1.
Egyptian Hall
–
The Egyptian Hall in Piccadilly, London, was an exhibition hall built in the ancient Egyptian style in 1812, to the designs of Peter Frederick Robinson. In 1905 the building was demolished and is now a Starbucks Coffee Shop, the Egyptian Hall in Piccadilly, London, commissioned by William Bullock as a museum to house his collection, was completed in 1812 at a cost of £16,000. But, unlike Bullocks Egyptian temple in Piccadilly, Hopes neoclassical façade betrayed no hint of the Egyptianizing decor it contained, the plans for the hall were drawn up by architect Peter Frederick Robinson. Bullock, who had displayed his collection in Sheffield and Liverpool before opening in London, used the hall to put on various spectaculars, the museum was variously referred to as the London Museum, the Egyptian Hall or Museum, or Bullocks Museum. The Hall was a success, with an exhibition of Napoleonic era relics in 1816 including Napoleons carriage taken at Waterloo being seen by about 220,000 visitors. In 1819, Bullock sold his ethnographical and natural history collection at auction, subsequently the Hall became a major venue for the exhibiting of works of art, it had the advantage of being almost the only London venue able to exhibit really large works. In 1821, exhibitions included Giovanni Battista Belzonis show of the tomb of Seti I in 1821, in 1822, a family of Laplanders with their reindeer were imported to be displayed in front of a painted backdrop, and give short sleigh-rides to visitors. The bookseller George Lackington became owner of the Hall in 1825 and went on to use the facilities to show panoramas, art exhibits, the Hall became especially associated with watercolours. Turner exhibited at the Hall for a number of years and it was used as a venue for exhibitions by the Society of Painters in Water Colours. In the Dudley Gallery at the Egyptian Hall, the collection of pictures belonging to the Earl of Dudley was deposited during the erection of his own gallery at Dudley House in Park Lane. The room gave its name to the Dudley Gallery Art Society when they were founded in 1861 and it was the venue chosen for their first exhibitions by the influential New English Art Club. The hall was used principally for popular entertainments and lectures, here Albert Smith related his ascent of Mont Blanc, illustrated by some cleverly dioramic views of the Alpine peaks. By the end of the 19th century, the Hall was also associated with magic and spiritualism, in 1873 William Morton took on the management of the Hall and modified it for his protegees, Maskelyne and Cooke, whose run there lasted a remarkable 31 years. The Hall became known as Englands Home of Mystery, many illusions were staged including the exposition of fraudulent spiritualistic manifestations then being practised by charlatans. The final performance was on 5 January 1905, in 1905 the building was demolished to make room for blocks of flats and offices at 170–173 Piccadilly. Muirhead Bone captured its demise in his work The Dissolution of Egyptian Hall, the Maskelynes relocated to the St. Georges Hall in Langham Place, which became known as Maskelynes Theatre. / External photograph History and internal and external images History of the Egyptian Hall
Egyptian Hall
–
The facade of the Egyptian Hall in 1815
Egyptian Hall
–
The Great Room of the Egyptian Hall as redesigned by
J. B. Papworth, 1819
Egyptian Hall
–
Advertisement for Arcana at the Egyptian Hall, in 1888
2.
Architectural
–
Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
Architectural
–
Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of
Florence Cathedral in the early 15th-century, not only transformed the building and the city, but also the role and status of the architect.
Architectural
–
Section of
Brunelleschi 's dome drawn by the architect
Cigoli (c. 1600)
Architectural
–
The
Parthenon,
Athens,
Greece, "the supreme example among architectural sites."
(Fletcher).
Architectural
–
The
Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned by
Charles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin
3.
Ancient Egypt
–
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
Ancient Egypt
–
The
Great Sphinx and the
pyramids of Giza are among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt.
Ancient Egypt
–
A typical Naqada II jar decorated with gazelles. (Predynastic Period)
Ancient Egypt
–
The
Narmer Palette depicts the unification of the Two Lands.
4.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
Napoleon
–
The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries, by
Jacques-Louis David, 1812
Napoleon
–
Imperial coat of arms
Napoleon
–
Napoleon's father
Carlo Buonaparte was
Corsica 's representative to the court of
Louis XVI of France.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte, aged 23, Lieutenant-Colonel of a battalion of Corsican
Republican volunteers
5.
Admiral Nelson
–
Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronté KB was a British flag officer in the Royal Navy. He was wounded several times in combat, losing most of one arm in the attempt to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife. He was shot and killed during his victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous Norfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle, Maurice Suckling and he rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command in 1778. He developed a reputation in the service through his valour and firm grasp of tactics but suffered periods of illness. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service and he fought in several minor engagements off Toulon and was important in the capture of Corsica and subsequent diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797, he distinguished himself while in command of HMS Captain at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. The following year, he won a victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile. In 1801, he was dispatched to the Baltic and won another victory and he subsequently commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon and, after their escape, chased them to the West Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England, he took over the Cádiz blockade in 1805, on 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port, and Nelsons fleet engaged them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle was Britains greatest naval victory, but during the action Nelson and his body was brought back to England where he was accorded a state funeral. Nelsons death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britains most heroic figures, numerous monuments, including Nelsons Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have been created in his memory and his legacy remains highly influential. Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September 1758 in a rectory in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England and he was named after his godfather Horatio Walpole then 2nd Baron Walpole, of Wolterton. His mother, who died on 26 December 1767, when he was nine years old, was a great-niece of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain. She lived in the village of Barsham, Suffolk, and married the Reverend Edmund Nelson at Beccles church, Suffolk, Nelsons aunt, Alice Nelson was the wife of Reverend Robert Rolfe, Rector of Hilborough, Norfolk and grandmother of Sir Robert Monsey Rolfe. Rolfe twice served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, Nelson attended Paston Grammar School, North Walsham, until he was 12 years old, and also attended King Edward VI’s Grammar School in Norwich. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training, early in his service, Nelson discovered that he suffered from seasickness, a chronic complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life. He twice crossed the Atlantic, before returning to serve under his uncle as the commander of Sucklings longboat, at his nephews request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition as coxswain to Commander Lutwidge aboard the converted bomb vessel HMS Carcass
Admiral Nelson
–
Vice Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson, by
Lemuel Francis Abbott
Admiral Nelson
–
Captain
Maurice Suckling
Admiral Nelson
–
Captain Horatio Nelson, painted by
John Francis Rigaud in 1781, with Fort San Juan—the scene of his most notable achievement to date—in the background. The painting itself was begun and nearly finished prior to the battle, when Nelson held the rank of lieutenant; when Nelson returned, the artist added the new captain's gold-braided sleeves.
Admiral Nelson
–
Lady Nelson, Nelson's wife, formerly Frances "Fanny" Nisbet of the island of
Nevis,
West Indies. A painting of the British school circa 1800, formerly attributed to
Richard Cosway, from an earlier copy.
6.
