the Three Children and is not followed by a prayer with kneeling, as the candle proceeds through the church, the small candles held by those present are gradually lit from the Paschal candle. As this symbolic Light of Christ spreads, darkness is decreased, the deacon, priest, or a cantor now chants the Exsultet, after which the people sit for the Liturgy of the Word. Once the paschal candle has been placed on its stand in the sanctuary, the lights in the church are switched on and the congregation extinguish their candles. Each reading is followed by a psalm or biblical canticle sung responsorially, the collect is sung or recited. The reading from the Epistle to the Romans is proclaimed, followed by the chanting of Psalm 118. The Alleluia is sung for the first time since before Lent and with special solemnitThe Gospel of the Resurrection (Matthew 28, 1-10, Mark 16, 1-8 or Luke 24, 1-12 follows, along with a homily. After the celebration of these sacraments of initiation, the congregation renews their baptismal vows, the prayer of the faithful follow. After the prayers, the Liturgy of the Eucharist continues as usual and this is the first Mass of Easter Day. During the Eucharist, the newly baptized receive Holy Communion for the first time, according to the rubrics of the Missal, the Eucharist should finish before dawn. The 20th century saw two major revisions of the Roman-Rite Easter Vigil liturgy, the first occurred in the 1950s under Pope Pius XII. Previously, the Vigil service was held on Holy Saturday morning, outside the church the Easter fire was lit and blessed, and five grains of incense were also blessed. All lamps and candles within the church were quenched, so as to be relit later with the new fire. During the singing of the Exsultet, which followed, the five grains of incense were placed in the paschal candle. The prayers after the readings were preceded by Flectamus genua and a genuflection, after the Old Testament readings the baptismal font was blessed, and the conferral of baptism was envisaged, though rarely performed
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Epitaphios (liturgical)
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The Epitaphios is a Christian religious icon, typically consisting of a large, embroidered and often richly adorned cloth. It is used during the services of Good Friday and Holy Saturday in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, as well as those Eastern Catholic Churches. It also exists in painted or mosaic form, on wall or panel, armenian Orthodox have also the tradition of the epitaphios. Their celebration on this day is called Taghman Kark, the word Epitáphios is composite, from the Greek ἐπί, epí, on or upon, and τάφος, táphos, grave or tomb. In Greek the word has, inter alia, the meaning of both the English epitaph and the one presented here, the latter having been acquired during the Christian period. The icon depicts Christ after he has removed from the cross, lying supine. The scene is taken from the Gospel of St. John, shown around him, and mourning his death, may be his mother, John the beloved disciple, Joseph of Arimathea, and Mary Magdalene, as well as angels. Nicodemus and others may also be depicted, often the Four Evangelists will be shown in the corners. Sometimes, the body of Christ appears alone, except for angels, the oldest surviving embroidered icon, of about 1200 is in this form. The equivalent subjects in the West are called the Anointing of Christs body, or Lamentation of Christ, or the Pietà, the image may be embroidered or painted on fabric or some other substrate, which is then mounted in a wide cloth border often edged in gold fringe. The Epitaphios is used on the last two days of Holy Week in the Byzantine rite, as part of the marking the death. It is then placed on the Holy Table, where it remains throughout the Paschal season, prior to the Apokathelosis, Vespers on the afternoon of Great Friday, the priest and deacon will place the Epitaphios on the Holy Table. The priest may also anoint the Epitaphios with perfumed oil, a chalice veil and the Gospel Book is placed on top of the Epitaphios. This may be either the large Gospel Book used at the Divine Liturgy, the soma is wrapped in a white cloth and taken into the sanctuary. The Gospel Book is laid on top of the epitaphios, in some Greek churches, an elaborately carved canopy, called a kouvouklion, stands over the Epitaphios. This bier or catafalque represents the Tomb of Christ, and is made of wood, on Good Friday morning, the bier is decorated with spring flowers, mostly white, red, and purple, until it is covered by the flowers in its entirety. The Tomb is often sprinkled with flower petals and rosewater, decorated with candles, the bells of the church are tolled, and in traditionally Orthodox countries, flags are lowered to half-mast. Then the priest and faithful venerate the Epitaphios as the choir chants hymns, in Slavic churches, the service of Compline will be served next, during which a special Canon will be chanted which recalls the lamentations of the Theotokos
