1.
Mitch Kapor
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In 1990 with John Perry Barlow and John Gilmore, he co-founded the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and served as its chairman until 1994. Kapor has been an investor in the computing industry, and supporter of social causes, like the Hidden Genius Project, The College Bound Brotherhood. Kapor was born in Brooklyn, New York, and raised on Long Island in Freeport, New York and he received a B. A. C. at the time. He began but did not complete a degree at MIT’s Sloan School of Management but later served on the faculty of the MIT Media Lab. Lotus was founded in 1982 by partners Mitch Kapor and Jonathan Sachs with backing from Ben Rosen, Lotus first product was presentation software for the Apple II known as Lotus Executive Briefing System. Kapor founded Lotus after leaving his post as head of development at VisiCorp, the distributors of the Visicalc spreadsheet, shortly after Kapor left Visi-Corp, he and Sachs produced an integrated spreadsheet and graphics program. Even though IBM and VisiCorp had an agreement whereby Visi-Calc was being shipped simultaneously with the PC. Lotus released Lotus 1-2-3 on January 26,1983, the name referred to the three ways the product could be used, as a spreadsheet, graphics package, and database manager. In practice the two functions were less often used, but 1-2-3 was the most powerful spreadsheet program available. Jerome Want says, Under founder and CEO Mitch Kapor, Lotus was a company with few rules, Kapor decided that he was no longer suited to running a company, and he replaced himself with Jim Manzi. Kapor was extensively involved in initiatives that created the modern Internet and he co-founded the Electronic Frontier Foundation in 1990 and served as its chairman until 1994. EFF defends civil liberties in the world and works to ensure that rights. Kapor attended the first Wikimania in 2005 and he was also founding Chair of the Commercial Internet Exchange. In 2003, Kapor became the founding Chair of the Mozilla Foundation, Kapor serves on the advisory board of the Sunlight Foundation. In May 2009, after founder Susan P. Crawford had joined the Obama administration, in 1996, the Computer History Museum named him a Museum Fellow for his development of Lotus 1-2-3, the first major software application for the IBM PC. He founded the Mitchell Kapor Foundation to support his philanthropic interests in environmental health, as an active angel investor, Kapor participated in the initial rounds of Dropcam, Twilio, Asana, Cleanify, and Uber. In August 2015, Mitch and Freada announced they would invest $40 million over three years to accelerate their work to make the tech ecosystem more inclusive and he is married to Freada Kapor Klein and resides in Oakland and Healdsburg, California. Both served on the Board of Trustees of the Summer Science Program from 2004 to 2006 and he was a student of the program in 1966
2.
John Perry Barlow
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John Perry Barlow is an American poet and essayist, a retired Wyoming cattle rancher, and a cyberlibertarian political activist who has been associated with both the Democratic and Republican parties. He is also a former lyricist for the Grateful Dead and a member of the Electronic Frontier Foundation. He is Fellow Emeritus at Harvard Universitys Berkman Center for Internet and Society and he has been identified by Time magazine as one of the School of Rock,10 Supersmart Musicians. John Perry Barlow was born in Sublette County, Wyoming, to parents Norman Barlow, a Republican state legislator, and his wife, Miriam. He grew up on the 22, 000-acre Bar Cross Ranch near Pinedale, Wyoming that was founded by his uncle in 1907. At age 15, he became a student at the Fountain Valley School in Colorado, Barlow met Bob Weir there, who would later join the music group the Grateful Dead. Weir and Barlow maintained contact throughout the years, as a frequent visitor to Timothy Learys facility in Millbrook, New York, Barlow introduced the musical group to Leary in 1967. In 1969, Barlow graduated with honors in comparative religion from Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut. While on his way to California to reunite with the Grateful Dead in 1971, he stopped at his familys ranch, not intending to stay. He ended up changing his plans and began practicing animal husbandry in Cora, Wyoming, at the Bar Cross Land and Livestock Company for almost two decades before selling the business in 1988. In the meantime, Barlow was still able to play an role in the Grateful Dead while recruiting many unconventional part-time ranch hands from the mainstream as well as the counterculture. John Byrne Cooke is currently producing a film that documents this era, the seeds of the Barlow–Weir collaboration were sown at a Grateful Dead show at the Capitol Theater in Port Chester, New York, in February 1971. Until then, Weir had mostly worked with resident Dead lyricist Robert Hunter, Hunter preferred that those who sang his songs stick to his canonical lyrics rather than improvising additions or rearranging words. A feud erupted backstage over a couplet in Sugar Magnolia from the bands most recent release, culminating in a disgruntled Hunter summoning Barlow and telling him take —hes yours. In the fall of 1971, with a deal for an album in hand. Barlow also collaborated with Grateful Dead keyboardists Brent Mydland and Vince Welnick, in 1986, Barlow joined The WELL online community, then known for a strong Deadhead presence. He served on the board of directors for several years. In 1990, Barlow founded the Electronic Frontier Foundation along with fellow digital-rights activists John Gilmore, as a founder of EFF, Barlow helped publicize the Secret Service raid on Steve Jackson Games
3.
John Gilmore (activist)
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John Gilmore is one of the founders of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, the Cypherpunks mailing list, and Cygnus Solutions. He created the alt. * hierarchy in Usenet and is a contributor to the GNU project. An outspoken civil libertarian, Gilmore has sued the Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Justice and he was the plaintiff in the prominent case Gilmore v. Gonzales, challenging secret travel-restriction laws. He is also an advocate for policy reform. He co-authored the Bootstrap Protocol in 1985, which evolved into DHCP - the primary way local networks assign devices an IP address, as the fifth employee of Sun Microsystems and founder of Cygnus Support, he became wealthy enough to retire early and pursue other interests. Outside of the GNU project he founded the FreeS/WAN project, an implementation of IPsec and he sponsored the EFFs Deep Crack DES cracker, the Micropolis city building game based on SimCity, and he is a proponent of opportunistic encryption. Gilmore co-authored the Bootstrap Protocol with Bill Croft in 1985, the Bootstrap Protocol evolved into DHCP, the method by which Ethernet and wireless networks typically assign devices an IP address. Gilmore owns the name toad. com, which is one of the 100 oldest active. com domains. It was registered on August 18,1987 and he runs the mail server at toad. com as an open mail relay. In October 2002, Gilmores ISP, Verio, cut off his Internet access for running an open relay, many people contend that open relays make it too easy to send spam. Gilmore protests that his mail server was programmed to be useless to spammers and other senders of mass email. Gilmore famously stated of Internet censorship that The Net interprets censorship as damage and he unsuccessfully challenged the constitutionality of secret laws regarding travel security policies in Gilmore v. Gonzales. He is a member of the boards of MAPS, the Marijuana Policy Project, Gilmore has received the Free Software Foundations Advancement of Free Software 2009 award. Official website Gilmore v. Gonzales information Verio censored John Gilmores email under pressure from anti-spammers, John Gilmore on inflight activism, spam and sarongs, interview by Mikael Pawlo, August 18,2004. Gilmore on Secret Laws / Gonzales case, audio interview,13 November 2006
4.
