1.
Lithography
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
2.
Moritz von Jacobi
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Moritz Hermann von Jacobi was a German Jewish and Russian engineer and physicist born in Potsdam. He furthered progress in galvanoplastics, electric motors, and wire telegraphy, in 1834 he began to study magnetic motors. In 1835 moved to Dorpat to lecture at Dorpat University and he moved to Saint Petersburg in 1837 to research usage of electromagnetic forces for moving machines for Russian Academy of Sciences. He investigated the power of an electromagnet in motors and generators, while studying the transfer of power from a battery to an electric motor, he deduced the maximum power theorem. Jacobi tested motors output by determining the amount of zinc consumed by the battery, with financial assistance of Czar Nicholas, Jacobi constructed in 1839 a 28-foot electric motor boat powered by battery cells. The boat carried 14 passengers on Neva river against the current, the boat fared at the speed of three miles for hour. The transfer of power from a source with a fixed internal resistance to a load. This law is of use when driving a load such as a motor from a battery. Jacobi obtained his theorem by applying common sense, in 1838, he discovered galvanoplastics, or electrotyping, a method of making printing plates by electroplating. The way in which works is analogous to a battery acting in reverse. The stereotype was a taken from a form of movable lead type. This technique is used in relief printing and he also worked on the development of the electric telegraph. In 1842-1845 he built a line between Saint Petersburg and Tsarskoe Selo using an underground cable. In 1867 he was a Russian delegate to the Commission on measurement units at the Paris Worlds Fair and he was a strong proponent of the metric system. He was a brother of the mathematician Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, archived from the original on 2006-10-06. Jacobis Theorem Also known as the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem, misunderstanding of it retarded development of dynamos, march 30,2001 Jacobis motor - The first real electric motor of 1834
3.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
4.
Bronze sculpture
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Bronze is the most popular metal for cast metal sculptures, a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply a bronze. It can be used for statues, singly or in groups, reliefs and it is often gilded to give gilt-bronze or ormolu. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould. Their strength and ductility is an advantage when figures in action are to be created and these qualities allow the creation of extended figures, as in Jeté, or figures that have small cross sections in their support, such as the equestrian statue of Richard the Lionheart. As recently as 2007 several life sized bronze sculptures by John Waddell were stolen, there are many different bronze alloys, and the term is now tending to be regarded by museums as too imprecise, and replaced in descriptions by copper alloy, especially for older objects. Typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin, alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, the proportions of this mixture may suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins. The Benin Bronzes are really brass, and the Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomews Church, Liège is described as both bronze and brass. In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were used, classic bronze, about 10% tin, was used in casting. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from bronze, while helmets. On one definition, modern statuary bronze is 90% copper and 10% tin, the great civilizations of the old world worked in bronze for art, from the time of the introduction of the alloy for edged weapons. Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro belonging to Harappan Civilization dating back to 2500 BCE is perhaps the first bronze statue of the world, the Greeks were the first to scale the figures up to life size. Few examples exist in good condition, one is the seawater-preserved bronze Victorious Youth that required painstaking efforts to bring it to its present state for museum display, far more Roman bronze statues have survived. Over the long period of Egyptian dynastic art, small lost-wax bronze figurines were made in large numbers. Sri Lankan Sinhalese Bronze statue of Buddhist Alakothiveshwara Tara Devi statue now in England is an example of Bronze statues. From the ninth through the century the Chola dynasty in South India represented the pinnacle of bronze casting in India. Making bronzes is highly skilled work, and a number of casting processes may be employed, including lost-wax casting, sand casting. The term bronze is also applied to metal sculptures made by electrotyping, although these sculptures are typically pure copper and their fabrication does not involve metal casting
5.
Letterpress printing
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A worker composes and locks movable type into the bed or chase of a press, inks it, and presses paper against it to transfer the ink from the type which creates an impression on the paper. With certain letterpress units it is possible to join movable type with slugs cast using hot metal typesetting. In theory, anything that is high or.918 inches can be printed using letterpress. All forms of data collection were affected by the invention of printing, as were many careers such as teachers, preachers, physicians and surgeons. More recently, letterpress printing has seen a revival in an artisanal form, johannes Gutenberg is credited with the development in the western hemisphere, in about 1440, of modern movable type printing from individually cast, reusable letters set together in a form. Movable type was first invented in China using ceramic type in 1040 AD and it was Gutenburgs screw press or hand press that was used to print 180 copies of the Bible. At 1,282 pages, it took him and his staff of 20 almost 3 years to complete and this form of presswork gradually replaced the hand copied manuscripts of scribes and illuminators as the most prevalent form of printing. Printers workshops, previously unknown in Europe before the century, were found in every important metropolis by 1500. Later metal presses used a knuckle and lever arrangement instead of the screw, Ink rollers made of composition made inking faster and paved the way for further automation. Meanwhile, a sheet of paper slid against a hinged platen, which then rapidly pressed onto the type and swung back again as the sheet was removed, as the fresh sheet of paper replaced the printed paper, the now freshly-inked rollers ran over the type again. Fully automated 20th-century presses, such as the Kluge and Original Heidelberg Platen, incorporated pneumatic sheet feed, rotary presses were used for high-speed work. In a newspaper press, a mixture called a flong used to make a mould of the entire form of type, then dried and bent. The plates were clipped to a drum and could print against a continuous reel of paper at the enormously high speeds required for overnight newspaper production. This invention helped aid the high demand for knowledge during this time period, Letterpress printing was introduced in Canada in 1752 in Halifax, Nova Scotia by John Bushell in the newspaper format. This paper was named the Halifax Gazette and became Canadas first newspaper, Bushell apprenticed under Bartholomew Green in Boston. Green moved to Halifax in 1751 in hopes of starting a newspaper, two weeks and a day after the press he was going to use for this new project arrived in Halifax, Green died. Upon receiving word about what happened, Bushell moved to Halifax, the Halifax Gazette was first published on March 23,1752, making Bushell the first letterpress printer in Halifax, and eventually Canada. There is only one surviving copy which was found in Massachusetts Historical Society
6.
Stereotype (printing)
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The composition of individual cast metal types into lines with leading and furniture, tightly locked into a forme, was labor-intensive and costly. The printer would incur further expense through loss of the type for other uses while held in formes, publishers who did not accurately predict sales were forced into the expense of paying for the type to be reset for subsequent editions. English sources often describe the process as having been invented in 1725 by William Ged, however, Count Canstein had been publishing stereotyped Bibles in Germany since 1712 and an earlier form of stereotyping from flong was described in Germany in 1702. It is even possible that the process was used as early as the century by Johannes Gutenberg or his heirs for the Mainz Catholicon. Wide application of the technique, with improvements, is attributed to Charles Stanhope in the early 1800s, printing plates for the Bible were stereotyped in the US in 1814. Over time, stereotype became a metaphor for any set of ideas repeated identically or with minor changes. In fact, cliché and stereotype were both originally printers words, and in their printing senses became synonymous, the term stereotype derives from Greek στερεός solid, firm and τύπος blow, impression, engraved mark and in its modern sense was coined in 1798. The Era of Charles Mahon, Third Earl of Stanhope, Stereotyper, wet Mat Stereotyping in Germany in 1690. Historical Treatises, Abstracts, and Papers on Stereotyping
7.
Casting (metalworking)
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In metalworking, casting means a process, in which liquid metal is poured into a mold, that contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and is then allowed to cool and solidify. The solidified part is known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods, Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and widely used for sculpture, especially in bronze, jewellery in precious metals, and weapons and tools. Traditional techniques include casting, plaster mold casting and sand casting. The modern casting process is subdivided into two categories, expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken down by the material, such as sand or metal. Expendable mold casting is a classification that includes sand, plastic, shell, plaster. This method of mold casting involves the use of temporary, non-reusable molds, sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting, and has been used for centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches than permanent mold casting and at a reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow manufacturers to create products at a low cost, from castings that fit in the palm of your hand to train beds, it can all be done with sand casting. Sand casting also allows most metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for the molds, sand casting requires a lead time of days, or even weeks sometimes, for production at high output rates and is unsurpassed for large-part production. Green sand has almost no weight limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit of 2. Minimum part weight ranges from 0. 075–0.1 kg, the sand is bonded together using clays, chemical binders, or polymerized oils. Sand can be recycled many times in most operations and requires little maintenance, plaster casting is similar to sand casting except that plaster of paris is substituted for sand as a mold material. Plaster casting is an alternative to other molding processes for complex parts due to the low cost of the plaster. The biggest disadvantage is that it can only be used with low melting point non-ferrous materials, such as aluminium, copper, magnesium, and zinc. Shell molding is similar to casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened shell of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern, because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish
8.