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Exsultet
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The Exsultet or Easter Proclamation, in Latin Praeconium Paschale, is the hymn of praise sung, ideally by a deacon, before the paschal candle during the Easter Vigil in the Roman Rite of Mass. In the absence of a deacon it may be sung by a priest or by a cantor and it is sung after a procession with the paschal candle before the beginning of the Liturgy of the Word. It is also used in Anglican and various Lutheran churches, as well as other Western Christian denominations. Outside Rome, use of the paschal candle appears to have been an ancient tradition in Italy, Gaul, Spain and, perhaps, from the reference by St. Augustine. The Liber Pontificalis attributes to Pope Zosimus its introduction in the church in Rome. The formula used for the Praeconium was not always the Exsultet, though it is true to say that this formula has survived. The regularity of the metrical cursus of the Exsultet would lead us to place the date of its composition perhaps as early as the fifth century, and not later than the seventh. The earliest manuscript in which it appears are those of the three Gallican Sacramentaries, -- the Bobbio Missal, the Missale Gothicum and the Missale Gallicanum Vetus. As it stands in the liturgy, it may be compared with two forms, the blessing of palms on Palm Sunday, and the blessing of the baptismal font at the Easter Vigil. The order is, briefly, An invitation to present to join with the deacon in invoking the blessing of God. This section closes with the Per omnia saecula saeculorum, leading into and this section serves as the introduction to the body of the Praeconium, cast in the Eucharistic form to emphasize its solemnity. The Praeconium proper, which is of the nature of a Preface, or, as it is called in the Missale Gallicanum Vetus, first, a parallel is drawn between the Passover of the Old and the New Covenants, the candle corresponding to the Pillar of Fire. Here the language of the rises to heights to which it is hard to find a parallel in Christian literature. Secondly, the candle itself is offered as a burnt-sacrifice, a type of Christ, in the later form, white vestments are worn throughout. The chant is usually a form of the well-known recitative of the Preface. In some uses a long bravura was introduced upon the word accendit, to fill in the pause, which must otherwise occur while, in the form of the rite. In Italy the Praeconium was sung from long strips of parchment and these Exsultet Rolls were decorated with illuminations and with the portraits of contemporary reigning sovereigns, whose names were mentioned in the course of the Praeconium. The use of rolls, as far as is known at present, was confined to Italy
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Good Friday
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Good Friday is a Christian holiday commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and his death at Calvary. It is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum on the Friday preceding Easter Sunday and it is also known as Holy Friday, Great Friday, Black Friday, or Easter Friday, though the last term properly refers to the Friday in Easter week. The date of the holiday on the Gregorian calendar varies from one year to the next and it is a widely instituted legal holiday in many national governments around the world, including in most Western countries as well as in 12 U. S. states. Some countries, such as Germany, have laws prohibiting certain acts, such as dancing and horse racing, the etymology of the term good in the context of Good Friday is contested. Some sources claim good to mean pious or holy, while others contend that it is a corruption of God Friday. In German-speaking countries, Good Friday is generally referred to as Karfreitag, the Kar prefix is an ancestor of the English word care in the sense of cares and woes, it meant mourning. The day is known as Stiller Freitag and Hoher Freitag. According to the accounts in the Gospels, the Temple Guards, guided by Jesus disciple Judas Iscariot, Judas received money for betraying Jesus and told the guards that whomever he kisses is the one they are to arrest. Following his arrest, Jesus was taken to the house of Annas, there he was interrogated with little result and sent bound to Caiaphas the high priest where the Sanhedrin had assembled. Conflicting testimony against Jesus was brought forth by many witnesses, to which Jesus answered nothing. Finally the high priest adjured Jesus to respond under solemn oath, saying I adjure you, by the Living God, to us, are you the Anointed One. Jesus testified ambiguously, You have said it, and in time you see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of the Almighty. The high priest condemned Jesus for blasphemy, and the Sanhedrin concurred with a sentence of death, Peter, waiting in the courtyard, also denied Jesus three times to bystanders while the interrogations were proceeding just as Jesus had predicted. In the morning, the