Nonprofit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
5.
Digital rights
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Internet access is recognized as a right by the laws of several countries. A number of rights have been identified as relevant with regard to the Internet. These include freedom of expression, data protection and privacy and freedom of association, furthermore, the right to education and multilingualism, consumer rights, and capacity building in the context of the right to development have also been identified. The Internet is a public good that should be accessible to all and respectful of the rights of others. What the law permits or prohibits offline must also be the case online, the only widespread international consensus on online material to be censored regards child pornography and cyberterrorism, the article said. This includes the right of access to these technologies, in particular. Estonia, In 2000, the parliament launched a program to expand access to the countryside. The Internet, the government argues, is essential for life in the 21st century, Finland, By July 2010, every person in Finland was to have access to a one-megabit per second broadband connection, according to the Ministry of Transport and Communications. And by 2015, access to a 100 Mbit/s connection, the APC Internet Rights Charter was established by the Association for Progressive Communications at the APC Europe Internet Rights Workshop, held in Prague, February 2001. In December 2003 the World Summit on the Information Society was convened under the auspice of the United Nations and we also reaffirm that democracy, sustainable development, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms as well as good governance at all levels are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. Communication is a social process, a basic human need. It is central to the Information Society, everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits of the Information Society offers. In 2005, the United Kingdoms Open Rights Group published a digital landscape, documenting the range of organizations. The diagram related groups, individuals, and websites to interest areas, on October 29,2008 the Global Network Initiative was founded upon its Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy. Participants in the Initiative include the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Human Rights Watch, Google, Microsoft, Yahoo, other companies, human rights NGOs, investors. According to reports Cisco Systems was invited to the initial discussions, Harrington Investments, which proposed that Cisco establish a human rights board, has dismissed the GNI as a voluntary code of conduct having any impact. Chief executive John Harrington called the GNI meaningless noise and instead calls for bylaws to be introduced that force boards of directors to accept human rights responsibilities. GlobeScan Chairman Doug Miller felt, overall, that the poll showed that, Despite worries about privacy and fraud and they think the web is a force for good, and most don’t want governments to regulate it
6.
Lobbying
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Lobbying is the act of attempting to influence the actions, policies, or decisions of officials in their daily life, most often legislators or members of regulatory agencies. Lobbying is done by many types of people, associations and organized groups, including individuals in the sector, corporations, fellow legislators or government officials. Lobbyists may be among a legislators constituencies, meaning a voter or bloc of voters within their district, or not, they may engage in lobbying as a business. Professional lobbyists are people whose business is trying to influence legislation, regulation, or other government decisions, actions, individuals and nonprofit organizations can also lobby as an act of volunteering or as a small part of their normal job. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying that has become influential, the ethics and morality of lobbying are dual-edged. Lobbying is often spoken of with contempt, when the implication is that people with inordinate socioeconomic power are corrupting the law in order to serve their own interests. The failure of government officials to serve the public interest as a consequence of lobbying by special interests who provide benefits to the official is an example of agent misdirection. One story held that the term originated at the Willard Hotel in Washington, DC, a lobbyist is a person who tries to influence legislation on behalf of a special interest or a member of a lobby. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying as part of laws to prevent political corruption, Lobby groups may concentrate their efforts on the legislatures, where laws are created, but may also use the judicial branch to advance their causes. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, for example, filed suits in state and their efforts resulted in the Supreme Court declaring such laws unconstitutional. They may use a device known as amicus curiae, literally friend of the court. Briefs are written documents filed with a court, typically by parties to a lawsuit, amici curiae briefs are briefs filed by people or groups who are not parties to a suit. These briefs are entered into the records, and give additional background on the matter being decided upon. Advocacy groups use these briefs both to share their expertise and to promote their positions, over the past twenty years lobbying in Australia has grown from a small industry of a few hundred employees to a multibillion-dollar per year industry. Lobbying has become a fact of life and is now endemic in local, state. It is not just the local councillors and state and federal politicians being lobbied, in Australia, lobbyists are expected to organise a pass to obtain access to the federal parliament. The Parliamentary Pass must be signed by two parliamentarians and it is administered by the Department of Parliamentary Services and has the enforcement of the Criminal Code Act 1995. The Pass is valid for two years, however, the Parliamentary Pass is not absolutely necessary, as some lobbyists are simply signed in on the day of their visit as guests of Senators or Members
7.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
8.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
9.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
10.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
11.
Brian Behlendorf
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Brian Behlendorf is a technologist, executive, computer programmer, and an important figure in the open-source software movement. Behlendorf served as President of the Foundation for three years, Behlendorf has served on the board of the Mozilla Foundation since 2003, Benetech since 2009 and the Electronic Frontier Foundation since 2013. Behlendorf, raised in Southern California, became interested in the development of the Internet while he was a student at the University of California. One of his first projects was a mailing list and online music resource, SFRaves. Behlendorf was a participant and the chief technology guru for the Burning Man festival. In 1993, Behlendorf, Jonathan Nelson, Matthew Nelson and Cliff Skolnick co-founded Organic, so, Behlendorf patched the open-source code to support HotWireds requirements. By the end of February 1995, eight core contributors to the project started Apache as a fork of the NCSA codebase, working loosely together, they eventually rewrote the entire original program as the Apache HTTP Server. In 1999, the project incorporated as the Apache Software Foundation, Behlendorf was the CTO of the World Economic Forum. He is also a director and CTO of CollabNet, a company he co-founded with OReilly & Associates in 1999 to develop tools for enabling collaborative. CollabNet used to be the corporate sponsor of the open source version control system Subversion. He continues to be involved with electronic music community events such as Chillits, in 2003, he was named to the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35. Behlendorf was a Managing Director at Mithril Capital, a technology investment firm based in San Francisco from 2014 until he joined the Linux Foundation. In 2016, he was appointed Executive Director of the open source Hyperledger project at the Linux Foundation to advance blockchain technology, revolution OS2001 documentary on Linux, open source, etc. SFRaves History Hyperreal Funding Info Personal homepage Organic, Inc
12.
Cindy Cohn
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Cindy Cohn is an American civil liberties attorney specializing in Internet law. She represented Daniel J. Bernstein and the Electronic Frontier Foundation in Bernstein v. United States, in 1997 she was recognized by California Lawyer Magazine as one of the Lawyers of the Year for this work. After serving for 15 years as Legal Director and General Counsel for the Electronic Frontier Foundation, in 2006, Ms. Cohn was named one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America by the National Law Journal. Ms. Cohn also serves on the Board of Directors of the nonprofits Human Rights Advocates, Cohn studied law at the University of Michigan. She received her degree at the University of Iowa and the London School of Economics. In addition to Bernstein, some of Ms. Cohns significant cases include Hepting v. AT&T, litigation, OPG v. Diebold, and DVDCCA v. Bunner. Cindy Cohns Bio on EFF Site Human Rights Advocates Home Page Appearances on C-SPAN
13.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
14.