Offset printing
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Offset printing is a commonly used printing technique in which the inked image is transferred from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. The modern web process feeds a large reel of paper through a press machine in several parts, typically for several metres. Development of the press came in two versions, in 1875 by Robert Barclay of England for printing on tin, and in 1904 by Ira Washington Rubel of the United States for printing on paper. Lithography was initially created to be a method of reproducing artwork. This printing process was limited to use on flat, porous surfaces because the plates were produced from limestone. In fact, the word lithograph historically means an image from stone or printed from stone, tin cans were popular packaging materials in the 19th century, but transfer technologies were required before the lithographic process could be used to print on the tin. The first rotary offset lithographic printing press was created in England and this development combined mid-19th century transfer printing technologies and Richard March Hoes 1843 rotary printing press—a press that used a metal cylinder instead of a flat stone. The offset cylinder was covered with specially treated cardboard that transferred the image from the stone to the surface of the metal. Later, the covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber. As the 19th century closed and photography became popular, many lithographic firms went out of business, photoengraving, a process that used halftone technology instead of illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. Many printers, including Ira Washington Rubel of New Jersey, were using the low-cost lithograph process to produce copies of photographs, Rubel discovered in 1901—by forgetting to load a sheet—that when printing from the rubber roller, instead of the metal, the printed page was clearer and sharper. After further refinement, the Potter Press printing Company in New York produced a press in 1903, by 1907 the Rubel offset press was in use in San Francisco. The Harris Automatic Press Company also created a similar press around the same time, charles and Albert Harris modeled their press on a rotary letter press machine. One of the most important functions in the process is prepress production. This stage makes sure that all files are processed in preparation for printing. This includes converting to the proper CMYK color model, finalizing the files, Offset lithography is one of the most common ways of creating printed materials. A few of its common applications include, newspapers, magazines, brochures, stationery, compared to other printing methods, offset printing is best suited for economically producing large volumes of high quality prints in a manner that requires little maintenance. Many modern offset presses use computer-to-plate systems as opposed to the older computer-to-film work flows, advantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include, consistent high image quality
9.
Electroplating
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Electroplating is a process that uses electric current to reduce dissolved metal cations so that they form a thin coherent metal coating on an electrode. The term is used for electrical oxidation of anions onto a solid substrate. Electroplating is primarily used to change the properties of an object. The process used in electroplating is called electrodeposition and it is analogous to a galvanic cell acting in reverse. The part to be plated is the cathode of the circuit, in one technique, the anode is made of the metal to be plated on the part. Both components are immersed in a solution called an electrolyte containing one or more dissolved metal salts as well as other ions that permit the flow of electricity. A power supply supplies a direct current to the anode, oxidizing the metal atoms that it comprises, at the cathode, the dissolved metal ions in the electrolyte solution are reduced at the interface between the solution and the cathode, such that they plate out onto the cathode. The rate at which the anode is dissolved is equal to the rate at which the cathode is plated, in this manner, the ions in the electrolyte bath are continuously replenished by the anode. Other electroplating processes may use a non-consumable anode such as lead or carbon, in these techniques, ions of the metal to be plated must be periodically replenished in the bath as they are drawn out of the solution. The most common form of electroplating is used for creating coins such as pennies, the cations associate with the anions in the solution. These cations are reduced at the cathode to deposit in the metallic, for example, for copper plating, in an acid solution, copper is oxidized at the anode to Cu2+ by losing two electrons. The Cu2+ associates with the anion SO42− in the solution to form copper sulfate, at the cathode, the Cu2+ is reduced to metallic copper by gaining two electrons. The result is the transfer of copper from the anode source to a plate covering the cathode. The plating is most commonly a metallic element, not an alloy. However, some alloys can be electrodeposited, notably brass and solder, many plating baths include cyanides of other metals in addition to cyanides of the metal to be deposited. These free cyanides facilitate anode corrosion, help to maintain a constant metal ion level, additionally, non-metal chemicals such as carbonates and phosphates may be added to increase conductivity. When plating is not desired on certain areas of the substrate, typical stop-offs include tape, foil, lacquers, and waxes. The ability of a plating to cover uniformly is called throwing power, initially, a special plating deposit called a strike or flash may be used to form a very thin plating with high quality and good adherence to the substrate
10.
Electroforming
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Electroforming is a metal forming process that forms parts through electrodeposition or electroplating on a model, known in the industry as a mandrel. Conductive mandrels are pre-treated chemically to allow subsequent separation of the finished electroform, conductive layers can be deposited chemically, or using vacuum deposition techniques. The outer surface of the forms the inner surface of the form. A thick layer of electroplating is applied until the plate itself is enough to be self-supporting. The mandrel is most often separated intact or dissolved away after forming, the side of the part that was in contact with the plating solution is less well defined, and that loss of definition increases with thickness of plating. In extreme cases, where a thickness of several millimetres is required, there is preferential build-up of material on sharp outside edges and corners. This tendency can be reduced by a known as periodic reverse, where the plating current is reversed for short periods during electroforming. The finished plated form can either be the part, or can be used in a subsequent process to produce a positive of the original mandrel shape. In the basic electroforming process, a bath is used to deposit nickel or other electroformable metals onto a conductive patterned surface. Once the deposited material has been built up to the desired thickness and this process allows high-quality duplication of the premaster and therefore permits quality production—at low unit costs with high repeatability and excellent process control. If the mandrel is made of a material it can be covered with a conductive coating. Technically, it is a process of synthesizing a metal object by controlling the electrodeposition of metal passing through an electrolytic solution onto a metal or metalized form. The object being electroformed can be a permanent part of the end product or can be temporary, and removed later, leaving only the metal form, new technologies have made it possible for mandrels to be very complex. In order to facilitate the removal of the electroform from the mandrel, because aluminum can easily be chemically dissolved, a complex electroform can be produced with near exactness. The main advantage of electroforming is that it reproduces the external shape of the mandrel within one micrometre, compared to other basic metal forming processes electroforming is very effective when requirements call for extreme tolerances, complexity or light weight. Electroformed metal is extremely pure, with superior properties over wrought metal due to its crystal structure. Multiple layers of electroformed metal can be bonded together, or to different substrate materials to produce complex structures with grown-on flanges and bosses. Tolerances of 1.5 to 3 nanometres have been reported, a wide variety of shapes and sizes can be made by electroforming, the principal limitation being the need to part the product from the mandrel
11.
Gutta-percha
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Gutta-percha refers to trees of the genus Palaquium and the rigid natural latex produced from the sap of these trees, particularly from Palaquium gutta but also Isonandra gutta and Dichopsis gutta. The word gutta-percha comes from the name in Malay, getah perca. Scientifically classified in 1843, it was found to be a useful natural thermoplastic, in 1851,30,000 long cwt of gutta-percha was imported into Britain. During the second half of the 19th century, gutta-percha was used for domestic and industrial purposes. In particular, it was needed as insulation for underwater telegraph cables, which, according to author John Tully, led to unsustainable harvesting, the first European to discover this material was John Tradescant, who collected it in the far east in 1656. He named this material “Mazer wood”, dr. William Montgomerie, a medical officer in Indian service, introduced gutta-percha into practical use in the West. He was the first to appreciate the potential of material in medicine. Palaquium gutta trees are 5–30 m tall and up to 1 m in trunk diameter, the leaves are evergreen, alternate or spirally arranged, simple, entire, 8–25 cm long, glossy green above, and often yellow or glaucous below. The flowers are produced in clusters along the stems, each flower with a white corolla with four to seven acute lobes. The fruit is an ovoid 3– to 7-cm berry, containing one to four seeds, in many species, in Australia, gutta-percha is a common name specifically used for the tree Excoecaria parvifolia, which yields an aromatic, heavy, dark-brown timber. It is also called northern birch and this particular species is not related to the Palaquium genus. Chemically, gutta-percha is a polyterpene, a polymer of isoprene, or polyisoprene, the cis structure of polyisoprene is the common latex elastomer. While latex rubbers are amorphous in structure, gutta-percha crystallizes. The same bioinertness that made it suitable for marine cables also means it does not readily react within the human body and it is used in a variety of surgical devices and during root canal therapy. It is the predominant material used to obturate, or fill the empty space inside the root of a tooth after it has undergone endodontic therapy, Gutta-percha allows more bacterial leakage with endodontic surgery as compared to Resilon. Gutta-percha latex is biologically inert, resilient, and is an electrical insulator with a high dielectric strength. The wood of many species is also valuable, western inventors discovered the properties of gutta-percha latex in 1842, although the people of its Malayan habitat had used it for many applications for centuries. By 1845, telegraph wires insulated with gutta-percha were being manufactured in the UK and it served as the insulating material for early undersea telegraph cables, including the first transatlantic telegraph cable
12.