Battle of the Nile
–
The British fleet was led in the battle by Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson, they decisively defeated the French under Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys dAigalliers. Bonaparte sought to invade Egypt as the first step in a campaign against British India and he chased the French for more than two months, on several occasions only missing them by a matter of hours. Bonaparte was aware of Nelsons pursuit and enforced absolute secrecy about his destination and he was able to capture Malta and then land in Egypt without interception by the British naval forces. With the French army ashore, the French fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay,20 miles northeast of Alexandria, Commander Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys dAigalliers believed that he had established a formidable defensive position. The British fleet arrived off Egypt on 1 August and discovered Brueyss dispositions and his ships advanced on the French line and split into two divisions as they approached. One cut across the head of the line and passed between the anchored French and the shore, while the other engaged the seaward side of the French fleet. Trapped in a crossfire, the leading French warships were battered into surrender during a fierce battle, while the centre succeeded in repelling the initial British attack. As British reinforcements arrived, the centre came under renewed assault and, at 22,00, the battle reversed the strategic situation between the two nations forces in the Mediterranean and entrenched the Royal Navy in the dominant position that it retained for the rest of the war. It also encouraged other European countries to turn against France, and was a factor in the outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition. Bonapartes army was trapped in Egypt, and Royal Navy dominance off the Syrian coast contributed significantly to its defeat at the Siege of Acre in 1799 which preceded Bonapartes return to Europe. Nelson had been wounded in the battle, but he was proclaimed a hero across Europe and was subsequently made Baron Nelson—although he was dissatisfied with his rewards. His captains were highly praised and went on to form the nucleus of the legendary Nelsons Band of Brothers. The legend of the battle has remained prominent in the popular consciousness, despite significant efforts, British control of Northern European waters rendered these ambitions impractical in the short term, and the Royal Navy remained firmly in control of the Atlantic Ocean. However, the French navy was dominant in the Mediterranean, following the withdrawal of the British fleet after the outbreak of war between Britain and Spain in 1796. During the spring of 1798, Bonaparte assembled more than 35,000 soldiers in Mediterranean France and Italy and he also formed the Commission des Sciences et des Arts, a body of scientists and engineers intended to establish a French colony in Egypt. On 9 June, the fleet arrived off Malta, then under the ownership of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, Bonaparte demanded that his fleet be permitted entry to the fortified harbour of Valletta. When the Knights refused, the French general responded by ordering a large invasion of the Maltese Islands. While Bonaparte was sailing to Malta, the Royal Navy re-entered the Mediterranean for the first time in more than a year and this squadron, consisting of three ships of the line and three frigates, was entrusted to Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson
Battle of the Nile
–
"The Destruction of
L'Orient at the Battle of the Nile"
George Arnald, 1827,
National Maritime Museum, in
Greenwich,
London,
England
Battle of the Nile
–
Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson,
Lemuel Francis Abbott, 1800,
National Maritime Museum. Visible on his cocked hat is the
aigrette presented by the Ottoman Sultan as a reward for the victory at the Nile
Battle of the Nile
–
François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers artist unknown,
Palace of Versailles
Battle of the Nile
–
Battle of the Nile, Augt 1st 1798,
Thomas Whitcombe, 1816,
National Maritime Museum. The British fleet bears down on the French line.
7.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Self-portrait of Bernini, c. 1623
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Apollo and Daphne (1622–25)
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Baldacchino in
St. Peter's Basilica
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Bust of Cardinal Armand de Richelieu (1640–41)
8.
Piazza Navona
–
Piazza Navona is a piazza in Rome, Italy. It is built on the site of the Stadium of Domitian, built in 1st century AD, the ancient Romans went there to watch the agones, and hence it was known as Circus Agonalis. It is believed that time the name changed to in avone to navone. Piazza Navona has two other fountains, at the southern end is the Fontana del Moro with a basin and four Tritons sculpted by Giacomo della Porta to which, in 1673, Bernini added a statue of a Moor, or African, wrestling with a dolphin. At the northern end is the Fountain of Neptune also created by Giacomo della Porta, during its history, the piazza has hosted theatrical events and other ephemeral activities. From 1652 until 1866, when the festival was suppressed, it was flooded on every Saturday and Sunday in August in elaborate celebrations of the Pamphilj family. The pavement level was raised in the 19th century, and in 1869 the market was moved to the nearby Campo de Fiori, a Christmas market is held in the piazza. During June 2008, Ron Howard directed several scenes of the adaptation of Angels & Demons on the southern section of the piazza. The piazza is featured in scenes of director Mike Nichols 1970 adaptation of Joseph Hellers novel. The Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi was used in the 1990 film Coins in the Fountain, the characters threw coins into the fountain as they made wishes. The Trevi Fountain was used in the 1954 version of the film, the piazza is featured in Eugene Levys Once Upon A Crime film. In the early hours of 3 September 2011, the Fontana del Moro was damaged by a vandal, roth, Leland M. Understanding Architecture, Its Elements, History, and Meaning. Birds eye view of Piazza Navona, virtual Tour of Piazza Navona Bernini Fountains Video Introduction
Piazza Navona
–
Piazza Navona 2013
Piazza Navona
–
Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi on Piazza Navona 2013
Piazza Navona
–
The Piazza looking south
Piazza Navona
–
Fountain of the four Rivers with Egyptian
obelisk, in the middle of Piazza Navona
9.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
10.
Stillorgan
–
Stillorgan, formerly a village in its own right, is now a suburban area of Dublin in Ireland. Stillorgan is located in Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, and contains many housing estates, shops and other facilities, Stillorgan neighbours other southside districts such as Kilmacud, Mount Merrion, Sandyford, Leopardstown, Dundrum, Blackrock, Goatstown and Foxrock. The suburban region defined as the Stillorgan electoral area of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown and it is popularly believed that the name Stillorgan is either a Danish or Anglo Norman corruption of Teach Lorcan, the house or church of Lorcan, possibly signifying St. Laurence OToole. Another belief is that it is named after a Danish or Irish chief of a similar name, the original Celtic name for Stillorgan was Athnakill – Place of the Church. In the fourteenth century the manor of Stillorgan was held by the Cruise family, from whom it passed to the Derpatrick family and he was one of four sons of an OByrne princess and Murtagh OTuathail, King of the Uí Muirdeaigh III. The N11 road leads out from the city, passing through Stillorgan and it has bypassed Stillorgan centre since the mid-1970s when the Stillorgan Bypass was opened to the east. The N11 hosts the Stillorgan Bus Corridor which runs along the N11 in both directions from St. Stephens Green to Foxrock. Stillorgan is a bus interchange and the Stillorgan QBC is the most heavily used in Ireland, featuring the busiest and most frequent bus route. Aircoach provides a link to the Dublin Airport via Dublin city centre. Stillorgan also has a station on the Luas green line, next to the reservoir and it has a commuter bus link to the shopping centre. The green line is 20 km in length with 22 stops and links Brides Glen, the Luas follows a line similar in some places to the old railway line in the area. Stillorgan railway station opened on 10 July 1854, closed for traffic in 1937. 60 houses were built at Beaufield Park in the 1930s The Merville Estate was built in the 1950s on land belonging to the Jolly family dairy farm, St Laurence’s Park were completed in October 1954. The Stillorgan Bowl opened in December 1963, the first bowling alley in Ireland, the first shopping centre to be built in Ireland opened in Stillorgan in 1966. It was opened by Dickey Rock and it had 3 supermarkets, Powers, Liptons and Quinnsworth. The road in front of the centre was completely lined with cottages built during the early 19th century and, to enable the construction of the centre. They extended from the Christian Brothers school Oatlands College to the end of the Dublin Road, the rubble was used to fill in and level the lands that are now Páirc De Burca, the playing field of Kilmacud Crokes. Discussions have been ongoing for years about expanding and updating the centre
Stillorgan
–
Stillorgan Shopping Centre, first in Ireland
11.
