1.
Muslim
–
A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
Muslim
–
Afghan Muslims praying inside
Gardens of Babur in
Kabul,
Afghanistan.
Muslim
–
Famous
Muslim converts from various fields.
2.
Druze
–
The Druze are an esoteric ethnoreligious group originating in Western Asia who self-identify as unitarians. Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of all Mandaeans and Mahra from Druze Mountain, the Druze faith is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion based on the teachings of Hamza ibn-Ali, al-Hakim, Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Akhenaten. The Epistles of Wisdom is the text of the Druze faith. The Druze follow theophany, and believe in reincarnation or the transmigration of the soul, at the end of the cycle of rebirth, which is achieved through successive reincarnations, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind. Although dwarfed by other, larger communities, the Druze community played an important role in shaping the history of the Levant, even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, Druze are not considered Muslims. Fatimid Caliph Ali az-Zahir, whose father al-Hakim is a key figure in the Druze faith, was harsh, causing the death of many Druze in Antioch, Aleppo. Persecution flared up during the rule of the Mamluks and Ottomans, most recently, Druze were targeted by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Al-Qaeda in order to cleanse Syria and neighboring countries of non-Islamic influence. The Druze faith is one of the religious groups in the Levant. They are found primarily in Syria, Lebanon and Israel, with communities in Jordan. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon, the Druze people reside primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. The Institute of Druze Studies estimates that forty to fifty percent of Druze live in Syria, thirty to forty percent in Lebanon, six to seven percent in Israel, about two percent of the Druze population are also scattered within other countries in the Middle East. Large communities of Druze also live outside the Middle East, in Australia, Canada, Europe, Latin America, the United States and they use the Arabic language and follow a social pattern very similar to those of the other peoples of the Levant. The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant, the name Druze is derived from the name of Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazī who was an early preacher. Although the Druze consider ad-Darazī a heretic, the name has been used to identify them, before becoming public, the movement was secretive and held closed meetings in what was known as Sessions of Wisdom. In 1016 ad-Darazi and his followers openly proclaimed their beliefs and called people to them, causing riots in Cairo against the Unitarian movement including Hamza bin Ali. This led to the suspension of the movement for one year, although the Druze religious books describe ad-Darazi as the insolent one and as the calf who is narrow-minded and hasty, the name Druze is still used for identification and for historical reasons. In 1018 ad-Darazi was assassinated for his teachings, some claim that he was executed by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Some authorities see in the name Druze a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic dāresah, others have speculated that the word comes from the Persian word Darazo or from Shaykh Hussayn ad-Darazī, who was one of the early converts to the faith
Druze
–
Sixth
caliph of the
Fatimids,
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
Druze
–
Fakhreddin castle in Palmyra
Druze
–
Druze woman wearing a
tantour during the 1870s in
Chouf,
Lebanon
3.
Abraham in Islam
–
Ibrahim, known as Abraham in the Hebrew Bible, is recognized as a prophet and messenger in Islam of God. Abraham plays a prominent role as an example of faith in Judaism, Christianity, in Muslim belief, Abraham fulfilled all the commandments and trials wherein God nurtured him throughout his lifetime. As a result of his faith in God, Abraham was promised by God to be a leader to all the nations of the world. The Qur’an extols Abraham as a model, an exemplar, obedient, Muslims believe that the prophet Abraham became the leader of the righteous in his time, and that it was through him that people of both the Arabian Peninsula and Israel came. Abraham, in the belief of Islam, was instrumental in cleansing the world of idolatry at the time, paganism was cleared out by Abraham in both Arabia and Canaan. He spiritually purified both places as well as physically sanctifying the houses of worship, Abraham and Ismail further established the rites of pilgrimage, or Hajj, which are still followed by Muslims today. Muslims maintain that Abraham further asked God to bless both the lines of his progeny, of Ismail and Ishaq, and to all of his descendants in the protection of God. They also believe that Muhammad is a descendant of Abraham through Ishmael, Muslims maintain that Abrahams father was Aazar, which could be derived from the Syriac Athar, who is known in the Hebrew Bible as Terah. Other Muslims maintain that Azar was his paternal uncle, commentators and scholars believed that Abraham himself had many children, but Ismail and Ishaq were the only two who became prophets. Abrahams two wives are believed to have been Sarah and Hājar, the latter of whom was originally Sarahs handmaiden, Abrahams nephew is said to have been the messenger Lut, who was one of the other people who migrated with Abraham out of their community. Abraham himself is said to have been a descendant of Nuh through his son Shem, Abrahams personality and character is one of the most in-depth in the whole Qur’an, and Abraham is specifically mentioned as being a kind and compassionate man. Abrahams father is understood by Muslims to have been a wicked, ignorant, the relationship between Abraham and his father, who in the Qur’an is named Azar, is central to Abrahams story as Muslims understand it to establish a large part of Abrahams personality. The Qur’an mentions that Abrahams father threatened to stone his son to death if he did not cease in preaching to the people, despite this, the Qur’an states that Abraham in his later years prayed to God to forgive the sins of all his descendants and his parents. Muslims have frequently cited Abrahams character as an example of how one must be towards people. A similar example of Abrahams compassionate nature is demonstrated when Abraham began to pray for the people of Sodom, Ibrahim was born in a house of idolaters in the ancient city of Ur in Chaldea. His father Azar was a well-known idol-sculptor that his people worshiped, as a young child, Ibrahim used to watch his father sculpting these idols from stones or wood. Despite his opposition to idolatry, his father Azar would still send Ibrahim to sell his idols in the marketplace, once there, Ibraham would call out to passersby, Who will buy my idols. They won’t help you and they hurt you
Abraham in Islam
–
Abraham in the Mosque of Abraham in Hebron
Abraham in Islam
–
The name Abraham written in
Islamic calligraphy followed by
Peace be upon him.
Abraham in Islam
–
The
Kaaba, which remains the most significant
mosque in Islam, is believed to have been constructed by Abraham and Ishmael.
Abraham in Islam
–
In the mosque at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, this grate allows visitors to look down into the 40-foot shaft leading to the ground level of the cave where Abraham and Sarah are buried.
4.
God in Islam
–
In Islamic theology, God is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence. Islam emphasizes that God is strictly singular, unique, inherently One, also all-merciful, the Surat 112 Al-Ikhlāş says, He is God, One. He neither begets nor is born, Nor is there to Him any equivalent, in Islam, there are 99 known names of God, each of which evoke a distinct attribute of God. All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive god, among the 99 names of God, the most familiar and frequent of these names are the Compassionate and the Merciful. Creation and ordering of the universe is seen as an act of mercy for which all creatures sing Gods attributes. Allah is the Arabic word referring to God in Abrahamic religions and it is distinguished from ilāh, the Arabic word meaning deity, which could refer to any of the gods worshipped in pre-Islamic Arabia. God is described and referred to in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the Quran refers to the attributes of God as most beautiful names. According to Gerhard Böwering, They are traditionally enumerated as 99 in number to which is added as the highest Name, there are numerous conventional phrases and expressions invoking God. Islams most fundamental concept is a strict monotheism called tawhid, affirming that God is one, the basic creed of Islam, the Shahada, involves لا إله إلا الله, or, I testify there is no god other than God. Muslims reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, according to Vincent J. Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession. The deification or worship of anyone or anything other than God is the biggest sin in Islam, the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid. God is the creator of the universe and all the creatures in it, praise is to Allah, Creator of the heavens and the earth, made the angels messengers having wings, two or three or four. He increases in creation what He wills, indeed, Allah is over all things competent. And it is We Who have constructed the heavens with might and verily and we created man from an extract of clay. Then We made him as a drop in a place of settlement, so blessed be Allah, the Best of creators. Be dutiful to your Lord, Who created you from a person and from Him He created his wife. And verily Allah is my Lord and your Lord, the most commonly used names in the primary sources are Al-Rahman, meaning Most Compassionate and Al-Rahim, meaning Most Merciful. God is said to love forgiving, with a hadith stating God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance
God in Islam
–
Allah Jalla Jalālah in
Arabic calligraphy
5.