Ozokerite
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Ozokerite or ozocerite, archaically referred to as earthwax or earth wax, is a naturally occurring odoriferous mineral wax or paraffin found in many localities. Specimens have been obtained from Scotland, Northumberland, Wales, as well as from about thirty different countries, the sole sources of commercial supply are in Galicia, at Boryslav, Dzwiniacz and Starunia, though the mineral is found at other points on both flanks of the Carpathians. As found native, ozokerite varies from a soft wax to a black mass as hard as gypsum. Its specific gravity ranges from 0.85 to 0.95 and it is soluble in ether, petroleum, benzene, turpentine, chloroform, carbon disulfide and others. Galician ozokerite varies in color light yellow to dark brown. It usually melts at 62 °C, chemically, ozokerite consists of a mixture of various hydrocarbons, containing 85-87% by weight of carbon and 14-13% of hydrogen. In these mines there are the main shafts and galleries. The wax, as it reaches the surface, varies in purity and this is again melted without water, and the impurities are skimmed off, the material being then run into slightly conical cylindrical moulds, and thus made into blocks for the market. The crude ozokerite is refined by treatment first with acid, and subsequently with charcoal. There are also obtained in the light oils and a product resembling vaseline. The residue in the consists of a hard, black, waxy substance. From the residue a form of the known as heel-ball, used to impart a polished surface to the heels. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Oil Empire, Visions of Prosperity in Austrian Galicia
13.
Electrolyte
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An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which disperse uniformly through the solvent, electrically, such a solution is neutral. The movement of anions and cations in opposite directions within the solution amounts to a current and this includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases. Some gases, such as chloride, under conditions of high temperature or low pressure can also function as electrolytes. Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some biological and synthetic polymers, termed polyelectrolytes, a substance that dissociates into ions in solution acquires the capacity to conduct electricity. Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate are examples of electrolytes, in medicine, electrolyte replacement is needed when a patient has prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, and as a response to strenuous athletic activity. Commercial electrolyte solutions are available, particularly for children and athletes. Electrolyte monitoring is important in the treatment of anorexia and bulimia, the word electrolyte derives from the Greek lytós, meaning able to be untied or loosened. Arrheniuss explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into charged particles, faradays belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis. Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current and he thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions. For example, carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water to produce a solution that contains hydronium, carbonate, molten salts can also be electrolytes as, for example, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid conducts electricity. An electrolyte in a solution may be described as concentrated if it has a concentration of ions. If a high proportion of the solute dissociates to form ions, the electrolyte is strong, if most of the solute does not dissociate. The properties of electrolytes may be exploited using electrolysis to extract constituent elements, in physiology, the primary ions of electrolytes are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, hydrogen phosphate, and hydrogen carbonate. The electric charge symbols of plus and minus indicate that the substance is ionic in nature and has a distribution of electrons. Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid and potassium is the main intracellular electrolyte, all known higher lifeforms require a subtle and complex electrolyte balance between the intracellular and extracellular environments. In particular, the maintenance of precise osmotic gradients of electrolytes is important, such gradients affect and regulate the hydration of the body as well as blood pH, and are critical for nerve and muscle function. Various mechanisms exist in living species that keep the concentrations of different electrolytes under tight control, both muscle tissue and neurons are considered electric tissues of the body
14.
Anode
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An anode is an electrode through which conventional current flows into a polarized electrical device. A common mnemonic is ACID for anode current into device, the direction of electric current is opposite to the direction of electron flow, electrons flow out the anode to the outside circuit. The terms anode and cathode do not relate to the polarity of those electrodes but the direction of the current. Conventional current quantifies the flow of positive charge, in most cases, positive charge leaves the device via the cathode, and positive charge flows into the device via the anode. Conventional current depends not only on the direction the charge carriers move, the currents outside the device are usually carried by electrons in a metal conductor. The flow of electrons is opposite to conventional current because electrons have a negative charge, consequently, electrons leave the device via the anode, and electrons enter the device through the cathode. The anode and cathode have slightly different definitions for electrical devices such as diodes and vacuum tubes where the naming is fixed. These devices usually allow substantial current flow in one direction but negligible current in the other direction, consequently, the electrode names use the terms that have substantial ordinary currents. An ideal diode allows current in one direction but not in the other, for the ideal diode, it makes sense to always call that terminal the anode. For non-ideal diodes, the electrodes are also given fixed names even though such a diode under reverse bias would have a positive charge out of the anode. For some operating conditions and devices, such as diode breakdown, Zener diodes, or photodiodes, the polarity of voltage on an anode with respect to an associated cathode varies depending on the device type and on its operating mode. This inward current is carried externally by electrons moving outwards, negative charge flowing in one direction being electrically equivalent to positive charge flowing in the opposite direction. In a recharging battery, or a cell, the anode is the positive terminal. In a diode, the anode is the terminal at the tail of the arrow symbol. Note electrode naming for diodes is always based on the direction of the forward current, in a cathode ray tube, the anode is the positive terminal where electrons flow out of the device, i. e. where positive electric current flows in. The use of East to mean the in direction may appear contrived, previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term eisode. The reference he used to effect was the Earths magnetic field direction. In electrochemistry, the anode is where oxidation occurs and is the positive polarity contact in an electrolytic cell, at the anode, anions are forced by the electrical potential to react chemically and give off electrons which then flow up and into the driving circuit
15.
Cathode
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A cathode is the electrode from which a conventional current leaves a polarized electrical device. A conventional current describes the direction in which positive electronic charges move, Electrons have a negative charge, so the movement of electrons is opposite to the conventional current flow. Consequently, the mnemonic cathode current departs also means that flow into the devices cathode. Cathode polarity with respect to the anode can be positive or negative and this outward current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive cathode. It is continued externally by electrons moving inwards, this negative charge moving inwards constituting positive current flowing outwards, for example, the Daniell galvanic cells copper electrode is the positive terminal and the cathode. In a recharging battery, or an electrolytic cell performing electrolysis, for example, reversing the current direction in a Daniell galvanic cell would produce an electrolytic cell, where the copper electrode is the positive terminal and the anode. In a diode, the cathode is the terminal at the pointed end of the arrow symbol. Note, electrode naming for diodes is always based on the direction of the forward current, an electrode through which current flows the other way is termed an anode. The use of West to mean the out direction may appear unnecessarily contrived, previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term exode. The reference he used to effect was the Earths magnetic field direction. The flow of electrons is almost always from anode to cathode outside of the cell or device, regardless of the cell or device type, an exception is when a diode reverse-conducts, either by accident or by design. In chemistry, a cathode is the electrode of a cell at which reduction occurs. Another mnemonic is to note the cathode has a c, as does reduction, perhaps most useful would be to remember cathode corresponds to cation and anode corresponds to anion. The cathode can be negative like when the cell is electrolytic, the cathode supplies electrons to the positively charged cations which flow to it from the electrolyte. The cathodic current, in electrochemistry, is the flow of electrons from the interface to a species in solution. The anodic current is the flow of electrons into the anode from a species in solution, in an electrolytic cell, the cathode is where the negative polarity is applied to drive the cell. Common results of reduction at the cathode are hydrogen gas or pure metal from metal ions, when discussing the relative reducing power of two redox agents, the couple for generating the more reducing species is said to be more cathodic with respect to the more easily reduced reagent. When metal ions are reduced from ionic solution, they form a metal surface on the cathode
16.