Civil liberties
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Civil liberties or personal freedoms are personal guarantees and freedoms that the government cannot abridge, either by law or by judicial interpretation, without due process. Other civil liberties include the right to own property, the right to defend oneself, within the distinctions between civil liberties and other types of liberty, distinctions exist between positive liberty/positive rights and negative liberty/negative rights. Many contemporary states have a constitution, a bill of rights, or similar constitutional documents that enumerate, the existence of some claimed civil liberties is a matter of dispute, as are the extent of most civil rights. Controversial examples include property rights, reproductive rights, and civil marriage, whether the existence of victimless crimes infringes upon civil liberties is a matter of dispute. Another matter of debate is the suspension or alteration of certain civil liberties in times of war or state of emergency, including whether and to what extent this should occur. The formal concept of civil liberties is often dated back to Magna Carta, the Constitution of Peoples Republic of China, especially its Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, claims to protect many civil liberties. Taiwan, which is separated from China, has its own Constitution, the Fundamental Rights—embodied in Part III of the constitution—guarantee liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace as citizens of India. The six fundamental rights are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, incorporated in the law of the land and are enforceable in a court of law. Violations of these result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code. These rights are neither absolute nor immune from constitutional amendments and they have been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they resulted in abolishment of un-touchability and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and they forbid human trafficking and unfree labour. They protect cultural and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages, all people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have the right to approach the High Courts or the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the party has to be the one to do so. In public interest, anyone can initiate litigation in the court on their behalf and this is known as Public interest litigation. High Court and Supreme Court judges can also act on their own on the basis of media reports, the Fundamental Rights emphasize equality by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of public institutions and protections, irrespective of their background. The rights to life and personal liberty apply for persons of any nationality, while others, such as the freedom of speech, the right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India. Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, for instance, the constitution abolishes untouchability and prohibits begar
15.
Amicus curiae
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An amicus curiae is someone who is not a party to a case and is not solicited by a party, but who assists a court by offering information that bears on the case. The decision on whether to admit the information lies at the discretion of the court, the phrase amicus curiae is legal Latin. The amicus curiae figure originates in Roman law, starting in the 9th century, it was incorporated into English law, and it was later extended to most common law systems. Later, it was introduced in law, in particular concerning human rights. From there, it was integrated in some civil law systems, the role of an amicus is often confused with that of an intervener. The role of an amicus is, as stated by Salmon LJ in Allen v Sir Alfred McAlpine & Sons Ltd 2 QB229 at p. The situation most often noted in the press is when an advocacy group files a brief in a case before a court to which it is not a litigant. Appellate cases are limited to the factual record and arguments coming from the lower court case under appeal. In prominent cases, amici curiae are generally organizations with sizable legal budgets, if a decision could affect an entire industry, companies other than the litigants may wish to have their concerns heard. In the United States, federal courts hear cases involving the constitutionality of state laws. Amici curiae who do not file briefs often present a perspective on the case. For example, if the law gives deference to a history of legislation of a certain topic, an economist, statistician, or sociologist may choose to do the same. Newspaper editorials, blogs, and other opinion pieces arguably have the capability to influence Supreme Court decisions as de facto amici curiae. They are not, however, technically considered amicus curiae, as they do not submit materials to the Court, do not need to ask for leave, and have no guarantee that they will be read. The Supreme Court of the United States has special rules for amicus curiae briefs sought to be filed in cases pending before it. Supreme Court Rule 37 states, in part, such a brief should cover relevant matter not dealt with by the parties which may be of considerable help. The cover of an amicus brief must identify which party the brief is supporting, the Court also requires that, inter alia, all non-governmental amici identify those providing a monetary contribution to the preparation or submission of the brief. Briefs must be prepared in booklet format, and 40 copies must be served with the Court
16.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
17.
Government
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A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the Commonwealth of Nations, the government is also used more narrowly to refer to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state. This usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English, finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways, in political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities. as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the science fields of comparative politics. On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be simple, the United States is a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, for example, elections are a defining characteristic of an electoral democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not free and fair and took place in a one-party state. Voltaire argued that the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, many governments that officially call themselves a democratic republic are not democratic, nor a republic, they are usually a dictatorship de facto. Communist dictatorships have been prone to use this term. For example, the name of North Vietnam was The Democratic Republic of Vietnam. China uses a variant, The Peoples Republic of China, thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic. Experience with those movements in power, and the ties they may have to particular forms of government. For example, The meaning of conservatism in the United States has little in common with the way the words definition is used elsewhere, as Ribuffo notes, what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability
18.
Court
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Similarly, the rights of those accused of a crime include the right to present a defense before a court. The system of courts that interprets and applies the law is known as the judiciary. The place where a court sits is known as a venue, the practical authority given to the court is known as its jurisdiction – the courts power to decide certain kinds of questions or petitions put to it. It is also usual in the courts to have barristers, and attorneys or counsel, as assistants, though, often, courts consist of additional barristers, bailiffs, reporters. The term the court is used to refer to the presiding officer or officials. The judge or panel of judges may also be referred to as the bench. In the United States, and other common law jurisdictions, the court by law is used to describe the judge himself or herself. In the United States, the authority of a court to take action is based on personal jurisdiction, subject-matter jurisdiction. The English word court is a cognate of the Latin word hortus, the verb to court, meaning to win favor, derives from the same source since people traveled to the sovereigns court to win his favor. The word jurisdiction comes from juris and dictio, jurisdiction is defined as the official authority to make legal decisions and judgements over an individual or materialistic item within a territory. Whether a given court has jurisdiction to preside over a case is a key question in any legal action. Three basic components of jurisdiction are jurisdiction over the person (personal jurisdiction, jurisdiction over the subject matter or thing. Other concepts of jurisdiction include general jurisdiction, exclusive jurisdiction, territorial jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction, trial courts are courts that hold trials. Sometimes termed courts of first instance, trial courts have varying original jurisdiction, trial courts may conduct trials with juries as the finders of fact or trials in which judges act as both finders of fact and finders of law. Juries are less common in court systems outside the Anglo-American common law tradition, appellate courts are courts that hear appeals of lower courts and trial courts. Some courts, such as the Crown Court in England and Wales may have both trial and appellate jurisdictions, the two major legal traditions of the western world are the civil law courts and the common law courts. These two great legal traditions are similar, in that they are products of western culture although there are significant differences between the two traditions, civil law courts are profoundly based upon Roman Law, specifically a civil body of law entitled Corpus iuris civilis. Civil law is firmly ensconced in the French and German legal systems, Common law courts were established by English royal judges of the Kings Council after the Norman Invasion of Britain in 1066
19.