Mecca
–
Mecca or Makkah is a city in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia that is also capital of the Makkah Region. The city is located 70 km inland from Jeddah in a valley at a height of 277 m above sea level. Its resident population in 2012 was roughly 2 million, although more than triple this number every year during the hajj period held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Mecca is home to the Kaaba, by majority description Islams holiest site, Mecca was long ruled by Muhammads descendants, the sharifs, acting either as independent rulers or as vassals to larger polities. It was conquered by Ibn Saud in 1925, during this expansion, Mecca has lost some historical structures and archaeological sites, such as the Ajyad Fortress. Today, more than 15 million Muslims visit Mecca annually, including several million during the few days of the Hajj, as a result, Mecca has become one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the Muslim world, despite the fact that non-Muslims are prohibited from entering the city. The Saudi government adopted Makkah as the spelling in the 1980s. The full official name is Makkah al-Mukarramah or Makkatu l-Mukarramah, which means Mecca the Honored, the ancient or early name for the site of Mecca is Bakkah. An Arabic language word, its etymology, like that of Mecca, is obscure, the form Bakkah is used for the name Mecca in the Quran in 3,96, while the form Mecca is used in 48,24. In South Arabic, the language in use in the portion of the Arabian Peninsula at the time of Muhammad. Other references to Mecca in the Quran call it Umm al-Qurā, another name of Mecca is Tihamah. Arab and Islamic tradition holds that the wilderness of Paran, broadly speaking, is the Tihamah, yaqut al-Hamawi, the 12th century Syrian geographer, wrote that Fārān was an arabized Hebrew word. One of the names of Mecca mentioned in the Torah, Mecca is governed by the Municipality of Mecca, a municipal council of fourteen locally elected members headed by a mayor appointed by the Saudi government. As of May 2015, the mayor of the city was Dr. Osama bin Fadhel Al-Bar, Mecca is the capital of the Makkah Region, which includes neighboring Jeddah. The provincial governor was prince Abdul Majeed bin Abdulaziz Al Saud from 2000 until his death in 2007, on 16 May 2007, prince Khalid bin Faisal Al Saud was appointed as the new governor. The early history of Mecca is still disputed, as there are no unambiguous references to it in ancient literature prior to the rise of Islam. The Roman Empire took control of part of the Hejaz in 106 AD, ruling cities such as Hegra, even though detailed descriptions were established of Western Arabia by Rome, such as by Procopius, there are no references of a pilgrimage and trading outpost such as Mecca. The first direct mention of Mecca in external literature occurs in 741 AD in the Byzantine-Arab Chronicle, claims have been made this could be a reference to the Kaaba in Mecca
Mecca
–
Mecca seen from
Jabal al-Nour
Mecca
Mecca
–
1787
Ottoman Turkish map of the
Masjid al-Haram and related religious sites (Jabal al-Nour)
Mecca
–
Jabal al-Nour is where Muhammad is believed to have received the first revelation of
God through the
Archangel Gabriel.
6.
Eid prayers
–
Eid prayers, also known as Salat al-Eid and Salat al-Eidain, is the special prayer offered to commemorate two Islamic festivals. Both the Eids are collectively known as Eidain in the Arabic language, the two Islamic festivals are, Eid al-Fitr, which is celebrated on the 1st day of Shawwal, the 10th month of the Islamic calendar. Eid al-Adha, which is celebrated on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, different scholars interpret the importance of this salat differently. Salat al-Eid is Wajib according to Hanafi scholars, Sunnah al-Mukkadah according to Maliki and Shafi jurisprudence, some scholars say it is fard al-ayn and some say it is fard al-kifaya. Muslim women are encouraged to participate in Salat al-Eid, Muslim women are supposed to pray in a different place or room away from Muslim men. The time of Salat al-Eid begins when the sun reaches approximately two meters above the horizon until it reaches its meridian before Dhuhr and this has been a proved Sunnah and has been well recorded in Hadith books. The time for the Eid prayer begins from the time the sun is 3 m from the horizon until the sun reaches its meridian, the Eid prayer consists of two rakat during which it is to pronounce six extra takbir. Three takbir are pronounced after the opening takbir and before the Quranic recital in the first rakah, while during the second rakah, one is to raise ones hands during each pronouncement of the extra takbir. The khutbah after Salat al-Eid is not fardh but is sunnah and listening to it is Wajib
Eid prayers
–
Eid prayer during
Eid al-Fitr at
Taipei Grand Mosque,
Taiwan
Eid prayers
–
Muslim males can be seen attending
Khutbah as part of the
Eid-ul-Adha prayers. Photo taken at Barashalghar union of
Comilla's Debidwar upazila.
Eid prayers
7.
Dhabihah
–
Dhabīḥah is, in Islamic law, the prescribed method of ritual slaughter of all lawful halal animals excluding locusts, fish, and most sea-life. Unlawful animals like pigs, dogs, lions, bears, etc. are not allowed to be slaughtered or zabihah and this method of slaughtering lawful animals has several conditions to be fulfilled. The precise details of the slaughtering method arise from Islamic tradition educated by Muhammad, the following verses of the Quran mention the items which are forbidden to be eaten in Islam, however other have cited many other reasons that discourage the consumption of blood, pork, and carrion. This day have those who reject faith given up all hope of your religion, yet fear them not and this day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion. But if any is forced by hunger, with no inclination to transgression, Allah is indeed Oft-forgiving, therefore eat of that on which Allahs name has been mentioned if you are believers in His communications. He has only forbidden to you dead animals, blood, the flesh of swine, but whoever is forced, neither desiring nor transgressing - then indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful. According to the laws of dhabīḥah ḥalāl, certain prerequisites must be met before an animal is slaughtered, The animal must not be a forbidden substance as per the Quran. The slaughter itself must be done by a sane adult Muslim, Jew, or Christian as they are considered People of the Book and they differ, however, concerning whether Sabians and Zoroastrians are also included under People of the Book as stated in Surat al-Maʼidah, ayah 5. Modern authors have proposed that Christians who follow the Pauline doctrine of the Trinity are not included in this dispensation, some scholars like Ibn Rushd, do not hold the opinion that mentioning Gods name is obligatory. —– al-Maʼidah 5,3 Eat not of that on which Allahs name has not been pronounced, thus an animal slaughtered by a Christian who did not mention anything at the time of slaughter would be permissible to some, while other scholars would hold it impermissible. This includes faiths such as Islam, for Halal processing, and Judaism, regulations include that the animal be completely insensitive to pain before killing it, typically by a technique like electronarcosis. The act of slaughtering itself is preceded by mentioning the name of God, thus the slaughter itself is preceded by the words In the name of Allah. It is not regarded appropriate to use the phrase Bismillah al Raḥmān Al Raḥīm in this situation, according to Islamic tradition, the animal is brought to the place of slaughter and laid down gently so as to not injure it. It is Sunnah but not Fard that the head of the animal be facing the Qiblah, the blade must be kept hidden until the very last moment while the jugular of the animal is felt. The conventional method used to slaughter the animal involves cutting the arteries in the neck along with the esophagus. Care must be taken that the system is not damaged. During the swipe of the blade, the head must not be decapitated, while blood is draining, the animal is not handled until it has died. While this is a method, the Egyptian Fatwaa Committee has agreed that an animal can be rendered insensible to pain via electronarcosis
Dhabihah
–
A ritual slaughter in
Esna,
Egypt in 1926.
8.
Dhu al-Hijjah
–
Dhul-Hijjah or alternatively Zulhijja is the twelfth and final month in the Islamic calendar. It is a sacred month in the Islamic calendar, one in which the Hajj takes place as well as the Festival of the Sacrifice. Dhu al-Hijjah literally means Possessor of the Pilgrimage or The Month of the Pilgrimage, during this month Muslim pilgrims from all around the world congregate at Mecca to visit the Kaaba. The Hajj is performed on the eighth, ninth and the tenth of this month, Day of Arafah takes place on the ninth of the month. Eid al-Adha, the Festival of the Sacrifice, begins on the tenth day, then some companions of the Prophet said, Not even Jihad. He replied, Not even Jihad, except that of a man who does it by putting himself and his property in danger, the man they seek will flee and will be found between the Rukn and the Maqam of Prophet Abraham. He will be forced to accept peoples Bayah, the number of those offering Bayah will be the same as the number of the people of Badr. Then, the dweller of Heaven and the dweller of the Earth will be pleased with him, abu Hurairah said that the Prophet said, There will be an Aya in Ramadan. Then, there will isabah in Shawwal, then, there will be fighting in Dhu al-Qidah. Then, the pilgrim will be robbed in Dhu al-Hijjah, then, the prohibitions will be violated in al-Muharram. Then, there will be sound in Safar, then the tribes will conflict with other in the two months of Rabi al-awwal & Rabi al-thani. Then, the most amazing thing will happen between Jumada and Rajab, then, a well-fed she-camel will be better than a fortress sheltering a thousand. The Islamic calendar is a calendar, and months begin when new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar calendar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th Dhu al-Hijjah, the greatest action is the spilling of blood of a sacrificial animal. The reason for the 10 days being distinguished is due to the combination of worship in this period of Salaah, fasting, charity, Takbir, in no other time do these great deeds combine. He said, as for the fasting on the Day of Arafah, I anticipate that Allah will forgive the year after it, once sacrifice has been completed, may one attend to these matters. The Prophet has said, whoever sees the crescent of Dhu al-Hijjah and wants to slaughter a sacrifice, he should not take from his hair, a persons sacrifice is deemed complete even if this injunction was not fulfilled. A Muslim is legislated by the Sunnah to remove arm hair and pubic hair on a weekly basis
Dhu al-Hijjah
–
Preparation
9.