Sulfuric acid
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Sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H2SO4 and molecular weight 98.079 g/mol. It is a pungent-ethereal, colorless to slightly yellow liquid that is soluble in water at all concentrations. Sometimes, it is dyed dark brown during production to alert people to its hazards, the historical name of this acid is oil of vitriol. Sulfuric acid is an acid and shows different properties depending upon its concentration. Its corrosiveness on other materials, like metals, living tissues or even stones, can be ascribed to its strong acidic nature and, if concentrated. It is also hygroscopic, readily absorbing water vapour from the air, Sulfuric acid at a high concentration can cause very serious damage upon contact, since not only does it cause chemical burns via hydrolysis, but also secondary thermal burns through dehydration. It can lead to permanent blindness if splashed onto eyes and irreversible damage if swallowed, Sulfuric acid has a wide range of applications including in domestic acidic drain cleaners, as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries and in various cleaning agents. It is also a central substance in the chemical industry, principal uses include mineral processing, fertilizer manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing, and chemical synthesis. It is widely produced with different methods, such as process, wet sulfuric acid process, lead chamber process. The study of vitriol, a category of glassy minerals from which the acid can be derived, sumerians had a list of types of vitriol that they classified according to the substances color. Some of the earliest discussions on the origin and properties of vitriol is in the works of the Greek physician Dioscorides, galen also discussed its medical use. Ibn Sina focused on its uses and different varieties of vitriol. Sulfuric acid was called oil of vitriol by medieval European alchemists because it was prepared by roasting green vitriol in an iron retort, there are references to it in the works of Vincent of Beauvais and in the Compositum de Compositis ascribed to Saint Albertus Magnus. A passage from Pseudo-Geber´s Summa Perfectionis was long considered to be the first recipe for sulfuric acid, in the seventeenth century, the German-Dutch chemist Johann Glauber prepared sulfuric acid by burning sulfur together with saltpeter, in the presence of steam. As saltpeter decomposes, it oxidizes the sulfur to SO3, in 1736, Joshua Ward, a London pharmacist, used this method to begin the first large-scale production of sulfuric acid. This process allowed the effective industrialization of sulfuric acid production, after several refinements, this method, called the lead chamber process or chamber process, remained the standard for sulfuric acid production for almost two centuries. Sulfuric acid created by John Roebucks process approached a 65% concentration, later refinements to the lead chamber process by French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and British chemist John Glover improved concentration to 78%. However, the manufacture of dyes and other chemical processes require a more concentrated product
17.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
18.
Mandrel
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Exhaust pipes for automobiles are frequently bent using a mandrel during manufacture. The mandrel allows the exhaust pipes to be bent into smooth curves without undesirable creasing, kinking, molten glass may be shaped in this way as well. Another type of mandrel is the chuck that a lathe uses to hold pieces of wood, in this way, rods can be threaded, furniture legs are turned to have æsthetic patterns, and irregularly-shaped objects can be given a round shape. There are several types of mandrels used with lathes, original expanding mandrels have a slightly tapered wedge that will expand to hold the item. The Xpandrel method of expanding mandrels was introduced in the mid-1990s and this method uses basic mechanical principles of deformation to achieve expansion of a non-tapered mandrel. Other commercial mandrels are very slightly tapered, and the hollow object slides down the taper until it sticks, the shop-made mandrel shown in the photo is designed to clamp a hollow tube or gear between the two tapered plugs. Mandrels of this type are usually set in the lathe on centers, the third type of mandrel discussed here is that which is used to hold circular saw blades, buffing wheels, and sanding discs onto drills, circular saws, and similar power tools. While most mandrels are driven by direct connection to a motor or engine, other mandrels are driven by attachment to a bearing-supported. Mandrels are also used in industrial composite fabrication such as in filament winding, during the manufacturing process, resin-impregnated filaments are wound around a mandrel to create a composite material structure or part. The structure is cured and the mandrel is removed, one problem with this type of process is that the mandrel can be very difficult to remove once the part has been cured. As a result, engineers have created a new type of mandrel that has the ability to change shape, when heated above a certain temperature, the mandrel becomes elastic and can be manipulated into the desired shape and then cooled to become rigid again in the new shape. It can then be used in the filament winding process, once the composite part is cured, the mandrel can be reheated until elastic and easily removed from the cured part. These types of mandrels can be used repeatedly, in the production of steel core used for flexible drives, the centre wire upon which the subsequent layers are wound is referred to as a Mandrel. This centre wire may itself be composed of either a wire or layers. A hole saw usually attaches to a mandrel, basically a drill bit with threads to secure the saw, metal machining utilizing the spinning process has been recorded as far back as ancient Egyptian times. In metal spinning, a wood or metal spinning mandrel is used and this method securely clamps the raw material and allows for accurate machining into the desired final form. Since the material is clamped internally, there is no interference to the operator from the assembly during production. The traversing mandrel was primarily employed by clockmakers and ornamental turners during this era, eventually the device was superseded by a mandrel-driven device called a leadscrew, which uses a train of gears that can be altered as required for the turning application
19.
Electrophoretic deposition
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A characteristic feature of this process is that colloidal particles suspended in a liquid medium migrate under the influence of an electric field and are deposited onto an electrode. All colloidal particles that can be used to form stable suspensions and this includes materials such as polymers, pigments, dyes, ceramics and metals. The process is useful for applying materials to any electrically conductive surface, the materials which are being deposited are the major determining factor in the actual processing conditions and equipment which may be used. Due to the utilization of electrophoretic painting processes in many industries. However, non-aqueous electrophoretic deposition applications are known, applications of non-aqueous EPD are currently being explored for use in the fabrication of electronic components and the production of ceramic coatings. Non-aqueous processes have the advantage of avoiding the electrolysis of water and this process is industrially used for applying coatings to metal fabricated products. Thick films produced this way allow cheaper and more rapid synthesis relative to sol-gel thin-films, in the fabrication of solid oxide fuel cells EPD techniques are widely employed for the fabrication of porous ZrO2 anodes from powder precursors onto conductive substrates. EPD processed have a number of advantages which have made such methods widely used The process applies coatings which generally have a uniform coating thickness without porosity. Complex fabricated objects can easily be coated, both inside cavities as well as on the outside surfaces, applicability to wide range of materials Easy control of the coating composition. The process is automated and requires less human labor than other coating processes. Highly efficient utilization of the coating materials result in lower costs relative to other processes, the aqueous process which is commonly used has less risk of fire relative to the solvent-borne coatings that they have replaced. Modern electrophoretic paint products are more environmentally friendly than many other painting technologies. Thick, complex ceramic pieces have been made in research laboratories. Furthermore, EPD has been used to produce customized microstructures, such as gradients and laminates. The first patent for the use of painting was awarded in 1917 to Davey. Since the 1920s, the process has used for the deposition of rubber latex. In the 1930s the first patents were issued which described base neutralized, the first commercial anodic automotive system began operations in 1963. The first patent for a cathodic EPD product was issued in 1965, PPG Industries, Inc. was the first to introduce commercially cathodic EPD in 1970
20.
Joseph Alexander Adams
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Joseph Alexander Adams was an engraver who is said to have been the first electrotyper in the United States. He was born in New Germantown, New Jersey, in 1803 and he was an apprentice in the printing business. His work as an engraver had appeared as early as 1833 in the Treasury of Knowledge and he engraved Last Arrow for the New York Mirror in 1837, and 1,600 illustrations for Harpers Illuminated Bible in 1843. He also made significant improvements in the process of electrotyping and he died in New Jersey in 1880. General Who Was Who in America, Historical Volume, 1607-1896
21.