Liberty
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Liberty, in philosophy, involves free will as contrasted with determinism. In politics, liberty consists of the social and political freedoms to all community members are entitled. In theology, liberty is freedom from the effects of sin, spiritual servitude, as such, the exercise of liberty is subject to capability and limited by the rights of others. Philosophers from earliest times have considered the question of liberty, according to Thomas Hobbes, a free man is he that in those things which by his strength and wit he is able to do is not hindered to do what he hath the will to do. John Locke rejected that definition of liberty, while not specifically mentioning Hobbes, he attacks Sir Robert Filmer who had the same definition. According to Locke, In the state of nature, liberty consists of being free from any power on Earth. People are not under the will or lawmaking authority of others but have only the law of nature for their rule, in political society, liberty consists of being under no other lawmaking power except that established by consent in the commonwealth. People are free from the dominion of any will or legal restraint apart from that enacted by their own constituted lawmaking power according to the trust put in it. Thus, freedom is not as Sir Robert Filmer defines it, A liberty for everyone to do what he likes, to live as he pleases, freedom is constrained by laws in both the state of nature and political society. Freedom of nature is to be no other restraint but the law of nature. Freedom of people under government is to be under no restraint apart from standing rules to live by that are common to everyone in the society and made by the lawmaking power established in it. Persons have a right or liberty to follow their own will in all things that the law has not prohibited and not be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, and arbitrary wills of others. John Stuart Mill, in his work, On Liberty, was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as the absence of coercion, the modern concept of political liberty has its origins in the Greek concepts of freedom and slavery. To be free, to the Greeks, was to not have a master and that was the original Greek concept of freedom. It is closely linked with the concept of democracy, as Aristotle put it, This, another is that a man should live as he likes. This, they say, is the privilege of a freeman, since, on the other hand and this applied only to free men. In Athens, for instance, women could not vote or hold office and were legally and socially dependent on a male relative, the populations of the Persian Empire enjoyed some degree of freedom. Citizens of all religions and ethnic groups were given the rights and had the same freedom of religion, women had the same rights as men
20.
Database
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A database is a well organized collection of data. It is the collection of schemas, tables, queries, reports, views, a database management system is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB, MariaDB, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, SAP HANA, MemSQL and IBM DB2. Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a database, formally, a database refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information, because of the close relationship between them, the term database is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it. Outside the world of information technology, the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data. This article is concerned only with databases where the size and usage requirements necessitate use of a management system. Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data, retrieval – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by other applications. The retrieved data may be available in a form basically the same as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing data from the database. Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a database model. Database system refers collectively to the model, database management system. Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS, Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. RAID is used for recovery of data if any of the disks fail, hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications, DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. Since DBMSs comprise a significant market, computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans, databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers. Databases are used to hold information and more specialized data. A DBMS has evolved into a software system and its development typically requires thousands of human years of development effort. Some general-purpose DBMSs such as Adabas, Oracle and DB2 have been undergoing upgrades since the 1970s, general-purpose DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible, which adds to the complexity
21.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
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The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
22.
The WELL
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The Whole Earth Lectronic Link, normally shortened to The WELL, is one of the oldest virtual communities in continuous operation. As of June 2012, it had 2,693 members and it is best known for its Internet forums, but also provides email, shell accounts, and web pages. The discussion and topics on The WELL range from serious to trivial, depending on the nature. The WELL was started by Stewart Brand and Larry Brilliant in 1985, and its original management team—Matthew McClure, soon joined by Cliff Figallo and John Coate, collaborated with its early users to foster a sense of virtual community. Gail Ann Williams was hired by Figallo in 1991, as community manager, from 1994 to 1999 The WELL was owned by Bruce Katz, founder of Rockport, a manufacturer of walking shoes. In April 1999 it was acquired by Salon, several of whose founders such as Scott Rosenberg had previously been regular participants there, in August 2005 Salon announced that it was looking for a buyer for The WELL, in order to concentrate on other business lines. In June 2012 Salon once again announced that it was looking for a buyer for The WELL as its subscriber base did not bear financial promise, the community pledged money to take over The WELL itself and rehire important staff. In September 2012, Salon sold The WELL to a new corporation, The WELL Group Inc. owned by a group of eleven investors, the CEO was Earl Crabb, who died on February 20th,2015. The sale price was reported to be $400,000, members have no official role in the management, but can. Go back to what they do best, conversation, notable items in WELL history include being the forum through which John Perry Barlow, John Gilmore, and Mitch Kapor, the founders of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, first met. Howard Rheingold, an early and very active member, was inspired to write his book The Virtual Community by his experience on The WELL, according to Rheingolds book, The WELLs Usenet feed was for years provided by Apple Computer over UUCP. The WELL was an online meeting place for fans of the Grateful Dead, especially those who followed the band from concert to concert, in the late 1980s. The WELL also played a role in the book Takedown about the pursuit, founded in Sausalito, California, the service is now based in San Francisco. The WELL is divided into subject areas known as conferences. These conferences reflect member interests, and include arts, health, business, regions, hobbies, spirituality, music, politics, games, software, within conferences, members open separate conversational threads called topics for specific items of interest. For example, the Media conference has topics devoted to The New York Times, media ethics, an example of a local conference is the one on San Francisco, which has topics on restaurants, the city government, and neighborhood news. Public conferences are open to all members, while private conferences are restricted to a list of users controlled by the conference hosts, some featured private or private independent conferences are listed in the WELLs directory, but are access restricted for privacy or membership-restriction reasons. Members may request admission to such conferences, there are also a large number of unlisted secret private conferences
23.
United States Secret Service
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The United States Secret Service is a federal law enforcement agency under the U. S. Department of Homeland Security. Until 2003, the Service was part of the U. S. Department of the Treasury, the Secret Services initial responsibility was to investigate counterfeiting of U. S. currency, which was rampant following the U. S. Civil War. The agency then evolved into the United States first domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency, the Secret Service has two primary missions, investigation of financial crimes and physical protection of designated protectees. After the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley, Congress also directed the Secret Service to protect the President of the United States, Protection remains the other key mission of the United States Secret Service. From 1997 until 2013, legislation became effective limiting Secret Service protection to former Presidents, President Barack Obama signed legislation reversing this limit and reinstating lifetime protection on January 10,2013. The Secret Service investigates thousands of incidents a year of individuals threatening the President of the United States, the Director of Secret Service is appointed by the President of the United States. With a reported one third of the currency in circulation being counterfeit at the time, Chief William P. Wood was sworn in by Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch. It was commissioned in Washington, D. C. as the Secret Service Division of the Department of the Treasury with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting, the legislation creating the agency was on Abraham Lincolns desk the night he was assassinated. At the time, the other federal law enforcement agencies were the United States Park Police. Post Office Departments Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations, and the U. S. Marshals Service, the Marshals did not have the manpower to investigate all crime under federal jurisdiction, so the Secret Service began to investigate everything from murder to bank robbery to illegal gambling. After the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, Congress informally requested that the Secret Service provide presidential protection, a year later, the Secret Service assumed full-time responsibility for presidential protection. In 1902, William Craig became the first Secret Service agent to die while serving, the Secret Service was the first U. S. domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Domestic intelligence collection and counterintelligence responsibilities were vested in the Federal Bureau of Investigation upon the FBIs creation in 1908, the Secret Service assisted in arresting Japanese American leaders and in the Japanese American internment during World War II. Secret Service is not a part of the U. S, on October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham signaled a Texas Ranger, Private C. R. Moore, in 1950, President Harry S. Truman was residing in Blair House while the White House, across the street, was undergoing renovations. On November 1,1950, two Puerto Rican nationalists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, approached Blair House with the intent to assassinate President Truman, Collazo and Torresola opened fire on Private Leslie Coffelt and other White House Police officers. Though mortally wounded by three shots from a 9 mm German Luger to his chest and abdomen, Private Coffelt returned fire, as of 2017, Coffelt is the only member of the Secret Service killed while protecting a US president against an assassination attempt. Collazo was also shot, but survived his injuries and served 29 years in prison before returning to Puerto Rico in late 1979, in 1968, as a result of Robert F. Kennedys assassination, Congress authorized protection of major presidential and vice presidential candidates and nominees
24.