Islamic calendar
–
The Islamic, Muslim, or Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in many Muslim countries and it is also used by Muslims to determine the proper days of Islamic holidays and rituals, such as the annual period of fasting and the proper time for the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Islamic calendar employs the Hijri era whose epoch was retrospectively established as the Islamic New Year of AD622, during that year, Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib and established the first Muslim community, an event commemorated as the Hijra. In the West, dates in this era are usually denoted AH in parallel with the Christian, in Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted as H from its Arabic form. In English, years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH, the current Islamic year is 1438 AH. In the Gregorian calendar,1438 AH runs from approximately 3 October 2016 to 21 September 2017, four of the twelve Hijri months are considered sacred, Rajab, and the three consecutive months of Dhū al-Qa‘dah, Dhu al-Ḥijjah and Muḥarram. As the lunar calendar lags behind the solar calendar by about ten days every gregorian year, the cycle repeats every 33 lunar years. Each month of the Islamic calendar commences on the birth of the new lunar cycle, traditionally this is based on actual observation of the crescent marking the end of the previous lunar cycle and hence the previous month, thereby beginning the new month. Consequently, each month can have 29 or 30 days depending on the visibility of the moon, astronomical positioning of the earth and weather conditions. However, certain sects and groups, most notably Dawoodi Bohra Muslims and Shia Ismaili Muslims, use a tabular Islamic calendar in which odd-numbered months have thirty days, in Arabic, the first day of the week corresponds with Sunday of the planetary week. The Islamic weekdays, like those in the Hebrew and Baháí calendars, the Christian liturgical day, kept in monasteries, begins with vespers, which is evening, in line with the other Abrahamic traditions. Christian and planetary weekdays begin at the following midnight, Muslims gather for worship at a mosque at noon on gathering day which corresponds with Friday. Thus gathering day is regarded as the weekly day of rest. A few others have adopted the Saturday-Sunday weekend while making Friday a working day with a midday break to allow time off for worship. Inscriptions of the ancient South Arabian calendars reveal the use of a number of local calendars, at least some of these calendars followed the lunisolar system. For Central Arabia, especially Mecca, there is a lack of epigraphical evidence, both al-Biruni and al-Masudi suggest that the Ancient Arabs used the same month names as the Muslims, though they also record other month names used by the pre-Islamic Arabs. Nevertheless, the Islamic position equating Nisan with Dhū al-Ḥijja has prevailed, for a comparison between the Islamic and pre-Islamic months, see Islamic and Jahili months. The Islamic tradition is unanimous in stating that Arabs of Tihamah, Hejaz, the forbidden months were four months during which fighting is forbidden, listed as Rajab and the three months around the pilgrimage season, Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Dhu al-Hijjah, and Muharram
Islamic calendar
–
Islamic Calendar stamp issued at King Khaled airport (10 Rajab 1428)
Islamic calendar
–
Muhammad prohibiting Nasī’. Found in an illustrated copy of
Al-Bīrūnī 's
The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries (17th-century copy of an early 14th-century
Ilkhanid manuscript).
Islamic calendar
–
Civil and Hijri establishment dates of a library in Old City, Jerusalem
Islamic calendar
–
Key concepts
10.
Eid al-Fitr
–
Eid al-Fitr is an important religious holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide that marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting. The religious Eid is the first and only day in the month of Shawwal during which Muslims are not permitted to fast, the holiday celebrates the conclusion of the 29 or 30 days of dawn-to-sunset fasting during the entire month of Ramadan. The day of Eid, therefore, falls on the first day of the month of Shawwal, the date for the start of any lunar Hijri month varies based on the observation of new moon by local religious authorities, so the exact day of celebration varies by locality. Eid al-Fitr has a particular Salat consisting of two Rakats and generally offered in a field or large hall. Other Sunni schools usually have twelve Takbirs, seven in the first and this Eid al-Fitr salat is, depending on which juristic opinion is followed, Fard فرض, Mustahabb مستحب or mandoob مندوب. Muslims believe that they are commanded by Allah, as mentioned in the Quran, to continue their fast until the last day of Ramadan and pay the Zakat and fitra before offering the Eid prayers. If the moon is not observed immediately after the 29th day of the lunar month. Before the advent of Islam in Arabia, there is mention of festivals as well as some others among the Arabs, the Israelites had festivals as well, some directly prescribed in the Old Testament and others commemorating important days of their history. Eid al-Fitr was originated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad and it is observed on the first of the month of Shawwal at the end of the month of Ramadan, during which Muslims undergo a period of fasting. According to certain traditions, these festivals were initiated in Medina after the migration of Muhammad from Mecca, anas reports, When the Prophet arrived in Madinah, he found people celebrating two specific days in which they used to entertain themselves with recreation and merriment. He asked them about the nature of these festivities at which they replied that these days were occasions of fun, Eid al-Fitr is celebrated for one, two or three days. Common greetings during this holiday are the Arabic greeting ‘Eid Mubārak or ‘Eid Sa‘īd. In addition, many countries have their own greetings in the local language – in Turkey, for example, Muslims are also encouraged on this day to forgive and forget any differences with others or animosities that may have occurred during the year. It is forbidden to fast on the Day of Eid and it is customary to acknowledge this with a small sweet breakfast, preferably of date, before attending a special Eid prayer. As an obligatory act of charity, money is paid to the poor and you can speak once youve left the Masjid, or mosque or any other place you were praying. Say Eid Mubarak to other Muslims Muslims recite the following incantation in a low voice while going to the Eid prayer, Allāhu Akbar, Allāhu Akbar, lā ilāha illà l-Lāh wal-Lāhu akbar, Allahu akbar walil-Lāhi l-ḥamd. Recitation ceases when they get to the place of Eid or once the Imam commences activities, Muslims are recommended to use separate routes to and from the prayer grounds. No call to prayer is given for this Eid prayer, the Eid prayer is followed by the sermon and then a supplication asking for Allahs forgiveness, mercy, peace and blessings for all living beings across the world
Eid al-Fitr
–
Eid al-Fitr meal,
Tajikistan
Eid al-Fitr
–
Muslims in Britain celebrate Eid after ceremony at mosque, 1941
Eid al-Fitr
–
Eid al-Fitr mass prayer in
Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta, Indonesia
11.
Islamic culture
–
Islamic culture is a term primarily used in secular academia to describe the cultural practices common to historically Islamic people. The early forms of Muslim culture were predominantly Arab, Islamic culture generally includes all the practices which have developed around the religion of Islam, including Quranic ones such as prayer and non-Quranic such as divisions of the world in Islam. It includes as the Baul tradition of Bengal, and facilitated the conversion of most of Bengal. There are variations in the application of Islamic beliefs in different cultures, Islamic culture is itself a contentious term. Muslims live in different countries and communities, and it can be difficult to isolate points of cultural unity among Muslims. Anthropologists and historians nevertheless study Islam as an aspect of, and influence on, the noted historian of Islam, Marshall Hodgson, noted the above difficulty of religious versus secular academic usage of the words Islamic and Muslim in his three-volume work, The Venture Of Islam. He proposed to resolve it by using these terms for purely religious phenomena. However, his distinction has not been widely adopted, early Muslim literature is in Arabic, as that was the language of Muhammads communities in Mecca and Medina. As the early history of the Muslim community was focused on establishing the religion of Islam, see the articles on Quran, Hadith, and Sirah, which formed the earliest literature of the Muslim community. With the establishment of the Umayyad empire, see The Book of One Thousand and One Nights. While having no content, this secular literature was spread by the Arabs all over their empires. By the time of the Abbasid empire, Persian had become the language of Muslim World. Much of the most famous Muslim literature was written in Persian, from Rumi in Anatolia, to Nizami in the Caucasus, to Jami in Samarkand, from the 11th century, there was a growing body of Islamic literature in the Turkic languages. However, for centuries to come the official language in Turkish-speaking areas would remain Persian, in Anatolia, with the advent of the Seljuks, the practise and usage of Persian in the region would be strongly revived. A branch of the Seljuks, the Sultanate of Rum, took Persian language, art and they adopted Persian language as the official language of the empire. The Ottomans, which can roughly be seen as their eventual successors, after a period of several centuries, Ottoman Turkish had developed towards a fully accepted language of literature, which was even able to satisfy the demands of a scientific presentation. However, the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords contained in those works increased at times up to 88%. With the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Turkish grew in importance in both poetry and prose becoming, by the beginning of the 18th century, the language of the Empire
Islamic culture
–
World Muslim population by percentage (
Pew Research Center, 2014).
Islamic culture
–
Tabatabaee-ha House, Kashan Iran
Islamic culture
–
The
Badshahi Mosque in
Lahore, Pakistan is one of the few classical examples of
Mughal design and architecture in South Asia.
12.