assembly brought Jesus to the Roman governor Pontius Pilate under charges of subverting the nation, opposing taxes to Caesar. Pilate questioned Jesus and told the assembly there was no basis for sentencing. Upon learning that Jesus was from Galilee, Pilate referred the case to the ruler of Galilee, King Herod, Herod questioned Jesus but received no answer, Herod sent Jesus back to Pilate. Pilate told the assembly that neither he nor Herod found guilt in Jesus, under the guidance of the chief priests, the crowd asked for Barabbas, who had been imprisoned for committing murder during an insurrection. Pilate asked what they would have him do with Jesus, and they demanded, pilates wife had seen Jesus in a dream earlier that day, and she forewarned Pilate to have nothing to do with this righteous man
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Good Friday prayer for the Jews
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The Good Friday Prayer for the Jews is an annual prayer in the Christian, particularly Roman Catholic, liturgy. It is one of several petitions made in the Good Friday service and its origins lie in the Tridentine Mass, which dates back to 1570. Norman Roth describes how Good Friday-Easter week in medieval Europe was a time of dread for the perfidis Judæis who would come under attack. Oesterreicher as arguing, with support from others, that the term pro perfidis judaeis in the Good Friday liturgy did not mean perfidious but rather unfaithful. Roth concludes however, that one cannot deny that the attributes to Jews willful obstinacy in the face of truth. In the early 1920s the missionary organisation Society of Friends of Israel requested that the phrase perfidious Jews be removed from the liturgy, Pope Pius XI was reportedly strongly in favour of the reforms and asked the Congregation of Rites to review the matter. Cardinal Schuster, who was among the Friends of Israel, was appointed to monitor this issue. The Roman Curia, however, is reported to have reacted negatively to the proposal on the basis that if one change was made to the old liturgy it would open the door to other such proposals. The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith decided to dissolve the association, the Pope responded with a public declaration that in Latin perfidus means unbelieving, not treacherous. He could do no more at that time, fifteen years later, that change was made by Pope John XXIII. Catholic historian Warren H. Carroll asserts, The word perfidious in the old Good Friday liturgy referred to the rejection of Gods Son the Messiah by the Jews who called for his crucifixion. He had given proofs of who He was, but they closed their eyes. Though it may be counter-productive to make this point in todays age and they must have known or at least guessed the truth, and yet refused to believe. In any case, the expression perfidious cannot logically apply to Jews apart from the circumstances of the crucifixion, through the same our Lord Jesus Christ, who liveth and reigneth with thee in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God, for ever and ever. At that time, the congregants did not kneel during the prayer for the conversion of the Jews, because, as the famous liturgist Dom Prosper Guéranger, said, Here the deacon does not invite the faithful to kneel. She prays for His scoffers, but she shrinks from repeating the act wherewith they scoffed at Him, lurie quotes Kane who wrote that all authors tried to justify the practice that had existed before them, not to introduce the new one. Apparently this practice had been established as a result of the populist antisemitism, through the same our Lord Jesus Christ, who liveth and reigneth with thee in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God, for ever and ever. Accordingly, the prayer was revised to read, Let us pray also for the Jews, through the same our Lord Jesus Christ, who liveth and reigneth with thee in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God, for ever and ever
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Great Lent
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In many ways Great Lent is similar to Lent in Western Christianity. There are some differences in the timing of Lent and how it is practiced, One difference between Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity is the calculation of the date of Easter. Most years, the Eastern Pascha falls after the Western Easter, and it may be as much as five weeks later, occasionally, like Western Lent, Great Lent itself lasts for forty days, but in contrast to the West, Sundays are included in the count. Great Lent officially begins on Clean Monday, seven weeks before Pascha and runs for 40 contiguous days, the next day is called Lazarus Saturday, the day before Palm Sunday. Fasting continues throughout the week, known as Passion Week or Holy Week. The purpose of Great Lent is to prepare the faithful to not only commemorate, the totality of the Byzantine Rite life centers around the Resurrection. Lent is not for the sake of Lent