Steve Wozniak
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Stephen Gary Steve Wozniak, nicknamed Woz, is an American inventor, electronics engineer, programmer, and technology entrepreneur who co-founded Apple Inc. He is known as a pioneer of the computer revolution of the 1970s and 1980s. Wozniak single-handedly developed the 1976 Apple I, which was the computer that launched Apple and he primarily designed the 1977 Apple II, while Jobs oversaw the development of its unusual case and Rod Holt developed the unique power supply. Steve Wozniak was born in San Jose, California, the son of Margaret Elaine and he is of Polish and Swiss-German ancestry. His father was from Bukovyna, Ukraine and his mother from German-Swiss background, the name on Wozniaks birth certificate is Stephan Gary Wozniak, but Steves mother said that she intended it to be spelled Stephen, and Steve is what he uses. Wozniak has been referred to frequently by the nickname Woz, The Wonderful Wizard of Woz, The Second Steve, or The Woz, the city of San Jose named a street Woz Way in his honour. In the early 1970s, Wozniak was also known as Berkeley Blue in the phone phreak community, in 1969, Wozniak returned to the Bay Area after being expelled from University of Colorado Boulder in his first year for hacking into the institutions computer system. During this time, Wozniak designed and built his Cream Soda computer with his friend Bill Fernandez and he later re-enrolled at De Anza College and transferred to University of California, Berkeley in 1971. Before focusing his attention on Apple, he was employed at Hewlett-Packard where he designed calculators and it was during this time that he befriended Steve Jobs. Steve Wozniak was introduced to Jobs by friend Bill Fernandez, who attended Homestead High School with Jobs in 1971, Jobs and Wozniak became friends when Jobs worked for the summer at Hewlett-Packard, where Wozniak too was employed, working on a mainframe computer. This was recounted by Wozniak in a 2007 interview with ABC News, of how, a friend said, you should meet Steve Jobs, because he likes electronics and he also plays pranks. In 1973, Jobs was working for arcade game company Atari, Inc. in Los Gatos and he was assigned to create a circuit board for the arcade video game Breakout. According to Atari co-founder Nolan Bushnell, Atari offered $100 for each chip that was eliminated in the machine, Jobs had little knowledge of circuit board design and made a deal with Wozniak to split the fee evenly between them if Wozniak could minimize the number of chips. Wozniak reduced the number of chips by 50, by using RAM for the brick representation, too complex to be fully comprehended at the time, the fact that this prototype also had no scoring or coin mechanisms meant Wozs prototype could not be used. Jobs was paid the full bonus regardless, Jobs told Wozniak that Atari gave them only $700 and that Wozniaks share was thus $350. Wozniak did not learn about the actual $5,000 bonus until ten years later, on June 29,1975 Wozniak tested his first working prototype, displaying a few letters and running sample programs. It was the first time in history that a character displayed on a TV screen was generated by a home computer. With the Apple I design, he and Jobs were largely working to impress members of the Palo Alto-based Homebrew Computer Club
25.
Stewart Brand
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Stewart Brand is an American writer, best known as editor of the Whole Earth Catalog. He founded a number of organizations, including The WELL, the Global Business Network, and he is the author of several books, most recently Whole Earth Discipline, An Ecopragmatist Manifesto. He studied biology at Stanford University, graduating in 1960 and he was married to Lois Jennings, an Ottawa Native American and mathematician. As a soldier in the U. S. Army, he was a parachutist and taught infantry skills, Brand has lived in California since the 1960s. He and his wife live on Mirene, a 64-foot -long working tugboat. Built in 1912, the boat is moored in a shipyard in Sausalito. He works in Mary Heartline, a fishing boat about 100 yards away. A favorite item of his is a table on which Otis Redding is said to have written “ The Dock of the Bay”, through engaging in scholarship and by visiting numerous Indian reservations, Brand familiarized himself with the Native Americans of the West. Native Americans have continued to be an important cultural interest, one which has continually re-emerged in Brands work in various ways, by the mid-1960s, Brand became associated with author Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters. With his partner Zach Stewart, he produced the Trips Festival in San Francisco and this was one of the first venues at which the Grateful Dead performed in San Francisco. About 10,000 hippies attended, and Haight-Ashbury soon emerged as a community, tom Wolfe describes Brand in the beginning of his 1968 book, The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. In 1966, Brand campaigned to have NASA release the satellite image of the entire Earth as seen from space. He sold and distributed buttons for 25 cents each asking, Why havent we seen a photograph of the whole Earth yet, during this campaign, Brand met Richard Buckminster Fuller, who offered to help Brand with his projects. In 1967, a satellite, ATS-3, took the photo, Brand thought the image of our planet would be a powerful symbol. It adorned the first edition of the Whole Earth Catalog, later in 1968, a NASA astronaut took an Earth photo, Earthrise, from Moon orbit, which became the front image of the spring 1969 edition of the Catalog. 1970 saw the first celebration of Earth Day, during a 2003 interview, Brand explained that the image gave the sense that Earth’s an island, surrounded by a lot of inhospitable space. And it’s so graphic, this blue, white, green. During the late 1960s and early 1970s about 10 million Americans were involved in living communally, Brand and his wife Lois travelled to communes in a 1963 Dodge truck known as the Whole Earth Truck Store, which moved to a storefront in Menlo Park, California
26.
Mike Godwin
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Michael Wayne Godwin is an American attorney and author. He was the first staff counsel of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and he created the Internet adage Godwins law, from July 2007 to October 2010, he was general counsel for the Wikimedia Foundation. In March 2011 he was elected to the Open Source Initiative board, Godwin has served as a contributing editor of Reason magazine since 1994. He is currently general counsel and director of policy at the R Street Institute. Godwin was educated at Lamar High School in Houston, before graduating in 1980 from the University of Texas at Austin with a Bachelor of Arts degree in the Plan II Honors program. Godwin later attended the University of Texas School of Law, graduating with a Juris Doctor degree in 1990, while in law school, Godwin was the editor of The Daily Texan, the student newspaper, from 1988 to 1989. In his last semester of law school, early in 1990, Godwin and his involvement is later documented in the non-fiction book The Hacker Crackdown, Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier by Bruce Sterling. Godwins early involvement in the Steve Jackson Games affair led to his being hired by the Electronic Frontier Foundation in November 1990, when the organization was new. Shortly afterwards, as the first EFF in-house lawyer, he supervised its sponsorship of the Steve Jackson Games, Steve Jackson Games won the case in 1993. As a lawyer for EFF, Godwin was one of the counsel of record for the plaintiffs in the case challenging the Communications Decency Act in 1996, the Supreme Court decided the case for the plaintiffs on First Amendment grounds in 1997 in Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union. He is a Contributing Editor at Reason magazine, where he has published interviews of several science-fiction writers. From 2003 to 2005, Godwin was staff attorney and later director of Public Knowledge. In recent years, Godwin has worked on copyright and technology policy, Godwin was general counsel for the Wikimedia Foundation from July 3,2007, until October 22,2010. Godwin was named a member of the Student Press Law Center Board of Directors in January 2009, Godwin originated Godwins law in 1990, stating, As an online discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving Nazis or Hitler approaches 1. Godwin believes the ubiquity of such comparisons trivializes the Holocaust, archived from the original on Jun 2006
27.