County Kildare
–
County Kildare is a county in Ireland. It is located in the province of Leinster and is part of the Mid-East Region and it is named after the town of Kildare. Kildare County Council is the authority for the county which has a population of 222,130. Kildare is the 24th largest of Irelands 32 counties in area and it is the eighth largest of Leinsters twelve counties in size, and second largest in terms of population. It is bordered by the counties of Carlow, Laois, Meath, Offaly, Dublin, as an inland county, Kildare is a generally lowland region. The countys highest points are the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains bordering to the east, the highest point in Kildare is Cupidstown Hill on the border with Dublin, with the better known Hill of Allen in central Kildare. The county has three rivers running through it, the Barrow, the Liffey and the Boyne. The Grand Canal crosses the county from Lyons on the east to Rathangan, a southern branch joins the Barrow navigation at Athy. The Royal Canal stretches across the north of the county along the border with Meath, the Bog of Allen is a large bog that extends across 958 km2 and into County Kildare, County Meath, County Offaly, County Laois, and County Westmeath. Kildare has 243 km2 of bog mostly located in the south-west and north-west and it is habitat to over 185 plant and animal species. There are 8,472 hectares of Forested land in Kildare,4,056 hectares of this is Coniferous, while there is 2,963 hectares of Broadleaf and the remaining area are Unclassified Species. Coillte and Dúchas currently own 47% of the forestry, coillte run Donadea Forest Park which is in North-Central Kildare. The forest covers 259 hectares of mixed woodland and is the largest forest park in Kildare, Kildare was shired in 1297 and assumed its present borders in 1832, following amendments to remove a number of enclaves and exclaves. The county was the home of the powerful Fitzgerald family, parts of the county were also part of the Pale area around Dublin. Kildare County Council is the authority for the county. The Local Electoral Areas of Kildare are Athy, Celbridge - Leixlip, Maynooth, Kildare - Newbridge, the current council was elected in May 2013. Under the Local Government Reform Act 2014 the towns of Leixlip, Naas, Newbridge, for elections to Dáil Éireann, there are two constituencies in the area of the county, Kildare North, which returns four TDs and Kildare South which returns three TDs. As part of the Mid-East Region, it is within the purview of the Mid-East Regional Authority, for elections to the European Parliament, it is part of the Midlands North-West constituency which returns four MEPs
County Kildare
–
Looking east across the broad plains of South Kildare to the distant Wicklow Hills.
County Kildare
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River Barrow and White's Castle,
Athy
County Kildare
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Horses near Pollardstown Fen
12.
Bath house
–
Public baths originated from a communal need for cleanliness at a time when most people did not have access to private bathing facilities. The term public is not completely accurate, as types of public baths are restricted depending on membership, gender, religious affiliation. As societies have changed, the need for public baths has reduced, Public baths have also become incorporated into the social system as meeting places. As the title suggests, public bathing does not refer only to bathing, in ancient times public bathing included saunas, massages and relaxation therapies, comparable to todays spas. The earliest public baths are found in the ruins in of the Indus Valley Civilization, the bath is housed inside a larger—more elaborate—building and was used for public bathing. The Great Bath and the house of the priest suggest that the Indus had a religion, later gymnasia had indoor basins set overhead, the open maws of marble lions offering showers, and circular pools with tiers of steps for lounging. Bathing was ritualized, becoming an art – of cleansing sands, hot water, hot air in dark vaulted vapor baths, a cooling plunge, cities all over Ancient Greece honored sites where young ephebes stood and splashed water over their bodies. The first public thermae of 19 BC had a rotunda 25 metres across, circled by small rooms, set in a park with artificial river and pool. By AD300 the Baths of Diocletian would cover 140,000 square metres, its soaring granite, Roman baths became something like a cross between an aquacentre and a theme park, with pools, game rooms, gardens, even libraries and theatres. One of the most famous public bath sites is Aquae Sulis in Bath and he also states that In Western Europe only the Finns still practice a truly public bathing habit. Dr. Fagan has done research on public bathing. During the Ottoman Empire public baths were widely used, the baths had both a religious and popular origin deriving from the Quran and the use of steamrooms by the Turks. The Turkish baths also known as the Hammam, was considered a place for gathering in Turkish Culture. The process of Hammam is very similar to that of the Roman bathing, the origin of Japanese bathing is Misogi, ritual purification with water. After Japan imported Buddhist culture, many temples had saunas, which were available for anyone to use for free, in the Heian period, houses of prominent families, such as the families of court nobles or samurai, had baths. The bath had lost its religious significance and instead became leisure, Misogi became Gyōzui, to bathe in a shallow wooden tub. In the 17th century, the first European visitors to Japan recorded the habit of daily baths in sexually mixed groups. Before the mid-19th century, when Western influence increased, nude bathing for men, women
Bath house
–
The
Asser Levy Public Baths in
Manhattan,
New York City (1904-1906, restored 1989-1990)
Bath house
–
Alfred Laliberté 's "Les petits Baigneurs," 1915 restored 1992 at Maisonneuve public baths,
Montreal, Quebec
Bath house
–
Ruins of a Roman bath in
Dion, Greece, showing the under-floor heating system, or
hypocaust
Bath house
–
"Ancient Ruins Used as Public Baths" by
Hubert Robert (1798)
13.
Karlsruhe Synagogue
–
The 1798 Karlsruhe Synagogue is an early building by the influential architect Friedrich Weinbrenner in the city of Karlsruhe. According to David Brownlee, this synagogue was the first large Egyptian building to be erected since antiquity, according to Diana Muir Appelbaum, it was the first public building in the Egyptian revival style. Appelbaum writes that the pair of tall pylons are copied from the temple at Karnak
Karlsruhe Synagogue
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Early image of Karlsruhe synagogue showing Egyptian style pylons
Karlsruhe Synagogue
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Architect Weinbrenner's sketch of the building
14.