Islamic architecture
–
Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by Persian, Roman, Byzantine, further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. The principal Islamic architectural types are, the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace, from these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. Symbolic views of scholars on Islamic architecture have consistently been criticized by historians for lacking historical evidence. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture and it is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Byzantine Christian artists were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a golden background. The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-Islamic Syrian style, the Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeating decorative arabesque patterns. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, the horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. After the Moorish invasion of Spain in 711 AD the form was taken by the Umayyads who accentuated the curvature of the horseshoe. The Great Mosque of Damascus, built on the site of the basilica of John the Baptist after the Islamic invasion of Damascus, certain modifications were implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis which better fit with the Islamic style of prayer. The Abbasid dynasty witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, the shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital, other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir demonstrated the despotic, the Great Mosque of Kairouan is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. Its original marble columns and sculptures were of Roman workmanship brought in from Carthage and it is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in 670 AD and dating in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period. The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos. The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque, the Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a structural feature of Islamic architecture. Domes remain in use, being a significant feature of many mosques, the distinctive pointed domes of Islamic architecture, also originating with the Byzantines and Persians, have remained a distinguishing feature of mosques into the 21st century
Islamic architecture
–
The interior side view of the main dome of
Selimiye Mosque in
Edirne, Turkey.
Islamic architecture
–
The large Hypostyle prayer hall in the
Great Mosque of Kairouan, dating in its present form from the 9th century, in Kairouan,
Tunisia.
Islamic architecture
–
The
Great Mosque of Touba,
Senegal.
Islamic architecture
–
The
Great Mosque of Xi'an in
Xi'an,
China.
13.
Architecture of Azerbaijan
–
Architecture of Azerbaijan refers to the architecture development in Azerbaijan. Architecture in Azerbaijan typically combines elements of East and West, many ancient architectural treasures such as the Maiden Tower and Palace of the Shirvanshahs in the walled city of Baku survive in modern Azerbaijan. In the nineteenth and early centuries, little monumental architecture was created. Among the most recent architectural monuments, the Baku subways are noted for their lavish decor, the urban planning and architectural activities are regulated by the State Committee for City Building and Architecture of Azerbaijan Republic. The Shirvanshahs ruled the state of Shirvan in northern Azerbaijan from the 6th to the 16th centuries and their attention shifted to Baku in the 12th century, when Shirvanshah Manuchehr III ordered that the city be surrounded with walls. In 1191, after an earthquake destroyed the capital city of Shamakhi, the residence of the Shirvanshahs was moved to Baku. This complex, built on the highest point of Ichari Shahar, the various sections of the Shirvanshah complex were not all created at the same time, and there was not a general plan for the entire complexs construction. Rather, each building was added as the need arose, ornamental designs found on the buildings of the Shirvanshah Palace. Below, Drop-like medallion from the Royal Tomb with the name of the architect, Mohammad Ali, much of the construction was done in the 15th century, during the reign of Khalilullah I and his son Farrukh Yassar in 1435-1442. All of these buildings except for the premises and bathhouse are fairly well preserved. The Shirvanshah complex itself is currently under reconstruction and it has 27 rooms on the first floor and 25 on the second. The actual original function of the Shirvanshah complex is still under investigation, though commonly described as a palace, some experts question this. The complex simply doesnt have the grandeur and huge spaces normally associated with a palace, for instance. Most of the rooms seem more suitable for offices or monks living quarters. This unique building, located on the level of the grounds. The filigree portal entrance is elaborately worked in limestone, the central inscription with the date of the Assemblys construction and the name of the architect may have been removed after Shah Ismayil Khatai conquered Baku in 1501. However, there are two very interesting hexagonal medallions on either side of the entrance, each consists of six rhombuses with very unusual patterns carved in stone. Each elaborate design includes the fundamental tenets of the Shiite faith, Ali is the head of the believers
Architecture of Azerbaijan
–
Divankhana
Architecture of Azerbaijan
–
Tomb of Shirvanshakhs
Architecture of Azerbaijan
–
Palace of the Shirvanshahs,
Baku
Architecture of Azerbaijan
–
Palace of Shaki Khans,
Shaki
14.
Indo-Islamic architecture
–
It has left influences on modern Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi architecture. Indo-Islamic architecture into three classes, consisting of monuments built by the Delhi Sultans, the Mughals and the regional emperors. The Delhi Sultanate is the given to an Islamic Kingdom based mostly in North India around Delhi. The monuments built by these Sultans were the first examples of Indo-Islamic Architecture, the most important of these are in the Qutb Complex. The Qutb Complex is an array of monuments located at Delhi, the Qutb Minar, the tallest brick minaret in the world, is the most influential of these structures. The minar was built by Qutbuddin Aibak to celebrate Turkish victory, the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque and the Alai Darwaza are some other monuments located in the complex. A major aspect of Mughal architecture is the nature of buildings. Akbar, who ruled in the 16th century, made contributions to Mughal architecture. He systematically designed forts and towns in similar styles that blended Indian styles with outside influences. The gate of a fort Akbar designed at Agra exhibits the Assyrian gryphon, Indian elephants and it was built for the wife of Shah Jahan, who died in 1631. The main ideas and themes of garden tombs had already explored by earlier Mughal emperors. The 171 meter white tomb rises above a pool and a fine garden. Four minarets on the frame the tomb which has a giant white dome in the center. The Red Fort is also a brilliant example of Mughal Architecture and it was built during the zenith of the Mughal Empire under Shah Jahan. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2007, as one of the largest forts in India, it served as the official residence of the emperor for nearly 200 years
Indo-Islamic architecture
–
Islam in India
Indo-Islamic architecture
–
The
Taj Mahal in
Agra.
Indo-Islamic architecture
–
The
Haji Ali Dargah - one of the most recognisable landmarks of
Mumbai.
15.
Moorish architecture
–
Moorish architecture is the architectural tradition that appeared in the Maghreb region and the Iberian peninsula after the Arab Islamic conquest. Other notable buildings include the palace city of Medina Azahara, the church San Cristo de la Luz in Toledo. The term is used to include the products of the Islamic civilisation of Southern Italy. The Palazzo dei Normanni in Sicily was begun in the 9th century by the Emir of Palermo, there is archeological evidence of an eighth-century mosque in Narbonne, France. Arabic architecture Islamic architecture Arab-Norman culture Islamic influences on Christian art Moorish Revival* Moroccan architecture Mudéjar Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon Curl, a Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture
Moorish architecture
–
Paderne Castle, Portugal.
Moorish architecture
Moorish architecture
–
Church of Nossa Senhora da Anunciação (formerly a mosque),
Mértola.
Moorish architecture
16.
Moroccan architecture
–
Moroccan architecture is a term describing Moroccan architectural style. Morocco is in Northern-Africa bordering the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, the countrys diverse geography and the land’s long history marked by successive waves of settlers and military encroachments are all reflected in Moroccos architecture. Its architecture reflects the rich cultural and historical heritage. Morocco’s first independent state called the Berber kingdom of Mauretania was ruled by the Berbers clan and it was first documented during 110 BC. During the time of the Berbers, the country has been through several sieges by a number of invaders, nevertheless, the Berbers ritual and beliefs still remained and became the country’s cultural heritage including its antique architecture. The Berbers are known for their use of earth or mud brick called pisé, many of the massive pisé buildings had defensive functions as main trading posts and ports or guard walls against pirates and rivals. This ancient building method prevails in all sizes of buildings, moreover, Moroccan traditional architecture also gained influences from neighboring countries and intruders. Morocco was not originally an Islamic country, the conversion of the Berber tribes in Morocco to Islam by Idris I of Morocco greatly influenced the architectural style of the country. The elegance of Islamic features is blended in and adapted into buildings and interior designs such as the use of tiling, fountains, geometric design, which could be seen in mosques, palaces, plazas as well as homes. The materials chosen for the interiors of Moroccan classical architecture, are due in part to the necessity of cooling in the arid climate of Morocco. Tiles – Zellige tiling, often wrongly labelled mosaic, is used to decorate the surfaces of buildings and objects, principally interior walls, floors, modern use of zellige has extended the use to furniture and other interiors. Thus, fountains, also representing paradise, could be everywhere in order to serve everyone. Mosques – Following the introduction of Islam, mosques were built in Morocco with their architectural features. Geometric Design and Floral Motifs Arabesque – Based on Islamic beliefs, avoiding the use of human or animal images is preferable resulting in the spread of floral motifs, the motifs in Moroccan architectural decor are chiefly carved into stone, plaster and wood. Modern day Spain was a Moorish domain from the early 8th century to the late 15th century and was known as Al-Andalus 711 AD to 1492 AD, the Almoravid dynasty ruled Morocco and the southern half of Spain through the 12th century. The Marinid dynasty from the 13th through the 15th century, rule both Moroccan and Southern Spain until the Reconquista with the fall of Granada in 1492, effectively ending the Moorish era in Iberia, Moorish architecture therefore evolved into a distinct form. The elements of which are as follows Arches – Arches are common feature in Morocco, the first arch is the horseshoe which is clover shaped. The second is cusped like a rounded keyhole, tiling – Overlapping roof tiling became popular after the influence of Spain, the tiles are mostly hand glazed
Moroccan architecture
–
Landscape of Morocco
Moroccan architecture
–
Mud brick city of
Ait Benhaddou, Morocco
Moroccan architecture
–
The famous
Koutoubia mosque in
Marakesh, Morocco
Moroccan architecture
–
Alhambra garden in
Grenada, Spain
17.