Esther Dyson
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Esther Dyson is a Swiss-born American journalist, author, businesswoman, investor, commentator and philanthropist. She is an angel investor focused on breakthrough efficacy in healthcare, government transparency, digital technology, biotechnology. Dyson is currently focusing her career on health and continues to invest in health and she is the founder of HICCup. After graduating from Harvard with a degree in economics, she joined Forbes as a fact-checker, in 1977, she joined New Court Securities as the research department, following Federal Express and other start-ups. After a stint at Oppenheimer Holdings covering software companies, she moved to Rosen Research and in 1983 bought the company from her employer Ben Rosen and she sold EDventure Holdings to CNET Networks in 2004, but left CNET in January 2007. Currently, Dyson is a member and active investor in a variety of start-ups, mostly in online services, health care/genetics. Previously, Dyson and her company EDventure specialized in analyzing the effect of emerging technologies and she created the following publications on technology, Release 1.0, her monthly technology-industry newsletter, published by EDventure Holdings. Until 2006, Dyson wrote several issues herself and edited the others, when she left CNET, the newsletter was picked up by OReilly Media, which appointed Jimmy Guterman to edit it and renamed the newsletter Release 2.0. Release 2.0, her 1997 book on how the Internet affects individuals lives and its full title is Release 2.0, A design for living in the digital age. The revision Release 2.1 was published in 1998, and since about 2003, she has maintained an active Flickr account at Dysons Flickr She contributes monthly to www. project-syndicate. org. She sits on the boards of MEDESK, 23andMe, Eventful. com, Luxoft, pressreader. com, PA Consulting, Personal Inc, Voxiva, WPP Group, XCOR Aerospace and Yandex. Dyson is an adviser to the First Monday journal and Visual Ops, a contributor to Arianna Huffingtons online Huffington Post. As of early 2007, Dyson describes herself as spending more and more time on private aviation and commercial space startups and also in health care, from 2005, to 2007 she hosted the Flight School conference in Aspen. She is currently on the board of directors of 23andMe, and is one of the first ten volunteers in the Personal Genome Project, Dyson is an active member of a number of non-profit and advisory organizations. From 1998 to 2000, she was the chairman of ICANN. As of 2004, she sat on its committee, dedicated to defining a role for individuals in ICANNs decision-making. She opposed ICANNs 2012 expansion of generic top-level domains and she has served as a trustee of, and helped fund, emerging organizations such as Glasses for Humanity, Bridges. org, the National Endowment for Democracy, and the Eurasia Foundation. She is a member of the Board of Directors of The After-School Corporation and she is also a member of the boards of the Sunlight Foundation, StopBadware, The Long Now Foundation
28.
Center for Democracy and Technology
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Center for Democracy & Technology is a Washington, D. C. -based 501 non-profit organization whose mission is to promote an open, innovative, and free Internet. CDT is dedicated to building consensus among all interested in the future of the Internet. In addition to its D. C. office, CDT has an office in San Francisco, in 1994, CDT was founded by Jerry Berman, the former executive director and former policy director of the Electronic Frontier Foundation. Recognizing a threat to privacy and innovation in CALEAs design mandates, CDT fought the passage of the CALEA, in the end, CALEA did not contain wiretapping design mandates for the Internet and required transparency surrounding design standards. Today, CDT leads a coalition that fights CALEA expansion. CDTs launch was assisted by seed donations from AT&T Corporation, Bell Atlantic, Nynex, Apple, CDT utilizes an expertise-based advocacy model and acts as a non-partisan convener to bring all parties with a stake in the Internet to the table. CDT advises government officials, agencies, corporations, and civil society on the action that will maintain the open. CDT often works with legislators on controversial legislation, CDT helped craft the Childrens Online Privacy Protection Act in 1998. Testifying before Congress, CDT argued that the FTC should be able to develop rules to protect both adults and childrens privacy online, following an influx of spyware in 2003, CDT filed complaints against egregious actors with the FTC, resulting in historic settlements against spyware companies. CDT pulled together the largest anti-spyware and anti-virus companies, leading security product distributors, CDT conducted legal analysis to show how DPI advertising practices could violate the Electronic Communications Privacy Act and testified before Congress. In 2009, major ISPs affirmed that they would not use DPI-based behavioral advertising without very robust opt-in provisions, in the same year, CDT launched the Health Privacy Project to bring expertise to complex privacy issues surrounding technology use in health care. A year later, CDT recommended new guidelines for reporting data breaches and these guidelines were incorporated into the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. In 2014, the Health Privacy Project was abandoned by CDT after the resignation of its director, in 2010, CDT launched the Digital Due Process Coalition, establishing four principles for Electronic Communications Privacy Act reform. Currently, the coalition has one hundred members including some of the biggest Internet companies to advocacy groups across the entire political spectrum. The Communications Decency Act of 1996 was the first law to attempt to free expression on the Internet in the name of child safety. In response, CDT founded the Citizens Internet Empowerment Coalition that brought together technology companies with publishers, librarians, in the early 90s, the National Security Agency developed and promoted the “Clipper Chip, ” an encryption device for telephone calls. As an advocacy organization, CDT has outlined key reforms to NSA surveillance, CDT launched Global Internet Policy Initiative in 2000, partnering with Internews to survey 11 developing countries to assess their telecom and Internet policies. CDT also presented a paper at the 2013 Internet Governance Forum on Internet neutralitys role in promoting the exercise of free expression and human rights online
29.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
30.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
31.