Friedrich Weinbrenner
–
Friedrich Weinbrenner was a German architect and city planner admired for his mastery of classical style. Weinbrenner was born in Karlsruhe, and began his career apprenticed to his father and he worked as a builder in Zürich and Lausanne starting from 1788. He arrived to Vienna in 1790 and began his study of architecture, in 1790-91 he studied at the Bauakademie of Vienna and Dresden, then, in 1791-92, spent several months in Berlin where he was exposed to Palladian architecture. Carl Gotthard Langhans, David Gilly and Hans Christian Genelli were influential in the formation of Weinbrenners architectural thought and he spent the years 1792 to 1797 in Italy, where he was part of the circle around Carl Ludwig Fernow in Rome. His study of the ancient buildings of Rome, Pompeii, Herculaneum and, especially and he was among the first German architects to see the early Doric buildings at Paestum. Karlsruhe was established in 1715 to replace a former capital and become the capital of the newly created Grand Duchy of Baden – now a central German state, a generation of architects were trained under his supervision, and in 1825 he helped establish the Polytechnic School in Karlsruhe. With the architects he trained and the publication of his work, most of Weinbrenners buildings were reconstructed in the 1950s following their destruction in the Second World War
Friedrich Weinbrenner
–
Friedrich Weinbrenner
Friedrich Weinbrenner
–
Karlsruhe Protestant Church, 1807-16
Friedrich Weinbrenner
–
Karlsruhe Catholic Church, 1808–14
Friedrich Weinbrenner
–
Karlsruhe Mint, built 1826-27
15.
Hathor
–
Hathor is an Ancient Egyptian goddess who personified the principles of joy, feminine love, and motherhood. She was one of the most important and popular throughout the history of Ancient Egypt. Hathor was worshipped by royalty and common people alike, in tomb paintings, she is often depicted as Mistress of the West, welcoming the dead into the next life. In other roles, she was a goddess of music, dance, foreign lands and she was believed to assist women in childbirth. She was also believed to be the goddess of miners. Hathor is commonly depicted as a cow goddess with horns in which is set a sun disk with Uraeus, twin feathers are also sometimes shown in later periods as well as a menat necklace. The Ancient Egyptians viewed reality as multi-layered in which deities who merge for various reasons, while retaining divergent attributes and myths, were not seen as contradictory but complementary. In a complicated relationship Hathor is at times the mother, daughter and wife of Ra and, like Isis, is at times described as the mother of Horus, the cult of Osiris promised eternal life to those deemed morally worthy. Originally the justified dead, male or female, became an Osiris but by early Roman times females became identified with Hathor, the Ancient Greeks sometimes identified Hathor with the goddess Aphrodite. Hathor is ambiguously depicted until the fourth dynasty, in the historical era Hathor is shown using the imagery of a cow deity. At times they are regarded as one and the goddess, though likely having separate origins. The evidence pointing to the deity being Hathor in particular is based on a passage from the Pyramid texts which states that the Kings apron comes from Hathor, from the Old Kingdom she was also called Lady of the Sycamore in her capacity as a tree deity. Hathor had a relationship with Ra. At times she is the eye of Ra and considered his daughter and she absorbed this role from another cow goddess Mehet-Weret who was the mother of Ra in a creation myth and carried him between her horns. As a mother she gave birth to Ra each morning on the eastern horizon, the Milky Way was seen as a waterway in the heavens, sailed upon by both the sun deity and the moon, leading the ancient Egyptians to describe it as The Nile in the Sky. Hathor also was favoured as a protector in desert regions, as Serabit el-Khadim was where turquoise was mined, Hathors titles included Lady of Turquoise, Mistress of Turquoise, and Lady of Turquoise Country. Hathors identity as a cow, perhaps depicted as such on the Narmer Palette, meant that she identified with another ancient cow-goddess of fertility. The assimilation of Bat, who was associated with the sistrum, in this later form, Hathors cult became centred in Dendera in Upper Egypt and it was led by priestesses and priests who also were dancers, singers and other entertainers
Hathor
–
Cow deities appear on the Kings belt and the top of the
Narmer Palette
Hathor
–
Hathor as a cow, wearing her necklace and showing her sacred eye –
Papyrus of Ani.
Hathor
–
The Milky Way seen as it may have appeared to Ancient Egyptians
Hathor
–
Sculpture of Hathor as a cow, with all of her symbols, the sun disk, the cobra, as well as her necklace and crown.
16.
Fontaine du Fellah
–
It is the work of architect François-Jean Bralle and sculptor Pierre-Nicolas Beauvallet. The Fontaine du Fellah was one of fifteen fountains constructed by Napoleon to provide drinking water to the population of Paris. The fountain was constructed against the wall of what was then the hospital for incurable patients, the sculptural decoration was by Pierre-Nicolas Beauvallet, who also worked on the decoration of the column in Place Vendôme, and made busts of many revolutionary figures. The present statue is a made of Beauvalets original by Jean-François Gechter. The fountain was in working order until 2005, when it was shut down because of leakage into the nearby Vaneau Metro Station, the original of the statue is found in the Vatican Museum in Rome. The figure holds two amphorae, one in each hand, water poured from the amphorae into the semicircular basin below, then through a bronze masqueron in the form of a lions head. The top of the fountain is decorated with an eagle, signifying Napoleons imperial rule, Paris et ses fontaines, de la Renaissance à nos jours, texts assembled by Dominque Massounie, Pauline-Prevost-Marcilhacy and Daniel Rabreau, Délegation a laction artistique de la Ville de Paris. From the Collection Paris et son Patrimoine, directed by Beatrice de Andia, Paris,1995 - Marie-Hélène Levadé et Hugues Marcouyeau, Les fontaines de Paris, leau pour le plaisir - Paris,2008 -
Fontaine du Fellah
–
This statue of the Roman Antinoüs dressed as
Osiris, found in Hadrian's villa in 1739, apparently was the model for the fountain
Fontaine du Fellah
17.
Louis Desaix
–
Louis Charles Antoine Desaix was a French general and military leader. According to the usage of the time, he took the name Louis Charles Antoine Desaix de Veygoux, during his first six years of service, he devoted himself to duty and to military studies. When the French Revolution broke out, he threw himself into the cause of liberty, refusing to emigrate, he joined the staff of Charles Louis Victor de Broglie, prince de Broglie the Jacobin son of prince de Broglie. This nearly cost Desaix his life, but he escaped the guillotine, like many other members of the old ruling classes who had accepted the new order, the instinct of command, joined to native ability, brought Desaix career success. By 1794 he had attained the rank of general of division, during the campaign of 1795 he commanded Jourdans right wing, and during Moreaus invasion of Bavaria, the following year, he held an equally important command. Provisionally appointed commander of the Army of England, Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary force intended for Egypt. It was his division bore the brunt of the Mamluk attack at the battle of the Pyramids. Amongst the fellaheen he acquired the significant appellation of the Just Sultan, when command passed to Kléber, Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany Bonaparte. However, it was months before he could join the new First Consul, the campaign of 1800 was close to its climax when Desaix at last arrived in Italy. He was immediately assigned to the command of a corps of two infantry divisions, three days later, detached, with Boudets division, at Rivalta, he heard the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the initiative he marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonapartes staff officer and he arrived with Boudets division at the moment when the Austrians were victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, There is yet time to win another battle and he led his three regiments straight against the enemys centre. At the moment of victory Desaix was killed by a musket ball, Louis Charles Antoine Desaix was killed the same day his good friend and comrade, governor-general of Egypt Jean Baptiste Kléber, was assassinated in Cairo. Napoleon paid tribute to Desaix by erecting monuments to him, one on the Place Dauphine, the memorial in the Place des Victoires was later destroyed. A monumental tomb with sculptures by Jean Guillaume Moitte serves as his final resting-place at the Great St Bernard Hospice, moreover, his name is written on a face of the Arc de Triomphe, with other great military figures of the French Revolution. There is also a fort, in Fort-de-France, Martinique, that is named Fort Desaix in his honor. A street, Rue Desaix, and a parallel cul-de-sac, Square Desaix, in the arrondissement of Paris. Desaix Boulevard is a street in the Bayou St. John / Fairgrounds district of New Orleans
Louis Desaix
–
Louis Charles Antoine Desaix, painted by
Andrea Appiani.