Daniell cell
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He was searching for a way to eliminate the hydrogen bubble problem found in the voltaic pile, and his solution was to use a second electrolyte to consume the hydrogen produced by the first. Zinc sulfate may be substituted for the sulfuric acid, the Daniell cell was a great improvement over the existing technology used in the early days of battery development. A later variant of the Daniell cell called the gravity cell or crowfoot cell was invented in the 1860s by a Frenchman named Callaud and became a popular choice for electrical telegraphy. The Daniell cell is also the basis for the contemporary definition of the volt. The definitions of units that were proposed at the 1881 International Conference of Electricians were designed so that the electromotive force of the Daniell cell would be about 1.0 volts. With contemporary definitions, the potential of the Daniell cell at 25 °C is actually 1.10 V. In the Daniell cell, copper and zinc electrodes are immersed in a solution of copper sulfate, at the anode, zinc is oxidized per the following half reaction, Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−. At the cathode, copper is reduced per the following reaction, the total reaction being, Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu. In classroom demonstrations, a form of the Daniell cell known as two cells is often used due to its simplicity. The two half cells each support one half of the described above. A wire and light bulb may connect the two electrodes, electrons that are “pulled” from the zinc anode travel through the wire, providing an electrical current that illuminates the bulb. In such a cell, the play an important role. Having a negative charge, the build up around the anode to maintain a neutral charge. Conversely, at the cathode the copper cations discharge to maintain a neutral charge and these two processes accompany the accumulation of copper solid at the cathode and the corrosion of the zinc electrode into the solution as zinc cations. Since neither half reaction will occur independently of the other, the two cells must be connected in a way that will allow ions to move freely between them. A porous barrier or ceramic disk may be used to separate the two solutions while allowing the flow of sulfate ions, when the half cells are placed in two entirely different and separate containers, a salt bridge is often used to connect the two cells. The salt bridge typically contains a concentration of potassium nitrate. In the above wet-cell during discharge, nitrate anions in the salt bridge move into the zinc half-cell in order to balance the increase in Zn2+ ions
22.
Smee cell
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A lemon battery is a simple battery often made for the purpose of education. Typically, a piece of metal and a piece of copper are inserted into a lemon. Power generated by reaction of the metals is used to power a device such as a light emitting diode. The lemon battery is similar to the first electrical battery invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, the lemon battery illustrates the type of chemical reaction that occurs in batteries. The zinc and copper are called the electrodes, and the juice inside the lemon is called the electrolyte, there are many variations of the lemon cell that use different fruits as electrolytes and metals other than zinc and copper as electrodes. There are numerous sets of instructions for making lemon batteries and for obtaining components such as light-emitting diodes, electrical meters, commercial potato clock science kits include electrodes and a low-voltage digital clock. After one cell is assembled, a multimeter can be used to measure the voltage or the current from the voltaic cell. Currents are more variable, but range up to about 1 mA, for a more visible effect, lemon cells can be connected in series to power an LED or other devices. The series connection increases the voltage available to devices, with the zinc/copper electrodes, at least two lemon cells were needed for any of these devices. Substituting a magnesium electrode for the zinc electrode makes a cell with a voltage. Note that incandescent light bulbs from flashlights are not used because the battery is not designed to produce enough electric current to light them. By multiplying the current of a lemon by the average voltage of a lemon we can conclude that it would take more than 6 million lemons to give us the power of an average 4320W car battery. Many fruits and liquids can be used for the acidic electrolyte, fruit is convenient, because it provides both the electrolyte and a simple way to support the electrodes. The acid involved in citrus fruits is citric acid, the acidity, which is measured by the pH, varies substantially. Potatoes have phosphoric acid and work well, they are the basis for commercial potato clock kits, potato batteries with LED lighting have been proposed for use in poor countries or by off-grid populations. International research begun in 2010 showed that boiling potatoes for eight minutes improves their electrical output, boiled and chopped plantain pith is also suitable, according to Sri Lankan researchers. Instead of fruit, liquids in various containers can be used, sauerkraut was featured in one episode of the US television program Head Rush. The sauerkraut had been canned, and became the electrolyte while the can itself was one of the electrodes, zinc and copper electrodes are reasonably safe and easy to obtain
23.
Dynamo
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A dynamo is an electrical generator that produces direct current with the use of a commutator. Today, the simpler alternator dominates large scale power generation, for efficiency, reliability, a dynamo has the disadvantages of a mechanical commutator. Also, converting alternating to direct current using power rectification devices is effective, the word dynamo was originally another name for an electrical generator, and still has some regional usage as a replacement for the word generator. The word dynamo was coined by Werner von Siemens in 1882, the original dynamo principle of W. Siemens meant only the direct current generators which use exclusively the self-excitation principle to generate DC power. The earlier DC generators which used permanent magnets were not considered dynamo electric machines, the invention of the Dynamo principle was a huge technological leap over the old traditional permanent magnet based DC generators. The discovery of the dynamo principle made the industrial scale electric power generation technically and economically feasible, a small electrical generator built into the hub of a bicycle wheel to power lights is called a hub dynamo, although these are invariably AC devices, and are actually magnetos. The electric dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a direct electric current through Faradays law of induction. A dynamo machine consists of a structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic field. Due to Faradays law of induction the motion of the wire within the field creates an electromotive force which pushes on the electrons in the metal. The commutator is needed to direct current. When a loop of wire rotates in a field, the magnetic flux through it. However, in the days of electric experimentation, alternating current generally had no known use. The few uses for electricity, such as electroplating, used direct current provided by messy liquid batteries, dynamos were invented as a replacement for batteries. The commutator is essentially a rotary switch and it consists of a set of contacts mounted on the machines shaft, combined with graphite-block stationary contacts, called brushes, because the earliest such fixed contacts were metal brushes. The commutator reverses the connection of the windings to the circuit when the potential reverses, so instead of alternating current. The earliest dynamos used permanent magnets to create the magnetic field and these were referred to as magneto-electric machines or magnetos. However, researchers found that magnetic fields, and so more power. These were called dynamo-electric machines or dynamos, the field coils of the stator were originally separately excited by a separate, smaller, dynamo or magneto
24.
Nicholas I of Russia
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Nicholas I was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855. He was also the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland and his biographer Nicholas V. Riasanovsky says that Nicholas displayed determination, singleness of purpose, and an iron will, along with a powerful sense of duty and a dedication to very hard work. He saw himself as a junior officer totally consumed by spit. A handsome man, he was nervous and aggressive. Trained as an engineer, he was a stickler for minute detail, in his public persona, says Riasanovsky, Nicholas I came to represent autocracy personified, infinitely majestic, determined and powerful, hard as stone, and relentless as fate. His reign had an ideology called Official Nationality that was proclaimed officially in 1833 and it was a reactionary policy based on orthodoxy in religion, autocracy in government, and Russian nationalism. He was the brother of his predecessor, Alexander I. Nicholas inherited his brothers throne despite the failed Decembrist revolt against him and his aggressive foreign policy involved many expensive wars, having a disastrous effect on the empires finances. He was successful against Russias neighbouring southern rivals as he seized the last territories in the Caucasus held by Persia by successfully ending the Russo-Persian War and he ended the Russo-Turkish War successfully as well. Later on, however, he led Russia into the Crimean War with disastrous results, historians emphasize that his micromanagement of the armies hindered his generals, as did his misguided strategy. Fuller notes that historians have concluded that the reign of Nicholas I was a catastrophic failure in both domestic and foreign policy. On the eve of his death, the Russian Empire reached its zenith, spanning over 20 million square kilometers. Nicholas was born at Gatchina Palace in Gatchina to Grand Duke Paul, five months after his birth, his grandmother, Catherine the Great, died and his parents became emperor and empress of Russia. He was a brother of Emperor Alexander I of Russia, who succeeded to the throne in 1801. Riasanovsky says he was, the most handsome man in Europe, Nicholas was not brought up to become the Emperor of Russia, he had two elder brothers. However, as both of them failed to produce sons, Nicholas remained second in the line of succession, in 1825, when Alexander I died suddenly of typhus, Nicholas was caught between swearing allegiance to his second-eldest brother, Constantine Pavlovich, and accepting the throne for himself. The interregnum lasted until Constantine, who was in Warsaw at that time, additionally, on 25 December, Nicholas issued the manifesto proclaiming his accession to the throne. That manifesto retroactively named 1 December, the date of Alexander Is death, during this confusion, a plot was hatched by some members of the military to overthrow Nicholas and to seize power
25.
Rotary printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
26.