Search and seizure
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Some countries have provisions in their constitutions that provide the public with the right to be free from unreasonable search and seizure. This right is based on the premise that everyone is entitled to a reasonable right to privacy. Though interpretation may vary, this right sometimes requires law enforcement to obtain a warrant before engaging in any form of search. In cases where evidence is seized in a search, that evidence might be rejected by court procedures, in Italy protection from search and seizure is enshrined in Article 14 of the Constitution, which states, The home is inviolable. Home inspections, searches, or seizures shall not be admissible save in the cases, controls and inspections for reason of public health and safety, or for economic and fiscal purposes, shall be regulated by appropriate laws. Historically, English common law use of a number of different types of legal writs to effect seizures for various reasons. For example, a writ of arrestandis bonis ne dissipentur provided for the seizure of goods when it was likely they would not be properly cared for during a court case to settle ownership. A writ of attachiamenta bonorum allowed for the seizure of property to recover a debt. The text of the amendment is brief, and most of the law determining what constitutes an unlawful search, a search occurs when an expectation of privacy that society is prepared to consider reasonable is infringed. A seizure of property occurs where there is some meaningful interference with an individuals interests in that property. The general rule under the Constitution is that a warrant is required for a valid search. There are, however, several exceptions to this rule, based on the language of the amendment that the people are to be secure. For instance, the owner of the property in question may consent to the search, police officers are not required to advise a suspect that he may refuse. There are also some circumstances in which a party who has equal control, i. e. common authority. Another example of unreasonable search and seizure is in the court case Mapp V. Ohio, there is also a lowered expectation of privacy inside of motor vehicles. Courts have also established an exigent circumstances exception to the warrant requirement, exigent circumstances simply means that the officers must act quickly. Typically, this is because police have a belief that evidence is in imminent danger of being removed or destroyed. Exigent circumstances may also exist where there is a continuing danger and this includes when the police are in hot pursuit of a fleeing felon
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Steve Jackson Games
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Steve Jackson Games is a game company, founded in 1980 by Steve Jackson, that creates and publishes role-playing, board, and card games, and the gaming magazine Pyramid. Founded in 1980, six years after the birth of Dungeons & Dragons, SJGames borrowed and expanded upon ideas pioneered by strategy game companies such as Metagaming Concepts, Avalon Hill and TSR. Despite these similarities, SJGames had a unique feel all their own, SJGames early titles were all microgames initially sold in 4×7 inch ziploc bags, and later in the similarly sized Pocket Box. Games such as Ogre, Car Wars, and G. E. V were popular during SJGames early years, today SJGames publishes games of numerous varieties and genres, they also publish the book Principia Discordia, the sacred text of the Discordian religion. In April–May 2012, Steve Jackson Games ran a successful Kickstarter. com campaign for a new Designers Edition of Ogre. The final game, due to be shipped in November 2012, will weigh 14 pounds or more, Steve Jackson Games main product line, in terms of sales, is the Munchkin card game, followed by the role-playing system GURPS. Battle Cattle The Card Game, a game, compatible with the Car Wars card game. Burn In Hell, a game centered on collecting circles of notable historical. Car Wars, The Card Game, a game version of the Car Wars miniatures system. Cowpoker, a card game based on poker mechanics with a central theme of old west cattle ranchers. Dino Hunt, a game where players travel through time to capture dinosaurs. Features over a hundred dinosaurs with color drawings and accurate data on each one. Hacker, a card game based on the mechanics of Illuminati. Hacker II, The Dark Side Illuminati, a game of competing conspiracies, originally published in microgame format followed by three numbered expansions. Later published in a box with expansions 1 and 2 as Deluxe Illuminati. Expansion 3 would later be reprinted as Illuminati, Brainwash, INWO Subgenius - expansion based on Church of the Subgenius concepts which can also be played stand-alone. Illuminati Crime Lords, a variation on Illuminati which combines gameplay elements of the original Illuminati. Kings Blood, a Japanese card game published by Kadokawa Shoten
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GURPS Cyberpunk
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GURPS Cyberpunk is a genre toolkit for cyberpunk-themed role-playing games set in a near-future dystopia, such as that envisioned by William Gibson in his influential novel Neuromancer. It was published in 1990 after a significant delay caused by the draft being a primary piece of evidence in Steve Jackson Games. In 1993, GURPS Cyberpunk Adventures — a collection of three RPG scenarios in the GURPS Cyberpunk line — won the Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Adventure of 1992. Unlike most commercially successful books from the edition of the game. Similar rules for advanced technology can be found in GURPS Ultra-Tech, from gadgets to cyberwear, besides the main chapters detailed below, GURPS Cyberpunk contains a glossary of common cyberpunk terms, an index, and a bibliography of relevant media. Characters This chapter describes some of the most common character archetypes and their skills, advantages. It also provides a guideline about how much money a given job might bring or cost, cyberwear Rules for and descriptions of bionic enhancements. Technology & Equipment Lists many sorts of near-future gadgets, netrunning The longest in the book, it details rules for realistic computer networks as well as fantastic cyberspaces accessible only through a neural interface. It describes what types of system can be found in the Net, world Design Gives guidelines for designing your own cyberpunk world. Campaigning Helps the Gamemaster in running a series of adventures. GURPS Cyberpunk received notoriety when the Austin headquarters of Steve Jackson Games was raided by the U. S, the authorities seized the manuscript for the sourcebook, which was under development at the time, asserting that it was a handbook for computer crime. The book was reconstructed and rewritten from older drafts when the manuscript was not returned, the seizure delayed publication for six weeks. This raid is often attributed to Operation Sundevil, a nationwide crackdown on illegal computer hacking activities that was occurring about this time. GURPS Cyberpunk was ultimately published in 1990, joining the already-released Cyberpunk 2013 from R. Talsorian, Cyberspace from ICE, and Shadowrun from FASA. The main sourcebook for the line was written by Loyd Blankenship and published by Steve Jackson Games in 1990, the book was reviewed in White Wolf #23. GURPS Cyberpunk received the Origins Award nomination for Best Roleplaying Supplement of 1990
34.
Search warrant
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In most countries a search warrant cannot be issued in aid of civil process. The laws usually make an exception for hot pursuit, an officer following a criminal who has fled the scene of a crime has the right to enter a property where the criminal has sought shelter. This contrasts with authoritarian regimes, where police typically can search property, in the England and Wales, a local magistrate issues search warrants, which require that a constable provide evidence that supports the warrant application. Under Section 18a of PACE, a constable can conduct a search immediately without an inspectors authorisation and this subsection allows a constable to search the home of a suspect under arrest in their presence before they take the suspect to a police station. Under Section 32 of PACE, a constable who arrests a person who is on their own property or has just left their premises, Search warrants must be signed by a Sheriff after a petition from police. Gas company officials may enter a home to inspect, repair, or replace gas meters and this hearing is ex parte meaning only the crown is present. This fact obliges the police to include any facts that hurt their application. After a search the occupant will have a copy of the warrant, if these requirements are not met by the police the evidence found may become admissible against the accused at trial. Under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, most police searches require a warrant based on probable cause. Under the Fourth Amendment, searches must be reasonable and specific and this means that a search warrant must specify the object to search for and the place to search for it. Other items, rooms, outbuildings, persons, vehicles, etc. may require additional search warrants, to obtain a search warrant, an officer must prove to a magistrate or judge that probable cause exists based upon direct information or hearsay information. Police can seize property and persons under a search warrant. The standard for a warrant is lower than the quantum of proof required for a later conviction. In the United States, the issue of federal warrants is determined under Title 18 of the United States Code, the law has been restated and extended under Rule 41 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Federal search warrants may be prepared on Form AO93, Search, each state also enacts its own laws governing the issuance of search warrants. This doctrine is not actually an exception to the Fourth Amendment, balanced against the sovereigns interests at the border are the Fourth Amendment rights of entrants. This balance at international borders means that routine searches are reasonable there, certain cases dont require a search warrant, such as where a person in control of the object or property gives consent. Some commonly cited exigent circumstances are, hot pursuit of a felon, imminent destruction of evidence before a warrant can be obtained, emergency searches
35.