Mughal architecture
–
Mughal architecture is an architectural style developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries throughout the ever-changing extent of their empire in Medieval India. It was an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, Turkic and South-Asian architetcure, Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation. Examples of the style can be found in India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, the Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his five-year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings and his grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his accomplishments were Humayuns Tomb, Agra Fort, the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri, akbars son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir. While Shah Jahans son Aurangzeb commissioned buildings such as the Badshahi Masjid in Lahore, his reign corresponded with the decline of Mughal architecture, Agra fort is a UNESCO world heritage site in Agra, Uttar Pradesh. The major part of Agra fort was built by Akbar The Great during 1565 AD to 1574 AD, the architecture of the fort clearly indicates the free adoption of the Rajput planning and construction. Some of the important buildings in the fort are Jahangiri Mahal built for Jahangir and his family, the Moti Masjid, the Jahangir Mahal is an impressive structure and has a courtyard surrounded by double-storeyed halls and rooms. Akbar’s greatest architectural achievement was the construction of Fatehpur Sikri, his Capital City near Agra, the religious edifices worth mentioning are the Jami Masjid and Salim Chisti’s Tomb. The tomb built in 1571 A. D. in the corner of the compound is a square marble chamber with a verandah. The cenotaph has an exquisitely designed lattice screen around it,14 years after the death of Humayun, his widow- Hamida Banu Begum built the Humayun’s tomb in Delhi. The mausoleum of Humayun is located in the centre of a surrounded by typical Mughal garden in Fatehpur Sikri. It is said to be first mature example of Mughal architecture, Buland Darwaza, also known as the Gate of Magnificence, was built by Akbar in 1576 A. D. at Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar built the Buland Darwaza to commemorate his victory over Gujarat and it is 40 metres high and 50 metres from the ground. The total height of the Structure is about 54 metres from the ground level, the Haramsara, the royal seraglio in Fatehpur Sikri was an area where the royal women lived. The opening to the Haramsara is from the Khwabgah side separated by a row of cloiters and this is the largest palace in the Fatehpur Sikri seraglio, connected to the minor haramsara quarters. The main entrance is double storied, projecting out of the facade to create a kind of leading into a recessed entrance with a balcony. Inside there is a surrounded by rooms
Mughal architecture
–
An 1858 illustration of
Old Delhi in
India, the capital city of the
Mughal Empire
Mughal architecture
–
The mausoleum of the
Taj Mahal,
Agra, is the most recognized structure of Mughal architecture.
Mughal architecture
–
Diwan-e-Khas in
Fatehpur Sikri, India Fatehpur Sikri was
Akbar 's capital city.
Mughal architecture
–
Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikri
18.
Ottoman architecture
–
Ottoman architecture is the architecture of the Ottoman Empire which emerged in Bursa and Edirne in 14th and 15th centuries. For almost 400 years Byzantine architectural artifacts such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques, overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as Byzantine architecture synthesized with architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. The Ottomans achieved the highest level architecture in their lands hence or since, today, one finds remnants of Ottoman architecture in certain parts of its former territories under decay. With the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, the years 1300–1453 constitute the early or first Ottoman period and this period witnessed three types of mosques, tiered, single-domed and subline-angled mosques. The Hacı Özbek Mosque in İznik, the first important center of Ottoman art, is the first example of an Ottoman single-domed mosque, the domed architectural style evolved from Bursa and Edirne. The Holy Mosque in Bursa was the first Seljuk mosque to be converted into a domed one, among these are the Fatih Mosque, Mahmutpaşa Mosque, the tiled palace and Topkapı Palace. The Ottomans integrated mosques into the community and added soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths, during the classical period mosque plans changed to include inner and outer courtyards. The inner courtyard and the mosque were inseparable, the master architect of the classical period, Mimar Sinan, was born in 1489/1490 in Kayseri and died in Istanbul in the year 1588. Sinan started a new era in world architecture, creating 334 buildings in various cities, Mimar Sinans first important work was the Şehzade Mosque completed in 1548. His second significant work was the Süleymaniye Mosque and the surrounding complex, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne was built during the years 1568–74, when Sinan was in his prime as an architect. The Rüstempaşa, Mihriman Sultan, Ibrahimpasa Mosques and the Şehzade, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, Roxelana, most classical period design used the Byzantine architecture of the neighboring Balkans as its base, and from there, ethnic elements were added creating a different architectural style. During the reign of Ahmed III and under the impetus of his grand vizier İbrahim Paşa, due to its relations with France, Ottoman architecture began to be influenced by the Baroque and Rococo styles that were popular in Europe. The Baroque style is noted as first being developed by Seljuk Turks, examples of the creation of this art form can be witnessed in Divriği hospital and mosque a UNESCO world heritage site, Sivas Çifteminare, Konya İnce Minare museum and many more. It is often called the Seljuk Baroque portal, from here it emerged again in Italy, and later grew in popularity among the Turks during the Ottoman era. Various visitors and envoys were sent to European cities, especially to Paris, to experience the contemporary European customs, the decorative elements of the European Baroque and Rococo influenced even the religious Ottoman architecture. On the other hand, Mellin, a French architect, was invited by a sister of Sultan Selim III to Istanbul and depicted the Bosphorus shores and the pleasure mansions placed next to the sea. During a thirty-year period known as the Tulip Period, all eyes were turned to the West, however, it was about this time when the construction on the Ishak Pasha Palace in Eastern Anatolia was going on. Beginning with this period, the class and the elites in the Ottoman Empire started to use the open
Ottoman architecture
–
Blue Mosque in Istanbul, a World Heritage Site and example of the classical style period of Ottoman architecture, showing Byzantine influence.
Ottoman architecture
–
Traditional Ottoman house in
Safranbolu
Ottoman architecture
–
Traditional Macedonian
Ottoman -style house in
Ohrid,
Macedonia
Ottoman architecture
–
Early
Ottoman period house in
Cumalıkızık
19.
Pakistani architecture
–
Pakistani architecture refers to the various structures built during different time periods in the modern day region of Pakistan. This was followed by the Gandhara style of Buddhist architecture that borrowed elements from Ancient Greece and these remnants are visible in the Gandhara capital of Taxila. The majority of the discovered brick constructions are public buildings such as bath houses, wood and loam served as construction materials. Large scale temples, such as found in other ancient cities are missing. With the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization the architecture also suffered considerable damage, view of Mohenjo-Daro towards the Great Bath. Surviving evidence indicates a sophisticated civilization, cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro had populations of some 35,000, they were laid out according to grid system. Inhabitants lived in windowless baked brick houses built around a central courtyard, the latter rivaled the engineering skill of the Romans some 2,000 years later. With the rise of Buddhism outstanding architectural monuments were again developed, in addition, the Persian and Greek influence led to the development of the Greco-Buddhist style, starting from the 1st century AD. The high point of this era was reached with the culmination of the Gandhara style, a particularly beautiful example of Buddhist architecture is the ruins of the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi in the northwest province. The arrival of Islam in todays Pakistan - first in Sindh - during the 8th century AD meant an end of Buddhist architecture. However, a transition to predominantly pictureless Islamic architecture occurred. The way early mosques were built with decorations oriented them strongly to the Arab style. The earliest example of a mosque from the days of infancy of Islam in South Asia is the Mihrablose mosque of Banbhore, from the year 727, under the Delhi Sultan the Persian-centralasiatic style ascended over Arab influences. Most important characteristic of this style is the Iwan, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open, further characteristics are wide prayer halls, round domes with mosaics and geometrical samples and the use of painted tiles. The most important of the few completely discovered buildings of Persian style is the tomb of the Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan, at the start of the 16th century, the Indo-Islamic architecture was at the height of its boom. During the Mughal era design elements of Islamic-Persian architecture were fused with, also the Shahjahan Mosque of Thatta in Sindh originates from the epoch of the Mughals. However, it exhibits partially different stylistic characteristics, singularly, the innumerable tombs of the Chaukhandi are of eastern influence. Although constructed between 16th and 18th centuries, they do not possess any similarity to Mughal architecture, the stonemason works show rather typical Sindhi workmanship, probably from before Islamic times
Pakistani architecture
–
Pakistan Monument, Islamabad
Pakistani architecture
–
An example of the fusion of Greco-Buddhist styles: Representation of
Buddha with
Herakles
Pakistani architecture
–
Mughal architecture: Naulakha pavilion (1633) in the fortress of Lahore
Pakistani architecture
–
The
Mohatta Palace in Karachi is a fine example of a blend of Islamic and British architecture
20.