Louis Desaix
–
Desaix in the uniform of a captain of the 46th infantry regiment in 1792, by
Charles de Steuben.
Louis Desaix
–
Louis Charles Antoine's baptismal certificate.
Louis Desaix
–
"Napoleon is presented the body of Desaix" by
Jean Broc.
18.
Place des Victoires
–
The Place des Victoires is a circular place in Paris, located a short distance northeast from the Palais Royal and straddling the border between the 1st and the 2nd arrondissements. The Place des Victoires is at the confluence of six streets, Rue de la Feuillade, Rue Vide Gousset, Rue dAboukir, Rue Étienne Marcel, Rue Croix des Petits Champs, and Rue Catinat. At the center of the Place des Victoires is a monument in honor of King Louis XIV. A marshal of France, François de la Feuillade, vicomte dAubusson, on his own speculative initiative, mansarts design, of 1685, articulated the squares unified façades according to a formula utilised in some Parisian hôtels particuliers. However, because the work was incomplete at the time of the unveiling of the monument. By 1692, the Place des Victoires was pierced by six streets, the sculptor was Martin Desjardins, part of the team that was working cooperatively at the Château of Versailles and its gardens. The grandiose memorial that had begun to embarrass Louis XIV himself would eventually be destroyed in 1792, in 1793, the Place was renamed Place des Victoires-Nationaux, and a wooden pyramid was erected on the site of the destroyed statue. In 1810, under the rule of Napoléon I, a statue of the General Louis Desaix replaced the pyramid. However, following the abdication of Napoléon, the statue was taken down, in 1828, the restored Bourbon king, Charles X, commissioned the current equestrian statue, which was sculpted by François Joseph Bosio. Louis XIV, dressed as a Roman emperor, sits on a horse rearing on its hind legs. An iron fence encircles the twelve-meter-high statue, the area surrounding the Place des Victoires is now an upmarket neighborhood. Fashion designers Kenzo and Cacharel have boutiques there, as have the ready-to-wear chains Maje, the German Forum for Art History is on the Place and the French Institut national dhistoire de lart is in nearby Galerie Colbert. The Place des Victoires is, It is served by lines 3,4,7, media related to Place des Victoires at Wikimedia Commons
Place des Victoires
–
View of the Place des Victoires.
Place des Victoires
–
Statue of Louis XIV in the center of the Place des Victoires.
Place des Victoires
–
Desjardins' monument
19.
Strand, London
–
Strand is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, Central London. The roads name comes from the Old English strond, meaning the edge of a river, the street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries, with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river. These included Essex House, Arundel House, Somerset House, Savoy Palace, Durham House, the aristocracy moved to the West End over the 17th century, following which the Strand became well known for coffee shops, restaurants and taverns. The street was a point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century. At the east end of the street are two churches, St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes. Several authors, poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand, including Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson, the street has been commemorated in the song Lets All Go Down the Strand, now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall. The street is the link between the two cities of Westminster and London. It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square, parallel to the River Thames, traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych, connected at both ends to the Strand. The road marks the boundary of the Covent Garden district. The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway, then in 1185 as Stronde and it is formed from the Old English word strond, meaning the edge of a river. Initially it referred to the bank of the once much wider Thames. The name was applied to the road itself. In the 13th century it was known as Densemanestret or street of the Danes, Strand Bridge was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction, it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo. London Bus routes 6,23,139 and 176 all run along the Strand, as do numerous night bus services. During Roman Britain, what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester, known as Iter VIII on the Antonine Itinerary, and it was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD, and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually moved the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, and the area returned to fields. In the Middle Ages, the Strand became the route between the separate settlements of the City of London and the royal Palace of Westminster. The landmark Eleanors Cross was built in the 13th century at the end of the Strand at Charing Cross by Edward I commemorating his wife Eleanor of Castile
Strand, London
–
Strand at
Charing Cross in 2008, looking towards Trafalgar Square and
Admiralty Arch
Strand, London
–
This 1593 map shows "The Strande" as the principal route – parallel to the River, from
the City in the east, to
Whitehall in the west.
Strand, London
–
A 19th-century print showing
St Mary-Le-Strand and the Strand front of
Somerset House.
Strand, London
–
A
Routemaster on
London Buses route 1 heading down the Strand in 1981.
St Clement Danes church is in the background.
20.
Cavetto
–
A cavetto is a concave moulding with a regular curved profile that is part of a circle, widely used in architecture as well as furniture, picture frames, metalwork and other decorative arts. In describing vessels and similar shapes in pottery, metalwork and related fields, the word comes from Italian, as a diminutive of cave, from the Latin for hollow. A vernacular alternative is cove, most often used where interior walls curve at the top to make a transition to the roof, the cavetto moulding is the opposite of the convex, bulging, ovolo, which is equally common in the tradition of Western classical architecture. Both bring the forward, and are often combined with other elements of moulding. Usually they include a curve through about a quarter-circle, a concave moulding of about a full semi-circle is known as a scotia. Only a minor element of decoration in architecture, the prominent cavetto cornice is a common feature of the ancient architecture of Egypt. Ancient Egyptian architecture made use of large cavetto mouldings as a cornice, with only a short fillet above. Many types of Egyptian capitals for columns are essentially cavettos running round the shaft and these include the types known as bell capitals or papyrus capitals. These features are often reproduced in Egyptian Revival architecture, as in the Egyptian Building in Richmond, inspired by this precedent, it was then revived by Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. Often an essentially cavetto section is decorated, in Gothic architecture often smothering the shape beneath. There are two forms, depending on which curve is uppermost, in the cyma recta the cavetto is on top and these are called an apophyge, or concave sweep. In plates and other shapes, cavetto is used for the curving area linking the base. This is the case whether the rim is a flat surface. Normally the term refers to the top surface of the vessel, if the underside is meant, that may be described as under the cavetto, under-cavetto and so forth. The cavetto is very often left undecorated, but may have decoration of a different sort from the middle or a rim. In complicated pottery shapes, where the vocabulary of mouldings is appropriate. Gibson, Alex M. Meyers,2012, University of Texas Press, ISBN0292749821,9780292749825, google books
Cavetto
–
Moldings from 1728
Table of architecture in the
Cyclopedia
Cavetto
–
Cavetto molding and resulting shadow pattern
21.