Bernstein v. United States
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Bernstein v. United States is a set of court cases brought by Daniel J. Bernstein challenging restrictions on the export of cryptography from the United States. The case was first brought in 1995, when Bernstein was a student at University of California, Berkeley, Bernstein was represented by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, who hired outside lawyer Cindy Cohn and also obtained pro bono assistance from Lee Tien of Berkeley, M. Regarding those regulations, the EFF states, The government requested en banc review. Dept of Justice,192 F. 3d 1308, the Ninth Circuit ordered that this case be reheard by the en banc court, and withdrew the three-judge panel opinion, Bernstein v. U. S. Dept. of Justice,176 F. 3d 1132. The government modified the regulations again, substantially loosening them, and Bernstein, now a professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago and this time, he chose to represent himself, although he had no formal legal training. On October 15,2003, almost nine years after Bernstein first brought the case, junger v. Daley PGP criminal investigation Bernstein v. United States Dept. of Justice,192 F. 3d 1308 Bernstein v. DOC,2004 U. S. Dist. 6672 Bernsteins website on the case Netlitigation Summary, Bernstein v. U. S. Dept. of State EPIC Archive of 9th Circuit Decision EFF Archive of the Cases
36.
Daniel J. Bernstein
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In the mid 90s internet software was not designed for security, and cryptography was controlled. Bernstein addressed cryptography by suing the United States Government in 1995 Bernstein v. United States and by writing software for email, web. The software came with a security guarantee that achieved significant status during the 8 years where no bugs were found, Bernstein was merciless in his criticism of then leading email and dns software packages and both the large teams which supported them and people that distributed them. Sendmail and BIND were both significantly less efficient, more difficult to configure and bug prone by design resulting in a flow of significant bugs. His computer software programs qmail, publicfile, and djbdns were released as license-free software and this issue was resolved when Bernstein released the source code of his projects into public domain software in 2007. He attended Bellport High School, a high school on Long Island. The same year, he ranked fifth place in the Westinghouse Science Talent Search, in 1987, he achieved a Top 10 ranking in the William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition. Bernstein earned his bachelors degree in mathematics from New York University and has a PhD in mathematics from the University of California, Berkeley, Bernstein brought the court case Bernstein v. United States. The ruling in the case declared software as protected speech under the First Amendment, Bernstein was originally represented by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, but he later represented himself despite having no formal training as a lawyer. In the autumn of 2004, Bernstein taught a course about computer software security, the sixteen members of the class discovered 91 new UNIX security holes. Bernstein explained, in 2005, that he is pursuing a strategy to produce invulnerable computer systems and he concludes, I won’t be satisfied until Ive put the entire security industry out of work. In spring 2005 Bernstein taught a course on high speed cryptography and he demonstrated new results against implementations of AES in the same time period. As of April 2008, Bernsteins stream cipher Salsa20 was selected as a member of the portfolio of the eSTREAM project. In 2011, Bernstein published RFSB, a variant of the Fast Syndrome Based Hash function, Bernstein claims that the exploit does not fall within the parameters of the qmail security guarantee. In March 2009, Bernstein awarded $1000 to Matthew Dempsky for finding a security hole in djbdns, in August 2008, Bernstein announced DNSCurve, a proposal to secure the Domain Name System. Additionally, the used in OpenBSD for signing releases and packages is based entirely on the algorithms by Bernstein. Both the signed releases and the extra crypto in OpenSSH have first appeared in OpenBSD5.5, Bernstein has published a number of papers on mathematics and computation. Many of his papers deal with algorithms or implementations and he also wrote a survey titled Multidigit multiplication for mathematicians
37.
Encryption
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In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding a message or information in such a way that only authorized parties can access it. Encryption does not of itself prevent interference, but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor, in an encryption scheme, the intended information or message, referred to as plaintext, is encrypted using an encryption algorithm, generating ciphertext that can only be read if decrypted. For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses an encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is in possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key. An authorized recipient can decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients. In symmetric-key schemes, the encryption and decryption keys are the same, communicating parties must have the same key before they can achieve secure communication. In public-key encryption schemes, the key is published for anyone to use. However, only the party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read. Public-key encryption was first described in a document in 1973. Encryption has long used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. It is now used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. Encryption can be used to protect data at rest, such as stored on computers. In recent years, there have been reports of confidential data, such as customers personal records. Encrypting such files at rest helps protect them should physical security measures fail, in response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks. There have been reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years. Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against eavesdropping of network traffic by unauthorized users, standards for cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption, see, e. g. traffic analysis, TEMPEST, or Trojan horse
38.
Edward Felten
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Edward William Felten is a Professor of Computer Science and Public Affairs at Princeton University. On November 4,2010, he was named the Chief Technologist for the Federal Trade Commission, on May 11,2015, he was named the Deputy U. S. Felten attended the California Institute of Technology and graduated with a degree in Physics in 1985 and he worked as a staff programmer at Caltech from 1986 to 1989 on a parallel supercomputer project at Caltech. He then enrolled as a student in Computer Science at the University of Washington. He was awarded a Master of Science degree in 1991 and a Ph. D in 1993 and his Ph. D. thesis was on developing an automated protocol for communication between parallel processors. In 1993, he joined the faculty of Princeton University in the Department of Computer Science as an Assistant Professor and he was promoted to Associate Professor in 1999 and to Professor in 2003. In 2006, he joined the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, in 2005, he became the Director of the Center for Information and Technology Policy at Princeton. He has served as a consultant to law firms, corporations, private foundations and his research involves computer security, and technology policy. He lives in Princeton, New Jersey with his family, from 2006 to 2010, he was a member of the board of the Electronic Frontier Foundation. In 2007, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery, in November 2010, he was named Chief Technologist of the Federal Trade Commission. On May 11,2015, he was named Deputy U. S, Chief Technology Officer for The White House. Felten was a witness for the United States government in United States v. Microsoft and he demonstrated his teams tool in court, showing 19 ways in which it is normally possible to access the web browser from the Windows platform that his teams tool rendered inaccessible. As part of a contest in 2000, SDMI invited researchers and others to try to break the digital audio technologies that they had devised. In a series of challenges, the participants were given a sample audio piece. If the participants sent back the sample with the watermark removed, Felten was an initial participant of the contest. He chose to opt out of confidentiality agreements that would have made his team eligible for the cash prize. SDMI did not accept that Felten had successfully broken the watermark according to the rules of the contest, feltens team developed a scientific paper explaining the methods used by his team in defeating the SDMI watermarks. Felten withdrew the presentation from the workshop, reading a statement about the threats instead