itself, as fasting is not for the sake of fasting, rather, these are means by which and for which the individual believer prepares himself to reach for, accept and attain the calling of his Savior. Therefore, the significance of Great Lent is highly appraised, not only by the monks who increased the length of time of the Lent. The Orthodox lenten rules are the monastic rules, in the Byzantine Rite, asceticism is not exclusively for the professional religious, but for each layperson as well, according to their strength. As such, Great Lent is a sacred Institute of the Church to serve the individual believer in participating as a member of the Mystical Body of Christ and it provides each person an annual opportunity for self-examination and improving the standards of faith and morals in his Christian life. Through spending more time than usual in prayer and meditation on the Holy Scripture and the Holy Traditions of the Church, the foods traditionally abstained from are meat, fish, eggs and dairy products, wine, and oil. According to some traditions, only oil is abstained from, in others. Since strict fasting is canonically forbidden on the Sabbath and the Lords Day, wine, if the Great Feast of the Annunciation falls during Great Lent, then fish, wine and oil are permitted on that day. However meat and dairy are eschewed entirely until the fast is broken on Easter Sunday, besides the additional liturgical celebrations described below, Christians are expected to pay closer attention to and increase their private prayer. According to Byzantine Rite theology, when asceticism is increased, prayer must be increased also, the Church Fathers have referred to fasting without prayer as the fast of the demons since the demons do not eat according to their incorporeal nature, but neither do they pray. This is to illustrate that the season is anticipatory, leading up to the greatest Sunday of all. During the Great Fast, a service book is used, known as the Lenten Triodion. The Triodion begins during the Pre-Lenten period to supplement or replace portions of the regular services and this replacement begins gradually, initially affecting only the Epistle and Gospel readings, and gradually increases until Holy Week when it entirely replaces all other liturgical material
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Holy Week
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Holy Week in Christianity is the week just before Easter. In the West, it is also the last week of Lent, and includes Palm Sunday, Holy Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday. It does not include Easter Sunday, although traditions observing the Easter Triduum may overlap or displace part of Holy Week or Easter itself within that additional liturgical period, Holy Week in the Christian year is the week immediately before Easter. In this text, abstinence from flesh is commanded for all the days, dionysius Alexandrinus in his canonical epistle, refers to the 91 fasting days implying that the observance of them had already become an established usage in his time. The Codex Theodosianus, however, is explicit in ordering that all actions at law should cease, of the particular days of the great week the earliest to emerge into special prominence was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum Magnum with its vigil, which in the church was associated with an expectation that the second advent would occur on an Easter Sunday. Other writings that refer to related traditions of the early Church include, most notably, The Pilgrimage of Etheria, today, in the Western Christian Church, among Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians and Roman Catholics, the liturgies used for Holy Week are nearly identical. Holy Week begins with Palm Sunday, which may also be known as Passion Sunday in some denominations, traditionally, Palm Sunday commemorates the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, one of the few events described in all four canonical gospels. As described in the accounts, Jesuss entry into Jerusalem was noted by the present who shouted praises. In the Roman Rite, before 1955 it was simply as Palm Sunday. From 1955 to 1971 it was called Second Sunday in Passiontide or Palm Sunday, among Lutherans and Anglicans, the day is known as the Sunday of the Passion, Palm Sunday. In many liturgical denominations, to commemorate the Messiahs entry into Jerusalem to accomplish his paschal mystery, immediately following this great time of celebration over the entrance of Jesus into Jerusalem, he begins his journey to the cross. The blessing is followed by a procession or solemn entrance into the church. The Mass or service of worship includes a reading of the Passion. The palms were then blessed with five prayers, and a procession went out of the church and on its return included a ceremony for the reopening of the doors, after this the normal Mass was celebrated. The days between Palm Sunday and Holy Thursday are known as Holy Monday, Holy Tuesday, and Holy Wednesday. Among them On Monday, some observe the anointing of Jesus at Bethany, other events which the Gospels tell of which may have occurred on this day include cursing the fig tree and the Cleansing of the Temple. On Tuesday, some observe Jesus predictions of his own death, as described in, on Wednesday, some observe the story of Judas arranging his betrayal of Jesus with the high priests