Tatar mosque
–
Tatar mosque — is the typical mosque architecture in Tatarstan and other Volga Tatar-populated areas of Russia. Occasionally found in regions of Russia, modern Tatar religious architecture was developed in the late 18th century. The earliest examples of Islamic Tatar architecture are located in Bolghar and they reflect strong similarities to Central Asian Islamic architecture from which the designs were derived. However, it is believed that design of rural mosques, opposing to Central Asian-like mosques of capital cities, many mosques, both stone and wooden were built, according to this style. The oldest of the active modern Tatar mosques is the Märcani mosque in the Tatar capital of Kazan. Dating from the reign of Catherine the Great, the minaret is placed in the center of a gabled roof. It is believed that the concept was adopted from traditional rurual Tatar mosques, the Märcani mosque is an example of revival Tatar religious architecture as most mosques were destroyed due to the Christianization edict of 1742. Tatar mosques, such as Märcani and Apanay were built in baroque style, İske Taş and Pink Mosques were contributed to classicism style. In 1844 another exemplary mosque project was introduced, which was used mostly for urban mosques, the minaret was placed at the northern part of the building, under the door. However, mosques with minarets in the roof are constructed till today
Tatar mosque
–
Märcani Mosque
Tatar mosque
–
Märcani Mosque.
Tatar mosque
–
Drawing of the cathedral mosque of Buinsky Uyezd,
Simbirsk Governorate by Jakobson, 1876.
21.
Iranian architecture
–
Iranian architecture or Persian architecture is the architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Its history dates back to at least 5,000 BCE with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar. Persian buildings vary from peasant huts to tea houses and garden, in addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as the capital, Tehran has brought about a wave of demolition and new construction. Iranian architecture displays great variety, both structural and aesthetic, from a variety of traditions and experience, without sudden innovations, and despite the repeated trauma of invasions and cultural shocks, it has achieved an individuality distinct from that of other Muslim countries. Traditionally, the guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its cosmic symbolism by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven. This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of Persia, according to Persian historian and archaeologist Arthur Pope, the supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre- and post-Islamic periods, traditional Persian architecture has maintained a continuity that, although temporarily distracted by internal political conflicts or foreign invasion, nonetheless has achieved an unmistakable style. In this architecture, there are no buildings, even garden pavilions have nobility and dignity. In expressiveness and communicativity, most Persian buildings are lucid - even eloquent, the combination of intensity and simplicity of form provides immediacy, while ornament and, often, subtle proportions reward sustained observation. g. g. Anahita Temple, Khorheh, Parthian era e. g. Hatra, the compounds at Nysa, Sassanid era e. g. Ghaleh Dokhtar. Chehelsotoon, Ali Qapu, Agha Bozorg Mosque, Kashan, Shah Mosque, available building materials dictate major forms in traditional Iranian architecture. This technique, used in Iran from ancient times, has never completely abandoned. The abundance of heavy plastic earth, in conjunction with a lime mortar, also facilitated the development. Certain design elements of Persian architecture have persisted throughout the history of Iran, the most striking are a marked feeling for scale and a discerning use of simple and massive forms. The consistency of decorative preferences, the high-arched portal set within a recess, columns with bracket capitals, through the ages these elements have recurred in completely different types of buildings, constructed for various programs and under the patronage of a long succession of rulers. Similarly, the dome on four arches, so characteristic of Sassanid times, is a still to be found in many cemeteries, the pre-Islamic styles draw on 3000 to 4000 years of architectural development from various civilizations of the Iranian plateau. Iran is recognized by UNESCO as being one of the cradles of civilization, each of the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids were creators of great architecture that, over the ages, spread far and wide far to other cultures. Although Iran has suffered its share of destruction, including Alexander The Greats decision to burn Persepolis, the Achaemenids built on a grand scale
Iranian architecture
–
Persian arts
Iranian architecture
–
Si-o-se Pol
Iranian architecture
–
The Eram Garden in
Shiraz is an 18th-century building and a legacy of the
Zand Dynasty.
Iranian architecture
–
Persian-style column, as seen in Persepolis.
22.
Somali architecture
–
Some of the oldest known structures in the territory of modern-day Somalia consist of burial cairns. However, many of ancient structures have yet to be properly explored. Houses were constructed of dressed stone similar to the ones in Ancient Egypt, there are also examples of courtyards and large stone walls enclosing settlements, such as the Wargaade Wall. Near Bosaso, at the end of the Baladi valley, lies a 2 km to 3 km long earthwork, local tradition recounts that the massive embankment marks the grave of a community matriarch. It is the largest such structure in the wider Horn region, in addition, old temples situated in the northwestern town of Sheekh are reportedly similar to those in the Deccan Plateau in the Indian subcontinent. There also exist several ancient necropolises in Somalia, one such structured area is found on the countrys northeastern tip, in the Hafun peninsula. Booco in the Aluula District contains a number of ancient structures, two of these are enclosed platform monuments set together, which are surrounded by small stone circles. The circles of stone are believed to mark associated graves, mudun is situated in the Wadi valley of the Iskushuban District. The area features a number of ruins, which tradition holds belong to an ancient. Among the old structures are around 2,000 tombs, which possess high towers and are dome-shaped, port Dunford in the southern Lower Juba province contains a number of ancient ruins, including several pillar tombs. Prior to its collapse, one these structures pillars stood 11 meters high from the ground, the site is believed to correspond with the ancient emporium of Nikon, which is described in the 1st century CE Greco-Roman travelogue the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. In the southern town of Hannassa, ruins of houses with archways and courtyards have been found along with pillar tombs. Additionally, various pillar tombs exist in the southeastern Marca area, local tradition holds that these were built in the 16th century, when the Ajuran Sultanates naaibs governed the district. On the coastal plain 20 km to Alulas east are ruins of an ancient monument in a platform style. The structure is formed by a dry stone wall that is low in height. Relatively large standing stones are positioned on the edifices corners. Near the platform are graves, which are outlined in stones,24 m by 17 m in dimension, the structure is the largest of a string of ancient platform and enclosed platform monuments exclusive to far northeastern Somalia. Around 200 stone monuments are found in the northeastern Botiala site, the bigger cairns are covered in shingles and tend to be more sturdily constructed
Somali architecture
–
Ancient
cairns in
Qa’ableh.
Somali architecture
–
Sheikh Darod 's tomb in the ancient town of
Haylaan.
Somali architecture
–
Ruins of the
Sultanate of Adal in
Zeila.
23.
Sudano-Sahelian architecture
–
This style is characterized by the use of mudbricks and adobe plaster, with large wooden-log support beams that jut out from the wall face for large buildings such as mosques or palaces. These beams also act as scaffolding for reworking, which is done at regular intervals, the earliest examples of Sudano-Sahelian style probably come from Jenné-Jeno around 250 BC, where the first evidence of permanent mudbrick architecture in the region is found. The earthen architecture in the Sahel zone region is different from the building style in the neighboring savannah. The old Sudanese cultivators of the savannah built their compounds out of several cone-roofed houses and this was primarily an urban building style, associated with centres of trade and wealth, characterised by cubic buildings with terraced roofs comprise the typical style. They lend a characteristic appearance to the villages and cities. Large buildings such as mosques, representative residential and youth houses stand out in the distance and they are landmarks in a flat landscape that point to a complex society of farmers, craftsmen and merchants with a religious and political upper class. The Sudano-Sahelian architectural style itself can be broken down into four smaller sub-styles that are typical of different ethnic groups in the region, the examples used here illustrate the construction of mosques as well as palaces, as the architectural style is concentrated around inland Muslim populations. As with the people, many of these styles cross-pollinate and produce buildings with shared features, any one of these styles is not exclusive to one particular modern countries borders, but are linked to the ethnicity of its builders or surrounding populations. For example, a Malian migrant community in traditionally Gur area may build in the characteristic of their ancestral homeland. These styles include, Malian - of the various Manden groups of southern, characterized by the Great Mosque of Djenne and the Kani-Kombole Mosque of Mali. Military aspect to construction of high protective compound walls built around a central courtyard, minaret is the only structure with support beams showing. Characterized by the Sankore Mosque of Timbuktu, the tomb of Askia in Gao Mali, characterised by its attention of stucco detail in abstract design and extensive use of parapets. Examples in the architecture of the Yamma Mosque and old town of Zinder, The Hausa quarter of Agadez Niger, the Gidan Rumfa of Kano, volta basin - of the Gur and Manden groups of Burkina Faso, northern Ghana and northern Cote dIvoire. The most conservative of the three styles, a single courtyard, characterized by high white and black painted walls, inward curved turrets supporting an exterior wall, and a larger turret nearer the center. Characterized by the Larabanga mosque of Ghana and the Bobo-Dioulasso Grand Mosque, Sankore University Larabanga Agadez Great Mosque of Djenné Aradeon, Suzan B. Al-Sahili, the myth of architectural technology transfer from North Africa, Journal des Africanistes,59, 99–131. Bourgeois, Jean-Louis, Pelos, Carollee, Davidson, Basil, Spectacular vernacular, prussin, Labelle, Hatumere, Islamic design in West Africa, Berkeley, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-03004-4. Schutyser, S. Dethier, J. Gruner, D. Banco, Adobe Mosques of the Inner Niger Delta, Milan,5 Continents Editions, ISBN 88-7439-051-3
Sudano-Sahelian architecture
–
The
Great Mosque of Djenne, Mali (Malian).