Cornice
–
A simple cornice may be formed just with a crown molding. The function of the cornice of a building is to throw rainwater free of the building’s walls. In residential building practice, this function is handled by projecting gable ends, roof eaves, however, house eaves may also be called cornices if they are finished with decorative molding. The projecting cornice of a building may appear to be heavy and hence in danger of falling, particularly on commercial buildings, a rake is an architectural term for an eave or cornice which runs along the gable end of the roof of a modern residential structure. It may also be called a sloping cornice, a raking cornice, the trim and rafters at this edge are called rake-, verge-, or barge-board or verge- or barge-rafter. It is a sloped timber on the facing edge of a roof running between the ridge and the eave. On a typical house, any gable will have two rakes, one on each sloped side, the rakes are supported by a series of lookouts and may be enclosed with a rake fascia board on the outside facing edge and a rake soffit along the bottom. The cornices of a residential building will usually be one of three types, a box cornice, a close or closed cornice, or an open cornice. Box cornices enclose the cornice of the building with what is essentially a narrow box. A box cornice may further be divided into either the box cornice or the wide box cornice type. A narrow box cornice is one in which the projection of the rafter serves as a surface for the soffit board as well as the fascia trim. This is possible if the slope of the roof is fairly steep, box cornices often have ventilation screens laid over openings cut in the soffits in order to allow air to circulate within the cornice. A close, closed, or snub cornice is one in there is no projection of the rafters beyond the walls of the building. This type of cornice is easy to construct, but provides little aid in dispersing water away from the building, in an open cornice, the shape of the cornice is similar to that of a wide box cornice except that both the lookouts and the soffit are absent. It is a lower-cost treatment that requires fewer materials, and may not have a fascia board. Ancient Egyptian architectural tradition made special use of large cavetto mouldings as a cornice, with only a short fillet above, inspired by this precedent, it was then revived by Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. The cavetto took the place of the cymatium in many Etruscan temples, often painted with vertical tongue patterns, additional more-obscure varieties of cornice include the architrave cornice, bracketed cornice, and modillion cornice. A cornice return is a detail that occurs where the horizontal cornice of a roof connects to the rake of a gable
Cornice
–
An example of a cornice, above large
corbels, along the top of the Wheeling-Pittsburgh Steel Building in downtown
Wheeling, West Virginia,
United States.
Cornice
–
A wide box cornice with lookouts
Cornice
–
A close cornice
Cornice
–
An open cornice
22.
Capital (column)
–
In architecture the capital or chapiter forms the topmost member of a column. It mediates between the column and the load thrusting down upon it, broadening the area of the supporting surface. The capital, projecting on each side as it rises to support the abacus, joins the usually square abacus and the usually circular shaft of the column. The capital may be convex, as in the Doric order, concave, as in the bell of the Corinthian order, or scrolling out. These form the three types on which all capitals are based. The Composite order, established in the 16th century on a hint from the Arch of Titus, from the highly visible position it occupies in all colonnaded monumental buildings, the capital is often selected for ornamentation, and is often the clearest indicator of the architectural order. The treatment of its detail may be an indication of the buildings date, the decoration underneath the bracket capital comes from art and designs from the many cultures that the Persian Empire conquered and assimilated including Egypt, Babylon, and Lydia. But of course these decorations below the bracket capital serve no purpose and are simply there for show. The earliest Aegean capital is shown in the frescoes at Knossos in Crete, it was of the convex type. The Doric capital is the simplest of the five Classical orders, it consists of the abacus above an ovolo molding, the sloping side of the echinus becomes flatter in the later examples, and in the Colosseum at Rome forms a quarter round. In the Ionic capital, spirally coiled volutes are inserted between the abacus and the ovolo. In the Ionic capitals of the archaic Temple of Artemis at Ephesus the width of the abacus is twice that of its depth, a century later, in the temple on the Ilissus, the abacus has become square. It has been suggested that the foliage of the Greek Corinthian capital was based on the Acanthus spinosus, not all architectural foliage is as realistic as Isaac Wares however. The leaves are carved in two ranks or bands, like one leafy cup set within another. The various orders are discussed in Vitruvius books iii and iv, Vitruvius describes Roman practice in a practical fashion. He gives some tales about the invention of each of the Orders, the increasing adoption of composite capitals signalled a trend towards freer, more inventive capitals in Late Antiquity. The top of an anta is often decorated, usually with bands of floral motifs. The designs often respond to an order of columns, but usually with a different set of design principles, in order not to protude excessively from the wall surface, these structures tend to have a rather flat surface, forming brick-shaped capitals, called anta capitals
Capital (column)
–
Ionic capital, from the temple of
Athena Polias,
Priene,
Ionia, in a 19th-century engraving
Capital (column)
–
Column capital from the magnificent ancient Persian city of
Persepolis
Capital (column)
–
Decorated capitals inside
Ramesseum, part of the Theban Necropolis, Luxor, Egypt.
Capital (column)
–
Neo classical columns and capitals of
Panthéon de Paris.
23.
Thomas Hope (1769-1831)
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His sons included Henry Thomas Hope and Alexander Beresford Hope. The eldest son of Jan Hope, Thomas was descended from a branch of an old Scottish family who for generations were merchant bankers known as the Hopes of Amsterdam. He inherited from his mother a love of the arts, which the efforts of his father and grandfather made possible by acquiring an enormous wealth and his father spent his final years turning his summer home Groenendaal Park in Heemstede into a grand park of sculpture open to the public. After he fled to London with his brothers to avoid the French occupation of the Netherlands from 1795–1810 and he shared his art collection as part of the Hope & Co. partnership with his cousin Henry Hope. This cousin was just completing work on his Villa Welgelegen further up the road, missing his father and grandfather, and preferring the company of his mother and brothers to his uncles in Amsterdam, Thomas did not enter the family business. During his grand tour through Europe, Asia and Africa, Hope interested himself especially in architecture and sculpture, Thomas Hope returned to the Hague when his mother died in 1794. In their haste to remove their art collections to the safety of London, the Hopes left their houses, summer homes and parks full of decorations, furniture. Later, after the French occupation, Thomass younger brother Adrian Elias would return to live at Groenendaal Park full-time, cousin Henry always hoped to return to his home, Villa Welgelegen, but he died in 1811 before King Willem restored Dutch sovereignty in 1814. The Hopes established a residence in London in Duchess Street, Cavendish Square, experienced from his extensive travel, Thomas Hope enjoyed the cosmopolitan atmosphere of London, while his younger brothers missed their home in the Netherlands. He decorated the house in an elaborate style, from drawings made himself with each room taking on a different style influenced by the countries he had visited. In essence, the art collections of Hope & Co. In the same way he had done with Villa Welgelegen, Henry Hope opened the house as a semi-public museum, the house museum included three vase galleries filled with South Italian vases the Hopes purchased from Sir William Hamiltons second vase collection. Thomas Hope did not settle in London, however and he took up his grand tour where he left off, and in 1795 he began his extensive tours of the Ottoman Empire which included visits to Turkey, Rhodes, Egypt, Syria, and Arabia. During these travels, he was given free rein by the Hope & Co, after his marriage to Louisa de la Poer Beresford in 1806, Hope acquired a country seat at Deepdene, near Dorking in Surrey. Here, surrounded by his large collections of paintings, sculpture and antiques, among the luxuries suggested by his fine taste, and provided to his guests, was a miniature library in several languages in each bedroom. He also gave frequent employment to artists, sculptors and craftsmen and he was the father of Henry Thomas Hope, art patron and politician and Alexander James Beresford Beresford Hope, author and politician. Hope was eager to advance public awareness of historical painting and design, in pursuit of his scholarly projects, he began sketching furniture, room interiors and costumes, and publishing books with his accompanying scholarly texts. Hopes furniture designs were in the pseudo-classical manner generally called English Empire and it was sometimes extravagant, and often heavy, but was much more restrained than the wilder and later flights of Thomas Sheraton in this style
Thomas Hope (1769-1831)
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Hope in oriental dress; colour print after the portrait of 1798 by
William Beechey
24.