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Jesus
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In Christology, the Person of Christ refers to the study of the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ as they co-exist within one person. There is no discussion in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human. Hence, since the days of Christianity theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures. In the period following the Apostolic Age, specific beliefs such as Arianism and Docetism were criticized. On the other end of the spectrum, Docetism argued that Jesus physical body was an illusion, docetic teachings were attacked by St. Ignatius of Antioch and were eventually abandoned by proto-orthodox Christians. However, after the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos, historically in the Alexandrian school of christology, Jesus Christ is the eternal Logos paradoxically humanized in history, a divine Person who became enfleshed, uniting himself to the human nature. The views of these schools can be summarized as follows, Alexandria, Antioch, Logos assumes a specific human being The First Council of Ephesus in 431 debated a number of views regarding the Person of Christ. At the same gathering the council debated the doctrines of monophysitism or miaphysitism. The council rejected Nestorianism and adopted the term hypostatic union, referring to divine, the language used in the 431 declaration was further refined at the 451 Council of Chalcedon. However, the Chalcedon creed was not accepted by all Christians, because Saint Augustine died in 430 he did not participate in the Council of Ephesus in 431 or Chalcedon in 451, but his ideas had some impact on both councils. On the other hand, the major theological figure of the Middle Ages. The Third Council of Constantinople in 680 held that both divine and human wills exist in Jesus, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. John Calvin maintained that there was no element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the person of The Word. Calvin also emphasized the importance of the Work of Christ in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ, the study of the Person of Christ continued into the 20th century, with modern theologians such as Karl Rahner and Hans von Balthasar. Balthasar argued that the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the absorption of human attributes, thus in his view the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine
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Last Supper
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The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his Apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Maundy Thursday, the Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion or The Lords Supper. The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper, during the meal Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the Apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will deny knowing him. Scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharist traditions, others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s. The term Last Supper does not appear in the New Testament, most Protestants use the term Lords Supper, stating that the term last suggests this was one of several meals and not the meal. The term Lords Supper refers both to the event and the act of Holy Communion and Eucharistic celebration within their liturgy. Evangelical Protestants also use the term Lords Supper, but most do not use the terms Eucharist or the word Holy with the name Communion, the Eastern Orthodox use the term Mystical Supper which refers both to the biblical event and the act of Eucharistic celebration within liturgy. The last meal that Jesus shared with his disciples is described in all four canonical Gospels and this meal later became known as the Last Supper. The Last Supper was likely a retelling of the events of the last meal of Jesus among the early Christian community, after the meal, Jesus is betrayed, arrested, tried, and then crucified. In Matthew 26, 24-25, Mark 14, 18-21, Luke 22, 21-23 and John 13, 21-30 during the meal and it would be better for him if he had not been born. In Matthew 26, 23-25 and John 13, 26-27, Judas is specifically identified as the traitor. In the Gospel of John, when asked about the traitor, Jesus states, “It is the one to whom I will give this piece of bread when I have dipped it in the dish. ”Then, dipping the piece of bread, he gave it to Judas, the son of Simon Iscariot. As soon as Judas took the bread, Satan entered into him, in the course of the Last Supper, Jesus divides up some bread, says a prayer, and hands the