Sudano-Sahelian architecture
–
Agadez Grand Mosque, Niger (Fortress style).
Sudano-Sahelian architecture
–
Larabanga Mosque, Ghana (Gur-Voltaic).
Sudano-Sahelian architecture
–
An ancestral Hausa multi-storey townhouse exhibiting the Tubali /Hausa architectural style,
Agadez, central
Niger.
24.
Islamic art
–
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onward by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by or ruled by culturally Islamic populations. The huge field of Islamic architecture is the subject of an article, leaving fields as varied as calligraphy, painting, glass, pottery. Islamic art is not at all restricted to art, but includes all the art of the rich. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, figurative painting may cover religious scenes, but normally in essentially secular contexts such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry. There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque. The arabesque in Islamic art is used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible. Mistakes in repetitions may be introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection. Human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art, above all in the private form of miniatures. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is forbidden in some interpretations of Islamic law. There are also depictions of Muhammad, Islams chief prophet. Small decorative figures of animals and humans, especially if they are hunting the animals, are found on pieces in many media from many periods. Other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation, Islamic calligraphy in the form of painting or sculptures are sometimes referred to as quranic art. Large inscriptions made from tiles, sometimes with the letters raised in relief, complex carved calligraphy also decorates buildings. For most of the Islamic period the majority of coins only showed lettering, the tughra or monogram of an Ottoman sultan was used extensively on official documents, with very elaborate decoration for important ones. Other single sheets of calligraphy, designed for albums, might contain short poems, Quranic verses, or other texts. The main languages, all using Arabic script, are Arabic, always used for Quranic verses, Persian in the Persianate world, especially for poetry, calligraphers usually had a higher status than other artists. The tradition of the Persian miniature has been dominant since about the 13th century, strongly influencing the Ottoman miniature of Turkey, portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, then becoming very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style, while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized, album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals or animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex
Islamic art
–
Detail of
arabesque decoration at the
Alhambra in Spain
Islamic art
–
The Ardabil Carpet, probably the finest surviving
Persian carpet,
Tabriz, mid-16th century
Islamic art
–
Part of a 15th-century ceramic panel from
Samarkand with
arabesque background
Islamic art
–
Scene from the
Khamsa of Nizami, Persian, 1539–43
25.
Islamic calligraphy
–
Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy, based upon the alphabet in the lands sharing a common Islamic cultural heritage. It includes Arabic, Ottoman, and Persian calligraphy and it is known in Arabic as khatt Islami, meaning Islamic line, design, or construction. The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the Quran, chapters, deep religious association with the Quran, as well as suspicion of figurative art as idolatrous has led calligraphy to become one of the major forms of artistic expression in Islamic cultures. As Islamic calligraphy is highly venerated, most works follow examples set by well established calligraphers, in antiquity, a pupil would copy a masters work repeatedly until their handwriting was similar. The most common style is divided into angular and cursive, each divided into several sub-styles. Some styles are often written using a metallic-tip pen, Islamic calligraphy is applied on a wide range of decorative mediums other than paper, such as tiles, vessels, carpets, and inscriptions. Before the advent of paper, papyrus and parchment were used for writing, the advent of paper revolutionized calligraphy. While monasteries in Europe treasured a few volumes, libraries in the Muslim world regularly contained hundreds. Coins were another support for calligraphy, beginning in 692, the Islamic caliphate reformed the coinage of the Near East by replacing visual depiction with words. This was especially true for dinars, or gold coins of high value, generally the coins were inscribed with quotes from the Quran. By the tenth century, the Persians, who had converted to Islam, so precious were calligraphic inscribed textiles that Crusaders brought them to Europe as prized possessions. A notable example is the Suaire de Saint-Josse, used to wrap the bones of St. Josse in the Abbey of St. Josse-sur-Mer near Caen in northwestern France, Kufic is the oldest form of the Arabic script. The style emphasizes rigid and angular strokes, which appears as a form of the old Nabataean script. The Archaic Kufi consisted of about 17 letters without diacritic dots or accents, afterwards, dots and accents were added to help readers with pronunciation, and the set of Arabic letters rose to 29. It is developed around the end of the 7th century in the areas of Kufa, Iraq, the style later developed into several varieties, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and squared kufi. There were no set rules of using the Kufic script, the common feature is the angular, linear shapes of the characters. Common varieties include square Kufic, a known as bannai. Contemporary calligraphy using this style is popular in modern decorations
Islamic calligraphy
–
Calligraphy
Islamic calligraphy
–
The phrase
Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the
Ottoman region.
Islamic calligraphy
–
9th century
Qur'an, an early kufic example from the
Abbasid period.
Islamic calligraphy
–
Bowl with
Kufic Calligraphy, 10th century.
Brooklyn Museum.
26.
Persian miniature
–
A Persian miniature is a small painting on paper, whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called a muraqqa. The techniques are comparable to the Western and Byzantine traditions of miniatures in illuminated manuscripts. The tradition continued, under some Western influence, after this, the Persian miniature was the dominant influence on other Islamic miniature traditions, principally the Ottoman miniature in Turkey, and the Mughal miniature in the Indian sub-continent. Persian art under Islam had never completely forbidden the human figure and this was partly because the miniature is a private form, kept in a book or album and only shown to those the owner chooses. It was therefore possible to be free than in wall paintings or other works seen by a wider audience. In Islamic art this is referred to as illumination, and manuscripts of the Quran, in later periods miniatures were increasingly created as single works to be included in albums called muraqqa, rather than illustrated books. This allowed non-royal collectors to afford a representative sample of works from different styles, the bright and pure colouring of the Persian miniature is one of its most striking features. Lighting is even, without shadows or chiaroscuro, walls and other surfaces are shown either frontally, or as at an angle of about 45 degrees, often giving the modern viewer the unintended impression that a building is hexagonal in plan. Buildings are often shown in complex views, mixing interior views through windows or cutaways with exterior views of parts of a facade. Costumes and architecture are always those of the time, many figures are often depicted, with those in the main scene normally rendered at the same size, and recession indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space. More important figures may be larger than those around them. The dress of figures is shown with great care, although artists understandably often avoid depicting the patterned cloth that many would have worn. Even when a scene in a palace is shown, the viewpoint often appears to be from a point some metres in the air. This is used in all the manuscripts for the court that constitute the most famous Persian manuscripts. The miniatures normally occupy a full page, later spreading across two pages to regain a square or horizontal landscape format. There are often panels of text or captions inside the picture area, the rest of the page is often decorated with dense designs of plants and animals in a muted grisaille, often gold and brown, text pages without miniatures often also have such borders. In later manuscripts, elements of the miniature begin to expand beyond the frame, another later development was the album miniature, conceived as a single picture rather than a book illustration, though such images may be accompanied by short lyric poems. The withdrawal of Shah Tahmasp I from commissioning illustrated books in the 1540s probably encouraged artists to transfer to these works for a wider circle of patrons
Persian miniature
–
Behzad 's Advice of the Ascetic (c. 1500-1550). As in Western
illuminated manuscripts, exquisitely decorated borders were an integral part of the work of art.
Persian miniature
–
Camp scene from late in the classic period, with no frame.
Majnun (at top wearing orange) spies on his beloved Layla (standing in tent doorway)
Persian miniature
–
Saki, album miniature by
Reza Abbasi, 1609
Persian miniature
–
Complex palace scene, 1539-43,
Mir Sayyid Ali
27.
Oriental rug
–
An oriental rug is a heavy textile, made for a wide variety of utilitarian and symbolic purpose, produced in “Oriental countries” for home use, local sale, and export. Oriental carpets can be woven or flat woven without pile, using various materials such as silk, wool. Since the High Middle Ages, oriental rugs have been a part of their cultures of origin, as well as of the European and, later on. Geographically, oriental rugs are made in a referred to as the “Rug Belt”, which stretches from Morocco across North Africa, the Middle East. It includes countries such as northern China, Tibet, Turkey, Iran, the Maghreb in the west, the Caucasus in the north, people from different cultures, countries, racial groups and religious faiths are involved in the production of oriental rugs. The beginning of carpet weaving remains unknown, as carpets are subject to use, deterioration, there is little archaeological evidence to support any theory about the origin of the pile-woven carpet. The earliest surviving fragments are spread over a wide geographic area. Woven rugs probably developed from earlier floor coverings, made of felt, flat-woven rugs are made by tightly interweaving the warp and weft strands of the weave to produce a flat surface with no pile. The technique of weaving carpets further developed into a known as extra-weft wrapping weaving, a technique which produces soumak. Loop weaving is done by pulling the strings over a gauge rod. The rod is then removed, leaving the loops closed, or the loops are cut over the protecting rod. Typically, hand-woven pile rugs are produced by knotting strings of thread individually into the warps, the fabric is then further stabilized by weaving in one or more strings of weft, and compacted by beating with a comb. It seems likely that knotted-pile carpets have been produced by people who were familiar with extra-weft wrapping techniques. Probably the oldest existing texts referring to carpets are preserved in writing on clay tablets from the royal archives of the kingdom of Mari. The Akkadian word for rug is mardatu, and specialist rug weavers referred to as kāşiru are distinguished from other specialized professions like sack-makers. Palace inventories from the archives of Nuzi, from the 15th/14th century BC, there are documentary records of carpets being used by the ancient Greeks. Homer writes in Ilias XVII,350 that the body of Patroklos is covered with a “splendid carpet”, in Odyssey Book VII and X “carpets” are mentioned. Around 400 BC, the Greek author Xenophon mentions “carpets” in his book “Anabasis” and it is unknown whether these were flatweaves or pile weaves, as no detailed technical information is provided in the texts
Oriental rug
–
The Islamic World:
Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by
Al-Idrisi in 1154, one of the most advanced
ancient world maps.