Regency style
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The period coincides with the Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the United States and the French Empire style. The style is strictly the late phase of Georgian architecture, and follows closely on from the Neo-classical style of the preceding years, the Georgian period takes its name from the four Kings George of the period 1714–1830, including King George IV. After the decisive victory at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 ended the wars for good, most Regency architecture comes from this period. Many buildings of the Regency style have a painted stucco facade. In town centres the dominance of the house continued. Elegant wrought iron balconies and bow windows came into fashion as part of this style, further out of town the suburban villa detached house was popular in a range of sizes. For large country houses a range of styles were available. Ashridge, Belvoir Castle and Fonthill Abbey, were all by James Wyatt, sezincote House, designed by Samuel Pepys Cockerell, is a Neo-Mughal country house for a nabob returned from British India. Brighton Pavilion by John Nash, the home of the Prince Regent, is Indian on the exterior. Until the Church Building Act of 1818, church building had been at a low ebb for over 50 years. The Act allocated some money for new churches required to reflect changes in population. Building of Commissioners churches gathered pace in the 1820s, and continued until the 1850s, the early churches, falling into the Regency period, show a high proportion of Gothic Revival buildings, along with the classically inspired. Strict Greek Revival buildings were mixed with those continuing the modified Baroque, the period saw a great increase in public buildings, at both the national and local level. In London, three bridges were built over the Thames between 1813 and 1819, Vauxhall Bridge, Waterloo Bridge and Southwark Bridge, all financed by toll charges. Shops began to be included systematically into newly planned developments, and he had many pupils who disseminated his style, or in the case of Pugin rebelled against it. In London itself there are streets in the style in the areas around Victoria, Pimlico, Mayfair. John Soane was more individualistic, one of a number of European experimenters in Neoclassicism, the public buildings of George Dance the Younger, City Architect of London from 1768, were precursors of the Regency style, though he designed little himself after 1798. Robert Smirke could produce both classical and Gothic designs, and also worked on public buildings
Regency style
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Park Crescent, London
Regency style
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Cumberland Terrace, London
Regency style
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Regency headquarters of
Cheltenham Borough Council
Regency style
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The Parade
Royal Leamington Spa
25.
The Tombs
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For the 2012 Clive Cussler novel, see The Tombs, for the 1991 Argentine film, see The Tombs. The original Tombs, officially known as the Halls of Justice, was built in 1838 in the Egyptian Revival style and it was a replacement for the colonial era Bridewell Prison, located in todays City Hall Park. The new structure incorporated material from the Bridewell, mainly granite, the design by John Haviland was allegedly inspired by a picture of an Egyptian tomb that appeared in John Lloyd Stephens Incidents of Travel in Egypt, although this appears to be untrue. The building was 253 feet,3 inches in length by 200 feet,5 inches wide and it occupied a block, surrounded by Centre, Franklin Street, Elm. It initially accommodated about 300 prisoners, originally $250,000 was allocated in 1835 to build the Tombs, however various cost overruns occurred prior to completion of the project. The building site had been created by filling in the Collect Pond, industrialization and population density by the late 18th century resulted in the severe pollution of the Collect. It was condemned, drained and filled in by 1817, the landfill job was poorly done, and in a span of less than ten years, the ground began to subside. This damp foundation was responsible for its bad reputation as being unsanitary during the decades to come. As it also housed the courts, police, and detention facilities, The Tombs formal title was The New York Halls of Justice. Some regarded it as a example of Egyptian Revival architecture in the U. S. What is this dismal fronted pile of bastard Egyptian, like a palace in a melodrama. Asked Charles Dickens in his American Notes of 1842, the prison was well known for its corruption and was the scene of numerous scandals and successful escapes during its early history. A fire on November 18,1842 destroyed part of the building, colt was due to be hanged. Apparently this was no coincidence, but if it was an attempt on Colts part. Hed fatally stabbed himself in his cell, on November 22,1872, William J. Sharkey, a convicted murderer and minor New York City politician, earned national notoriety for escaping from the prison disguised as a woman. He was never captured and his fate is unknown. As early as 1850, many people were calling for its destruction, by the early 20th century, reforms began to be made as the first prison school for younger inmates in an American adult correction facility was established by the Public Schools Association in 1900. The original building was replaced in 1902, the million-dollar new City Prison featured an eight-story Châteauesque facade with conical towers along Centre Street, and was bounded by Centre, White Street, Elm, and Leonard Streets
The Tombs
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The "Bridge of Sighs", connecting the 1902 Tombs prison at left with the 1894 Manhattan Criminal Courts building at right. The view is looking west from Centre Street. The granite foundation of the prior Tombs building/s has been recently uncovered during the complete redesign and construction (2011–12) of Collect Pond Park which covers the site.
The Tombs
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"Bridge of Sighs", c.1896
The Tombs
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New York City Criminal Courts Building, 100 Centre Street. The Men's House of Detention is the fourth tower, at far left
The Tombs
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The north building of the current Manhattan Detention Complex was built in 1989.
26.