pieces of bread to his disciples, saying this is my body. He then takes a cup of wine, offers another prayer, and hands it around, saying this is my blood of the everlasting covenant, finally, according to Paul and Luke, he tells the disciples do this in remembrance of me. This event has been regarded by Christians of most denominations as the institution of the Eucharist, there is recorded celebration of the Eucharist by the early Christian community in Jerusalem. The institution of the Eucharist is recorded in the three Synoptic Gospels and in Pauls First Epistle to the Corinthians, the words of institution differ slightly in each account. In addition, Luke 22, 19b-20 is a text which does not appear in some of the early manuscripts of Luke. Some scholars, therefore, believe that it is an interpolation, a comparison of the accounts given in the Gospels and 1 Corinthians is shown in the table below, with text from the ASV
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Lent
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Lent is a solemn religious observance in the Christian liturgical calendar that begins on Ash Wednesday and ends approximately six weeks later, before Easter Sunday. The purpose of Lent is the preparation of the believer through prayer, doing penance, mortifying the flesh, repentance of sins, almsgiving and this event is observed in the Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Methodist, and Roman Catholic Churches. Some Anabaptist and evangelical churches also observe the Lenten season, in Lent, many Christians commit to fasting, as well as giving up certain luxuries in order to replicate the sacrifice of Jesus Christ’s journey into the desert for 40 days. Many Christians also add a Lenten spiritual discipline, such as reading a daily devotional or praying through a Lenten calendar, the Stations of the Cross, a devotional commemoration of Christs carrying the Cross and of his execution, are often observed. Throughout Christendom, some adherents mark the season with the abstention from the consumption of meat. The English word Lent is a form of the Old English word lenten, meaning spring season. A dated term in German, lenz, is also related, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the shorter form seems to be a derivative of *laŋgo- long. And may possibly have reference to the lengthening of the days as characterizing the season of spring. The origin of the -en element is clear, it may simply be a suffix, or lencten may originally have been a compound of *laŋgo- long. In languages spoken where Christianity was earlier established, such as Greek and Latin, in modern, Greek the term is Σαρακοστή, derived from the earlier Τεσσαρακοστή, meaning fortieth. In other languages, the name used refers to the activity associated with the season, thus it is called fasting period in Czech, German, and Norwegian, and it is called great fast in Polish and Russian. The terms used in Filipino are kuwaresma and Mahál na Araw, various Christian denominations calculate the 40 days of Lent differently. The way they observe Lent also differs, in the Roman Rite, the definition of Lent varies according to different documents. Lent ends on either Holy Thursday or Good Friday, though some sources try to reconcile this with the phrase forty days by excluding Sundays and extending Lent through Holy Saturday no official documents support this interpretation. The day for beginning the Lenten fast is the following Monday, the special Ash Wednesday fast is transferred to the first Friday of the Ambrosian Lent. The period of Lent observed in the Eastern Catholic Churches corresponds to that in churches of Eastern Christianity that have similar traditions. In the Byzantine Rite, i. e. the Eastern Orthodox Great Lent is the most important fasting season in the church year, Great Lent is broken only after the Paschal Divine Liturgy. The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains the traditional Churchs teaching on fasting, the rules for lenten fasting are the monastic rules
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Maundy Thursday
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The English chrism derives from Koine Greek via Latin and Old French. In Greek, khrîsma was originally the verbal noun of χρίειν, by extension, along with khrîma, khrîstai, and later khrísma, it came to be used for the anointing oil or ointment itself. Khrísma came into Latin as chrisma, which appears in the works of Tertullian and this was adopted directly into Old English as crisma, which developed into Middle English crisme and various related spellings. In Old French, the original Latin was conflated with cramum, developing into cresme, the spelling chrism after the Latin original was generally adopted in the 16th century, after which cream came to be restricted to its present meaning. The Proto-Indo-European root from which the Greek term derived has been reconstructed as *ghrei- and this is cognate with Sanskrit ghṛtə and Hindi ghī, as well as Lithuanian grejù, griẽti, Middle Low German