Punchcutter
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Punchcutting is a craft used in traditional typography to cut letter punches in steel from which matrices were made in copper for type founding in the letterpress era. Cutting punches and casting type was the first step of traditional typesetting, the cutting of letter punches was a highly skilled craft requiring much patience and practice. Often the designer of the type would not be involved in the cutting. The angle of the side of the punch was particularly significant, the punchcutter begins by transferring the outline of a letter design to one end of a steel bar. The outer shape of the punch could be cut directly, but the curves of a small punch were particularly difficult as it was necessary to cut deep enough. While this can be done with cutting tools, a counterpunch, a counterpunch could be used to create this negative space, not just where the space was completely enclosed by the letter, but in any concavity. Of course, the counterpunch had to be harder than the punch itself and this was accomplished by annealing the punch blank, and hardening and tempering the counterpunch. Such a tool solved two issues, one technical and one aesthetic, that arose in punchcutting, often the same counterpunch could be used for several letters in a typeface. For example, the space inside an uppercase P and R is usually very similar. Counterpunches were regularly used in this way to give typefaces a more consistent look, the counterpunch would be struck into the face of the punch. The outer form of the letter is then shaped using files, to test the punch, the punchcutter makes an imprint on a piece of paper after coating the punch with soot from an open flame. The soot left by the flame acts like ink to create an image on the paper, once the punches are ready a mold could then be created from the punch by using the punch on a softer metal to create a matrix. Then, type metal, an alloy of lead, antimony, one characteristic of type metal that makes it valuable for this use is that it expands as it cools, keeping the accurate dimensions of letters. This characteristic is shared by the used to cast sculptures. Bradford Industrial Museum Commemorative coin Letterpress printing Amoretti Brothers
27.
Stephenson Blake
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Stephenson Blake is an engineering company based in Sheffield. The company was active from the early 19th century as a founder, remaining until the 1990s as the last active type foundry in Britain. The type foundry began operations in July 1818 by silversmith and mechanic William Garnett and toolmaker John Stephenson and that November, news came that the breakaway Caslon foundry was put up for sale by William Caslon IV. In 1819 the deal was concluded and Blake, Garnett & Co. were suddenly in charge of one of England’s most prestigious typefoundries, in 1829 Garnett left to become a farmer. The company was renamed Blake & Stephenson in 1830, but Blake died soon after and it became Stephenson, Blake & Co. in 1841-1905. John Stephenson died in 1864, the year after he handed control to his son Henry, in 1905 the firm purchased Sir Charles Reed and Sons Ltd. It was then known as Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed, in 1914, without any change in proprietorship, the business was converted into a private limited liability company. Fann Street Foundry Fry’s Type Street Letter Foundry via merger of Sir Charles Reed & Sons in 1905, there are plans to turn the former premises into an apartment complex. In December 2007, Stephenson & Blake acquired Nu-Gauge engineering, who are a manufacturer to the glass gauge industry in the United Kingdom. Nu-Gauge engineering has been merged to within Stephenson & Blake, in December 2009, Stephenson & Blake acquired the steel rule tooling business from DR Tooling Ltd, They now design and manufacture steel cutting tools alongside their High Frequency Welding tools. In 2010 Stephenson & Blake acquired the Brass Welding/High Frequency Welding rule business from Caslon, Stephenson & Blake now manufacture the whole of Caslons High Frequency Welding Rule range alongside their own inventory. Sheffield council uses a font, Wayfarer, commissioned from designer Jeremy Tankard that is based on Stephenson Blakes sans-serif Granby. Website Stephenson Blakes original Impact brochure The Impact of Impact, pages 1,2,3,4
28.
Ernst Friedrich August Rietschel
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Ernst Friedrich August Rietschel was a German sculptor. Rietschel was born in Pulsnitz, Saxony, at an early age he became an art student at Dresden, and subsequently a pupil of Rauch in Berlin. He there gained an art studentship, and studied in Rome in 1827-28, in 1832 he was elected to the Dresden professorship of sculpture, and had many foreign orders of merit conferred on him by the governments of different countries. He died in Dresden in 1861, Rietschels style was very varied, he produced works imbued with much religious feeling, and to some extent he occupied the same place as a sculptor that Overbeck did in painting. Other important works by him were purely classical in style and he also designed the memorial statue of Luther for Worms, but died before he could carry it out. The principal among Rietschels religious pieces of sculpture are the well-known Christ-Angel, for a good biography of Rietschel and account of his works see Oppermann, Andreas. Ernst Rietschel, the sculptor, and the lessons of his life, an autobiography and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
29.
WMF Group
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WMF Group is a German tableware manufacturer, founded in 1853 in Geislingen an der Steige. WMF was originally called Metallwarenfabrik Straub & Schweizer and was opened as a metal repairing workshop, in 1880 after Metallwarenfabrik Straub & Schweizer merged with another German company, it was renamed as the Württembergische Metallwarenfabrik. WMF acquired the Polish metalware factory Plewkiewicz in Warsaw in 1886, during this period, the WMF employed over 3500 people. During the 1920s, Abteilung für Galvanoplastik was producing reproductions of large-scale Italian Renaissance bronze works for an American clientele, Albert Weiblen Marble & Granite Co. Inc. of New Orleans pursued the acquisition of a gilt copper reproduction of Ghibertis Gates of Paradise. WMF produced a catalog about the doors, titled Erztüre des Hauptportals am Baptisterium in Florenz. In 1900, WMF acquired Albert Köhlers famous Austrian metalwork company AK & CIE, WMF purchased Orivit AG, a company known for its Jugendstil pewter in 1905, followed a year later by the purchase of the Orion Kunstgewerbliche Metallwarenfabrik, another German metalware company. WMF continued to use the goods from the companies on their own markets. In 1955, WMF started production of coffee machines. These products were designed for restaurants, military mess halls, cruise ships, kohlberg Kravis Roberts acquired the company in 2012. Frasers grew to become a division of WMF of America, Inc. a subsidiary of WMF AG. With the death of Gordon Fraser in 2005, Frasers ceased to exist, since 1998 the German cooking pan manufacturer Silit also belongs to the WMF Group. Silit is still marketed as an independent brand, in 2002, the range of products is rounded off by the acquisition of Kaiser Backformen. WMF official international website Promotion and advertising article for business users www. Orivit
30.
John Evan Thomas
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John Evan Thomas, FSA was a Welsh sculptor, notable for many sculptures both in Wales and elsewhere in the UK, such as his portrait sculptures in London. Thomas was born in Brecon, Wales the son of John Thomas of Castle Street in that town, in 1857 he left his London practice and bought the small mansion, Penishar-Pentre, at Llanspyddid. He retained a studio in Pimlico in London and he was appointed High Sheriff of Brecknockshire in 1868. As a loyal Welshman, and with the support of Benjamin Hall, he was a prominent figure in the movement to stop misuse of endowments which had given to Christ College. He died on 9 October 1873 in London and he is buried on the eastern section of Brompton Cemetery, south of the main east-west path. Although the area has become overgrown, the monument is distinctive. Thomas studied in London under Francis Leggatt Chantrey and then in Europe and he produced church monuments in Wales from 1831, and portraits in London from 1834 onwards, becoming a frequent exhibitor of his portrait busts at the Royal Academy between 1835 and 1862. At his London studio at 7 Lower Belgrave Place he retained the patronage of Welsh landed gentry, many of his public works are still visible in Wales, for example his Duke of Wellington in the centre of Brecon, and his statuary in Brecon Cathedral. He also produced a lot of work outside Wales, works at the Guildhall and Lloyds Bank at Bristol are probably those of John Thomas but are attributed to John Evan Thomas. Two of his works are considered to be the Second Marquess of Londonderry at Westminster Abbey. The latter was shown at the Great Exhibition of 1851 and cast in bronze in 1853. Four more principal works are, Sir Charles Morgan at Newport, the Duke of Wellington at Brecon, the John Henry Vivian at Swansea and the 1865 Prince Consort on Castle Heights, Tenby. In Brecknock Museum a metal electrotype of his 1848 plaster sculpture, Death of Tewdrig, depicts the dying fifth-century king Tewdrig and it was designed by Thomas and modelled by his brother W. Meredyth Thomas in response to a patriotic competition at the 1848 Abergavenny Eisteddfod. This was shown again at the Royal Academy in 1849, and this sculpture is associated with the Welsh national revival of the 1830s and 1840s. In 1844 Thomas exhibited a model of Lord Londonderry in Westminster Hall, in 1850 this was carved in marble and placed on permanent display in Westminster Abbey. The original maquettes for these have languished for a hundred years, hidden in the bottom of the tower of the medieval Westgate. The statues which make up Thomas contribution to this set are Henry de Loundres, Archbishop of Dublin, image of Death of Tewdrig sculpture,1848, height 167 centimetres John Evan Thomas at museum. wales
31.