Oriental rug
Oriental rug
–
Carpet fragment,
Loulan, Xinjiang province, China, dated to 3rd-4th century AD.
British Museum, London
28.
Persian carpet
–
Carpet weaving is an essential part of Persian culture and art. Within the group of Oriental rugs or Islamic carpets produced by the countries of the rug belt. Persian carpets and rugs of various types were woven in parallel by nomadic tribes, in village and town workshops, as such, they represent different, simultaneous lines of tradition, and reflect the history of Iran and its various peoples. Their patterns and designs have set a tradition for court manufactories which was kept alive during the entire duration of the Persian Empire up to the last royal dynasty of Iran. Town manufactories like those of Tabriz have played an important historical role in reviving the tradition of carpet weaving after periods of decline, Rugs woven by the villages and various tribes of Iran are distinguished by their fine wool, bright and elaborate colours, and specific, traditional patterns. Gabbeh rugs are the type of carpet from this line of tradition. The art and craft of weaving has gone through periods of decline during times of political unrest. It particularly suffered from the introduction of synthetic dyes during the half of the nineteenth century. Carpet weaving still plays a part in the economy of modern Iran. Hand-woven Persian carpets and rugs were regarded as objects of artistic and utilitarian value and prestige from the first time they were mentioned by ancient Greek writers. In 2010, the skills of carpet weaving in Fārs. The beginning of carpet weaving remains unknown, as carpets are subject to use, deterioration, woven rugs probably developed from earlier floor coverings, made of felt, or a technique known as flat weaving. Flat-woven rugs are made by tightly interweaving the warp and weft strands of the weave to produce a surface with no pile. The technique of weaving carpets further developed into a known as loop weaving. Loop weaving is done by pulling the strings over a gauge rod. The rod is then removed, leaving the loops closed, or the loops are cut over the protecting rod. Hand-woven pile rugs are produced by knotting strings of thread individually into the warps, the Pazyryk carpet was excavated in 1949 from the grave of a Scythian nobleman in the Pazyryk Valley of the Altai Mountains in Siberia. Radiocarbon testing indicated that the Pazyryk carpet was woven in the 5th century BC and this carpet is 183 by 200 centimetres and has 36 symmetrical knots per cm²
Persian carpet
–
Persian arts
Persian carpet
Persian carpet
–
The
Pazyryk Carpet. Circa 400 BC.
Hermitage Museum
Persian carpet
–
A Mongol prince studying the Koran. Illustration of Rashid-ad-Din's Gami' at-tawarih. Tabriz (?), 1st quarter of 14th century
29.
Turkish carpet
–
It denotes a knotted, pile-woven floor or wall covering which is produced for home use, local sale, and export. Carpet weaving represents a traditional art, dating back to pre-Islamic times, during its long history, the art and craft of the woven carpet has integrated different cultural traditions. The arrival of Islam and the development of the Islamic art also influenced Turkish carpet design, the history of its designs, motifs and ornaments thus reflects the political and ethnic history and diversity of the area of Asia minor. However, scientific attempts were unsuccessful, as yet, to attribute a particular design to an ethnic, regional. When political contacts and trade became more intense between Western Europe and the Islamic world after the 12th century AD, also woven carpets became known in Europe. When Western European art historians developed a scientific interest in oriental carpets in the late 19th century, within the group of oriental carpets, the Turkish carpet is distinguished by particular characteristics of dyes and colours, designs, textures and techniques. Usually made of wool and cotton, Turkish carpets are tied with the Turkish, examples range in size from pillow to large, room-sized carpets. The earliest known examples for Turkish carpets date from the thirteenth century, distinct types of carpets have been woven ever since in workshops, in more provincial weaving facilities, as well as in villages, tribal settlements, or by nomads. Carpets were simultaneously produced for different levels of society, with varying materials like sheep wool. No silk piled carpets made in Turkey have been found that were before 1870, not till the early 20th century were silk pile carpets knotted in Turkey using silver and gold threads with patterns based upon 16th century Imperial Safavid Iranian carpets. Turkish carpets are regarded as objects of art in their country of origin, in Europe, Turkish carpets appear in Renaissance paintings, providing a context of prestige and dignity which is still understood today. Since the late century, Turkish and oriental carpets have been subject to art historic and scientific interest in the Western world. More recently, also woven carpets have attracted collectors and scientists interest. In the late century, projects started to revive the traditional art of Turkish carpet weaving by using hand-spun, naturally-dyed wool. The raw material to produce carpets had to be available during the migration. Sheep and goats provided the wool, natural dye could be derived from plants, as such, woven tissues could serve both utilitarian and decorative purposes, depending on the shape and size in which they were produced. The beginning of carpet weaving remains unknown, as carpets are subject to use, deterioration, controversy arose over the accuracy of the claim that the oldest records of flat woven kilims come from the Çatalhöyük excavations, dated to circa 7000 BC. The excavators report remained unconfirmed, as the paintings depicting kilim motifs were said to have disintegrated shortly after their exposure
Turkish carpet
–
Anatolian double-niche rug, Konya region, circa 1650-1750
LACMA M.2004.32
Turkish carpet
Turkish carpet
–
The
Pazyryk Carpet. Circa 400 BC.
Hermitage Museum
Turkish carpet
–
Animal carpet, Turkey, dated to the 11th–13th century,
Museum of Islamic Art, Doha
30.
Islam and clothing
–
Muslims are concerned with clothing in two contexts, clothing for everyday wear, inside and outside the house, and clothing required in specifically religious contexts. Say to the men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty. Turn ye all together towards Allah, that ye may attain Bliss, tell thy wives and thy daughters and the women of the believers to draw their cloaks close round them. That will be better, so that they may be recognized, the Quran admonishes Muslim women to dress modestly and cover their breasts and genitals but it doesnt require covering the head. The Quran explicitly states that O wives of the Prophet, you are not like anyone among women, Islamic dress in Europe, notably the variety of headdresses worn by Muslim women, has become a prominent symbol of the presence of Islam in western Europe. In several countries the adherence to hijab has led to political controversies, the Netherlands government has decided to introduce a ban on face-covering clothing, popularly described as the burqa ban, although it does not only apply to the Afghan-model burqa. Other countries, such as France and Australia are debating similar legislation, although the Balkans and Eastern Europe have indigenous Muslim populations, most Muslims in western Europe are members of immigrant communities. The issue of Islamic dress is linked with issues of immigration, European Commissioner Franco Frattini said in November 2006, that he did not favour a ban on the burqa. This is apparently the first official statement on the issue of prohibition of Islamic dress from the European Commission, the reasons given for prohibition vary. Legal bans on face-covering clothing are often justified on security grounds, Ayaan Hirsi Ali sees Islam as incompatible with Western values, at least in its present form. She advocates the values of Enlightenment liberalism, including secularism and equality of women, for her, the burqa or chador are both a symbol of religious obscurantism and the oppression of women. Western Enlightenment values, in her view, require prohibition, regardless of whether a woman has freely chosen Islamic dress. Islamic dress is seen as a symbol of the existence of parallel societies. Visible symbols of a non-Christian culture conflict with the identity in European states. In France and Turkey, the emphasis is on the nature of the state. In Turkey, bans apply at state institutions and in state-funded education, an apparently less politicised argument is that in specific professions, a ban on veils is justified, since face-to-face communication and eye contact is required. This argument has featured prominently in judgements in Britain and the Netherlands, public and political response to such prohibition proposals is complex, since by definition they mean that the government decides on individual clothing. Some non-Muslims, who would not be affected by a ban, see it as an issue of civil liberties, a public opinion poll in London showed that 75 percent of Londoners support the right of all persons to dress in accordance with their religious beliefs
Islam and clothing
–
Muslim women by Islamic dress code, wearing hijab and
niqab.
Islam and clothing
–
Female art students in
Afghanistan.
Islam and clothing
–
Hijab-wearing
Bangladeshi women shopping at a department store in
Comilla,
Bangladesh.
Islam and clothing
–
Hijab clad female members of a Bangladeshi family seen in
Mecca,
Saudi Arabia amid
pilgrimage.