grēme, Old English grīma, English grime, and possibly Phrygian gegreimenan. Multiple early Christian documents discuss the ordinance or several ceremonies. explained in the Apostolical Constitutions of chrism, including documents by Theophilus, cyril states that the ointment is the seal of the covenants of baptism and God’s promises to the Christian who is anointed. He says, Having been counted worthy of this Holy Chrism, ye are called Christians, for before you were deemed worthy of this grace, ye had properly no right to this title, but were advancing on your way towards being Christians. Chrism is essential for the Catholic Sacrament of Confirmation/Chrismation, and is used in the sacraments of Baptism. Those to be confirmed or chrismated, after receiving the laying on of hands, are anointed on the head by the bishop or priest, in baptism, if the person baptized is not to be immediately confirmed or chrismated, the minister anoints them with chrism. Newly ordained priests are anointed with chrism on the palms of their hands and it is also used in the consecration of objects such as churches and altars. Before the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, chrism had to be used to consecrate patens and chalices as well. The Sign of the Cross would be made with the chrism on the parts the chalice and paten where the Eucharist would rest. The chalice and paten would need to be consecrated with the chrism again if they were re-gilded and this ritual could only be performed by a Bishop or a priest with the faculties to do so. According to the rubrics, a simple blessing suffices, however, it is still permitted that the bishop performs the consecration with chrism. Chrism is made of oil and is scented with a sweet perfume. The oil of catechumens and the oil of the sick are blessed at this Mass. These holy oils are stored in special vessels known as chrismaria. When the oils are distributed to a priest for him to use in his ministry they are kept in a vessel with three compartments, known as an oil stock
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Myrrhbearers
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The term traditionally refers to the women with myrrh who came to the tomb of Christ early in the morning to find it empty. In Western Christianity, the two women at the tomb, Three Marys or other variants are the normally used. Also included are Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, who took the body of Jesus down from the cross, embalmed it with myrrh and aloes, wrapped it in clean linen, and placed it in a new tomb. The women followed Jesus during his ministry in Galilee, providing for him. They remained faithful to him even during the most dangerous time of his arrest and execution, and not only stood by the cross, because of the impending Sabbath, it was necessary for the burial preparations to be brief. Jewish custom at the time dictated that mourners return to the every day for three days. Once the Sabbath had passed, the women returned at the earliest possible moment and it was at this point that the Resurrection was revealed to them, and they were commissioned to go and tell the Apostles. They were, in effect, the apostles to the Apostles, for this reason, the myrrhbearing women, especially Mary Magdalene, are sometimes referred to as Equal to the Apostles. Joseph of Arimathea was a disciple of Jesus, but secretly and he went to Pontius Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus and, together with Nicodemus, hurriedly prepared the body for burial. He donated his own new tomb for the burial, a native of Arimathea, he was apparently a man of wealth, and probably a member of the Sanhedrin. Joseph was a counselor, who waited for the kingdom of God. Luke describes him as a man, and just. Nicodemus was a Pharisee and also a member of the Sanhedrin, who is first mentioned early in the Gospel of John, when he visits Jesus to listen to his teachings, but he comes by night out of fear. He is mentioned again when he states the teaching of the Law of Moses concerning the arrest of Jesus during the Feast of Tabernacles and he is last mentioned following the Crucifixion, when he and Joseph of Arimathea prepare the body of Jesus for burial. There is an apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus that purports to be written by him, in the Eastern Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches, the Third Sunday of Pascha is called the Sunday of the Myrrhbearers. Since this day commemorates events surrounding not only the Resurrection, but also the entombment of Christ and these include the Troparion of the Day, The noble Joseph. And the Doxastikhon at the Vespers Aposticha, Joseph together with Nicodemus, the week that follows is called the Week of the Myrrhbearers and the Troparion mentioned above is used every day at the Canonical Hours and the Divine Liturgy. The Doxastikhon is repeated again at Vespers on Wednesday and Friday evenings, many of the Myrrhbearers also have separate feast days on which they are commemorated individually in the Menaion