Highgate Cemetery
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Highgate Cemetery is a place of burial in north London, England. It is designated Grade I on the Historic England Register of Parks and it is divided into two parts, named the East and West cemetery. There are approximately 170,000 people buried in around 53,000 graves at Highgate Cemetery, Highgate Cemetery is notable both for some of the people buried there as well as for its de facto status as a nature reserve. The cemetery is located on both sides of Swains Lane in Highgate, N6, next to Waterlow Park, the main gate is located just north of Oakshott Avenue. There is another disused gate on Chester Road, the cemetery is in the London Boroughs of Camden, Haringey and Islington. The nearest transport link is Archway tube station, the initial design was by architect and entrepreneur Stephen Geary. On Monday 20 May 1839, Highgate Cemetery was dedicated to St. James by the Right Reverend Charles James Blomfield, fifteen acres were consecrated for the use of the Church of England, and two acres set aside for Dissenters. Rights of burial were sold for either limited period or in perpetuity, the first burial was Elizabeth Jackson of Little Windmill Street, Soho, on 26 May. Highgate, like the others of the Magnificent Seven, soon became a place for burials and was much admired and visited. The Victorian attitude to death and its presentation led to the creation of a wealth of Gothic tombs and it occupies a spectacular south-facing hillside site slightly downhill from the top of the hill of Highgate itself, next to Waterlow Park. In 1854 the area to the east of the area across Swains Lane was bought to form the eastern part of the cemetery. This part is used today for burials, as is the western part. Most of the open unforested area in the new addition still has fairly few graves on it, the cemeterys grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes, the Egyptian Avenue and the Circle of Lebanon feature tombs, vaults and winding paths dug into hillsides. For its protection, the oldest section, which holds a collection of Victorian mausoleums and gravestones, plus elaborately carved tombs. The eastern section, which contains a mix of Victorian and modern statuary, the tomb of Karl Marx, the Egyptian Avenue and the Columbarium are Grade I listed buildings. Because of the Karl Marx association a variety of Socialist leaders and thinkers are buried within the cemetery grounds, Highgate Cemetery was featured in the popular media from the 1960s to the late 1980s for its so-called occult past, particularly as being the alleged site of the Highgate Vampire. In 1984 they published Highgate Cemetery, Victorian Valhalla by John Gay, the most famous burial in the East cemetery is arguably that of Karl Marx, whose tomb was the site of attempted bombings on 2 September 1965 and in 1970
Highgate Cemetery
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Highgate Cemetery East (2010)
Highgate Cemetery
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Unknown grave, Highgate Cemetery
Highgate Cemetery
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Circle of Lebanon, West Cemetery
Highgate Cemetery
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Karl Marx grave, East Cemetery
27.
Egyptian Building
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The Egyptian Building is a historic college building in Richmond, Virginia, completed in 1845. It was the first permanent home of the Medical Department of Hampden-Sydney College and it is considered by architectural scholars to be one of the finest surviving Egyptian Revival-style buildings in the nation. After several years in the Union Hotel, the board of the college decided they needed a space created for medical education. Aid was sought to pay for the structure and the Commonwealth offered a thousand dollar loan. The board chose the noted Philadelphia architect, Thomas Somerville Stewart, Stewart chose to design the new building in the Egyptian Revival mode, considered to be an exotic style. His choice of style was considered to be appropriate by the board because it was considered that the origins of medicine went back to the Egyptian physician. Sir William Osler wrote that Imhotep was the first figure of a physician to stand out clearly from the mists of antiquity, the Egyptian Building was originally called College Building, and later the Old College Building. The National Register of Historic Places considers it to be the oldest medical college building in the South, the battered corners of the walls of the structure recall the ancient temples of Egypt. The building housed most educational activities until the 1890s and included medical lecture halls, a dissecting room, the building was restored in 1939 by the architects, Baskerville and Son, in honor of Dr. Simon Baruch, an 1862 graduate of the Medical College of Virginia. At that time the interior of the building was remodeled to carry on the Egyptian style, the building has been in continuous use since it was built in 1845. In 1969 it became a landmark, and in 1995 it celebrated its 150th anniversary. It has at one time or another, been used by school in the Medical College. The MCV Campus has a sentimental attachment to the Egyptian Building. At Founders Day exercises held at the Egyptian Building,5 December 1940 and it is a shrine, a sanctuary of tradition, the physical embodiment of our genius. The building is constructed from brick, stucco and cast iron and its battered walls—thinner at the top than at the bottom—give an impression of solidity and height. This effect is emphasized by the relatively minimal windows for a five-story building and these windows are diamond paned and incorporated without a style break. A primary feature of the building is its distyle in antis porticoes with columns at each end. The columns have intricate palm frond capitals, the shafts of each column represent bundles of reeds
Egyptian Building
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Egyptian Building
Egyptian Building
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Detail of east portico.
28.
Great Synagogue (Sydney)
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The Great Synagogue is a large synagogue in Sydney. It is located in Elizabeth Street opposite Hyde Park and extends back to Castlereagh Street, the Great Synagogue was designed by architect Thomas Rowe, and consecrated in 1878. It combines elements of Byzantine style and Gothic characteristics and this grand building is often described as the cathedral synagogue of Australia. The Sydney Jewish community, which dated to the earliest days of the colony, met in rented spaces before building its first synagogue and it was the first Egyptian Revival building in Australia. The present synagogue has the feature of an elevated ladies gallery. When first erected, the bimah was central, as is traditional, however, to increase seating capacity the bimah was moved forward to the western wall in 1906. A useful overview of the history is provided by the recent book edited by Rabbi Raymond Apple The building is listed on the Register of the National Estate
Great Synagogue (Sydney)
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The Great Synagogue front entrance in Elizabeth Street
Great Synagogue (Sydney)
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Bimah of The Great Synagogue
Great Synagogue (Sydney)
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Architectural detail. This inscription reads Beth Israel (House of Israel)
Great Synagogue (Sydney)
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Elizabeth Street wheeled window. Reinforced concrete spokes were added to the inside of this window during World War 2 for protection against blast damage.
29.
Scottish Rite Temple (Mobile, Alabama)
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The Temple Downtown, is a historic former masonic building in Mobile, Alabama, United States. It was built to serve as the place for the Ancient. The building was designed by George Bigelow Rogers, a local Mobile architect who was responsible for designing many of the buildings during this period. The cornerstone was laid on November 30,1921, with the building completed in 1922 and it is the only intact example of the Egyptian Revival style in Mobile. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on January 5,1984 and it was sold in 1996 to a private citizen and reopened as a banqueting venue. The Scottish Rite Temple was inspired by Ancient Egyptian architectural forms, the building facades on the east and north sides are in the form of Egyptian pylons. An ancient Egyptian pylon was made up of two battered monumental towers, each topped by a cornice, and joined together by an elevated section containing a central gateway leading into a temple. A battered wall is wider at the base than it is at the top, the south facade of the Scottish Rite Temple abuts the adjacent property. It and the facade are plain masonry and are not battered. The two entrance doorways, on the elaborate east and north facades, were inspired by the Bab el’Adb Gate, also known as the Gateway of Ptolemy III and Ptolemy IV, the east entrance is flanked by a pair of sphinxes by the sculptor Allen W. Barr. The roof is surmounted by two protruding obelisks that originally functioned as chimneys
Scottish Rite Temple (Mobile, Alabama)
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Scottish Rite Temple
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