Elkington & Co.
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Elkington & Co. was a silver manufacturer from Birmingham, England. It was founded by George Richards Elkington and his brother, Henry Elkington and it operated under the name G. R. Elkington & Co. until 1842, when a third partner, Josiah Mason, joined the firm. It operated as Elkington, Mason, & Co. until 1861, the firm operated independently as Elkington & Co. from 1861 until 1963. It was then taken over by British Silverware, Ltd, in 1971 British Silverware, Ltd. became a subsidiary of Delta Metal Co. Ltd. Over the course of history it became successful and was one of the prime producers of silver plating. Elkington received various royal warrants of appointments, and also an Imperial and Royal Warrant of Appointment from the emperor of Austria, one of their most famous pieces is the electrotype copy of the Jerningham Wine Cooler, at the Victoria & Albert Museum. British bronze sculpture founders and plaster figure makers, 1800-1980 - E, extensive discussion of Elkington & Co. Media related to Elkington & Co. at Wikimedia Commons
32.
The Great Exhibition
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It was the first in a series of Worlds Fairs, exhibitions of culture and industry that became popular in the 19th century, and it was a much anticipated event. The Great Exhibition was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. It was arguably a response to the highly successful French Industrial Exposition of 1844, indeed, Queen Victoria and her family visited three times. Although the Great Exhibition was a platform on which countries from around the world could display their achievements, Britain sought to prove its own superiority. The British exhibits at the Great Exhibition held the lead in almost every field where strength, durability, utility and quality were concerned, whether in iron and steel, Britain also sought to provide the world with the hope of a better future. Europe had just struggled through two decades of political and social upheaval, and now Britain hoped to show that technology. Technology and moving machinery were popular, especially working exhibits and she also notes that visitors could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments were found in class X, and included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, a special building, nicknamed The Crystal Palace, or The Great Shalimar, was built to house the show. The building was architecturally adventurous, drawing on Paxtons experience designing greenhouses for the sixth Duke of Devonshire. It took the form of a glass house,1851 feet long by 454 feet wide and was constructed from cast iron-frame components and glass made almost exclusively in Birmingham. From the interior, the large size was emphasized with trees and statues, this served, not only to add beauty to the spectacle. The Crystal Palace was an success, considered an architectural marvel. The building was moved and re-erected in 1854 in enlarged form at Sydenham Hill in south London. It was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936, six million people—equivalent to a third of the entire population of Britain at the time—visited the Great Exhibition. The average daily attendance was 42,831 with an attendance of 109,915 on 7 October. The event made a surplus of £186,000, which was used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and they were all built in the area to the south of the exhibition, nicknamed Albertopolis, alongside the Imperial Institute. The remaining surplus was used to set up an educational trust to provide grants and scholarships for industrial research, the Exhibition caused controversy as its opening approached. Some conservatives feared that the mass of visitors might become a revolutionary mob, must shock every honest and well-meaning Englishman
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Saint Isaac's Cathedral
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Saint Isaacs Cathedral or Isaakievskiy Sobor in Saint Petersburg, Russia, is the largest Russian Orthodox cathedral in the city. It is the largest orthodox basilica and the fourth largest cathedral in the world and it is dedicated to Saint Isaac of Dalmatia, a patron saint of Peter the Great, who had been born on the feast day of that saint. The church on St Isaacs Square was ordered by Tsar Alexander I, to replace a structure by Vincenzo Brenna. A specially appointed commission examined several designs, including that of the French-born architect Auguste de Montferrand, Montferrands design was criticised by some members of the commission for the dry and allegedly boring rhythm of its four identical pedimented octastyle porticos. It was also suggested that despite gigantic dimensions, the edifice would look squat, the members of the commission, which consisted of well-known Russian architects, were also particularly concerned by necessity to build a new huge building on the old unsecure foundation. The emperor, who favoured the ponderous Empire style of architecture, had to step in, the cathedral took 40 years to construct, under Montferrands direction, from 1818 to 1858. To secure the construction, the foundation was strengthened by driving 25,000 piles into the fenland of Saint Petersburg. Innovative methods were created to erect the giant columns of the portico, the construction costs of the cathedral totalled an incredible sum of 1000000 gold rubles. Under the Soviet government, the building was stripped of religious trappings, in 1931, it was turned into the Museum of the History of Religion and Atheism, the dove sculpture was removed, and replaced by a Foucault pendulum. On April 12,1931, the first public demonstration of the Foucault pendulum was held to visualize Copernicus’s theory, in 1937, the museum was transformed into the museum of the Cathedral, and former collections were transferred to the Museum of the History of Religion. During World War II, the dome was painted over in gray to avoid attracting attention from enemy aircraft, on its top, in the skylight, a geodesical intersection point was placed, to determine the positions of German artillery batteries. With the fall of communism, the museum was removed and regular worship activity has resumed in the cathedral, the main body of the cathedral is used for services on feast days only. On January 10,2017 Georgy Poltavchenko, the Governor of St and it is similar to Andrea Palladios Villa La Rotonda, with a full dome on a high drum substituted for the Villas low central saucer dome. The rotunda is encircled by an accessible to tourists. 24 statues stand on the roof, and another 24 on top of the rotunda, the cathedrals main dome rises 101.5 metres and is plated with pure gold. The dome is decorated with statues of angels by Josef Hermann. These angels were likely the first large sculptures produced by the novel process of electrotyping. Montferrands design of the dome is based on a supporting cast iron structure and it was the third historical instance of cast iron cupola after the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk and Mainz Cathedral
34.
Palais Garnier
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The Palais Garnier is a 1, 979-seat opera house, which was built from 1861 to 1875 for the Paris Opera. The Paris Opera now mainly uses the Palais Garnier for ballet, the Palais Garnier has been called probably the most famous opera house in the world, a symbol of Paris like Notre Dame Cathedral, the Louvre, or the Sacré Coeur Basilica. This opinion is far from unanimous however, the 20th-century French architect Le Corbusier once described it as a lying art, the Palais Garnier is a building of exceptional opulence. The style is monumental and considered Second-Empire Beaux-Arts style with axial symmetry in plan and these include very elaborate multicolored marble friezes, columns, and lavish statuary, many of which portray deities of Greek mythology. The principal facade is on the side of the building, overlooking the Place de lOpéra. Fourteen painters, mosaicists and seventy-three sculptors participated in the creation of its ornamentation, the two gilded figural groups, Charles Gumerys LHarmonie and La Poésie, crown the apexes of the principal facades left and right avant-corps. They are both made of gilt copper electrotype, the facade also incorporates other work by Gumery, Alexandre Falguière, and others. On the left and right lateral returns of the front facade are busts of the librettists Eugène Scribe and Philippe Quinault, when the Empire fell, work stopped, leaving unfinished dressed stonework. It is covered by a 13.5 metre diameter dome, two pairs of obelisks marking the entrances of the Rotunda to the north and the south. The interior consists of interweaving corridors, stairwells, alcoves and landings allowing the movement of large numbers of people, rich with velvet, gold leaf, and cherubim and nymphs, the interior is characteristic of Baroque sumptuousness. The building features a ceremonial staircase of white marble with a balustrade of red and green marble. Its design was inspired by Victor Louiss grand staircase for the Théâtre de Bordeaux, the pedestals of the staircase are decorated with female torchères, created by Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse. When they were first fixed in two months before the opening of the building it was obvious to Garnier that they were too dark for the space. With the help of two of his students, Pils had to rework the canvases while they were in place overhead on the ceiling and, at the age of 61, he fell ill. His students had to finish the work, which was completed the day before the opening and this hall 18 meters high,154 meters long and 13 meters wide was designed to act as a drawing room for Paris society. Its ceiling was painted by Paul-Jacques-Aimé Baudry and represents various moments in the history of music, the foyer opens into an outside loggia at each end of which are the Salon de la Lune and Salon du Soleil. The auditorium has a traditional Italian horseshoe shape and can seat 1,979, the stage is the largest in Europe and can accommodate as many as 450 artists. The canvas house curtain was painted to represent a draped curtain, complete with tassels, the ceiling area, which surrounds the chandelier, was originally painted by Jules Eugène Lenepveu
35.
Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
36.
Jerningham wine cooler
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The Jerningham wine cooler is a large wine cooler made out of silver in the 18th century. Jernegan employed the sculptor John Michael Rysbrack to model the Bacchanalian scenes on the bowl, the crouching panthers beneath and it took a team of silversmiths, chasers and engravers four years to make and weighed 8,000 ozs. The leading silversmith, whose mark is struck on the cistern, was the German immigrant, when asked by Henry Jernegan to pay the final bill for the cistern, however, Meynell refused and in 1737, Jernegan offered the cooler as a lottery prize. The smallest prizes in the lottery were specially struck medals about five or six shillings each, the winner, Major William Battine of East Marden, Sussex, appears to have sold the cooler to the regent Grand Duchess Anna Leopoldovna of Russia in 1738. Since 1743 the cooler has been in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, an electrotype copy was made during the Victorian Age in 1884 in Birmingham by Elkington & Co. in celebration of the original. This copy is now located in the Victoria and Albert Museum, there is another electrotype copy in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, and also in the Queens Regimental Silver in England. Estate Silver Co. Ltd, in New York currently has, for sale and this is the only known sterling silver copy known to have been made
37.
Hermitage Museum
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The State Hermitage Museum is a museum of art and culture in Saint Petersburg, Russia. One of the largest and oldest museums in the world, it was founded in 1754 by Catherine the Great and has open to the public since 1852. Its collections, of only a small part is on permanent display. The collections occupy a complex of six historic buildings along Palace Embankment, including the Winter Palace. Apart from them, the Menshikov Palace, Museum of Porcelain, Storage Facility at Staraya Derevnya, the museum has several exhibition centers abroad. The Hermitage is a state property. Since July 1992, the director of the museum has been Mikhail Piotrovsky, of the six buildings in the main museum complex, five, namely the Winter Palace, Small Hermitage, Old Hermitage, New Hermitage and Hermitage Theatre, are open to the public. The entrance ticket for foreign tourists more than the fee paid by citizens of Russia. However, entrance is free of charge the first Thursday of every month for all visitors, the museum is closed on Mondays. The entrance for visitors is located in the Winter Palace. A hermitage is the dwelling of a hermit or recluse, the word derives from Old French hermit, ermit hermit, recluse, from Late Latin eremita, from Greek eremites, literally people who live alone, which is in turn derived from ἐρημός, desert. Originally, the building housing the collection was the Small Hermitage. Today, the Hermitage Museum encompasses many buildings on the Palace Embankment, apart from the Small Hermitage, the museum now also includes the Old Hermitage, the New Hermitage, the Hermitage Theatre, and the Winter Palace, the former main residence of the Russian tsars. In recent years, the Hermitage has expanded to the General Staff Building on the Palace Square facing the Winter Palace, the Western European Art collection includes European paintings, sculpture, and applied art from the 13th to the 20th centuries. It is displayed, in about 120 rooms, on the first, drawings and prints are displayed in temporary exhibitions. Since 1940, the Egyptian collection, dating back to 1852 and it serves as a passage to the exhibition of Classical Antiquities. A modest collection of the culture of Ancient Mesopotamia, including a number of Assyrian reliefs from Babylon, Dur-Sharrukin, the collection of Classical Antiquities occupies most of the ground floor of the Old and New Hermitage buildings. Its floor is made of a marble mosaic imitating ancient tradition, while the stucco walls
38.
John Keats
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John Keats was an English Romantic poet. He had a significant influence on a range of poets. Jorge Luis Borges stated that his first encounter with Keatss work was the most significant literary experience of his life, the poetry of Keats is characterised by sensual imagery, most notably in the series of odes. This is typical of poets, as they aimed to accentuate extreme emotion through the emphasis of natural imagery. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular, John Keats was born in Moorgate, London, on 31 October 1795 to Thomas Keats and his wife, born Frances Jennings. There is no evidence of his exact birthplace. Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October and he was the eldest of four surviving children, his younger siblings were George, Thomas, and Frances Mary Fanny who eventually married Spanish author Valentín Llanos Gutiérrez. Another son was lost in infancy and his father first worked as a hostler at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop Inn, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed that he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, the Globe pub now occupies the site, a few yards from the modern-day Moorgate station. He was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate, and sent to a dame school as a child. His parents were unable to afford Eton or Harrow, so in the summer of 1803, he was sent to board at John Clarkes school in Enfield, the small school had a liberal outlook and a progressive curriculum more modern than the larger, more prestigious schools. In the family atmosphere at Clarkes, Keats developed an interest in classics and history, the headmasters son, Charles Cowden Clarke, also became an important mentor and friend, introducing Keats to Renaissance literature, including Tasso, Spenser, and Chapmans translations. The young Keats was described by his friend Edward Holmes as a character, always in extremes, given to indolence. However, at 13 he began focusing his energy on reading and study, in April 1804, when Keats was eight, his father died. The cause of death was a fracture, suffered when he fell from his horse while returning from a visit to Keats. Frances remarried two months later, but left her new husband soon afterwards, and the four went to live with their grandmother, Alice Jennings. In March 1810 when Keats was 14, his mother died of tuberculosis and she appointed two guardians, Richard Abbey and John Sandell, to take care of them. That autumn, Keats left Clarkes school to apprentice with Thomas Hammond, a surgeon and apothecary who was a neighbour, Keats lodged in the attic above the surgery at 7 Church Street until 1813
39.
Benjamin Haydon
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Benjamin Robert Haydon was an English painter who specialised in grand historical pictures, although he also painted a few contemporary subjects and portraits. His commercial success was damaged by his often tactless dealings with patrons and he was troubled by financial problems throughout his life, which led to several periods of imprisonment for debt. He gave lectures on art, and kept extensive diaries that were published after his death, at an early age he showed an aptitude for study, which was carefully fostered by his mother. At the age of six he was placed in Plymouth Grammar School, and at twelve in Plympton Grammar School, reading Albinus inspired him with a love for anatomy, and from childhood he wanted to become a painter. Full of energy and hope, he left home, on 14 May 1804, for London and he was so enthusiastic that Henry Fuseli asked when he found time to eat. In 1807, at the age of 21, Haydon exhibited, for the first time, the painting he entered, The Repose in Egypt, was bought by Thomas Hope a year later for the Egyptian Room at his townhouse in Duchess Street. This was a start for Haydon, who shortly afterwards received a commission from Lord Mulgrave. That same year, he took on his first pupil, Charles Lock Eastlake, Haydon was fascinated by the Elgin Marbles, and believed that they provided evidence that ancient Greek artists had studied anatomy. The income was not enough to pay off all his debts, much of what he saw there disappointed him, he described Raphaels Transfiguration, a painting he had particularly wanted to see, as small & insignificant. On returning to England, he produced Christs Entry into Jerusalem, while painting another large work, the Resurrection of Lazarus, his financial problems increased, and he was arrested but not imprisoned, the sheriff-officer taking his word for his appearance. In October,1821, he increased his commitments when he married Mary Hyman, in 1823 Haydon spent two months imprisoned for debt in the Kings Bench Prison, where he received consoling letters from leading men of the day. While there, he drew up a petition to Parliament in favour of the appointment of a committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of historical painting, which was presented by Lord Brougham. During 1825, following an agreement for his support with his lawyer, Thomas Kearsey, Haydon turned, rather unwillingly, to portrait painting. His works in the genre were, however, attacked in a review in Theodore Hooks weekly newspaper John Bull. Haydon later blamed the article for his loss of clientele, following a second period of incarceration at the Kings Bench Prison in 1827, he painted the Mock Election inspired by an incident he had witnessed there. The picture was bought by King George IV for £500, encouraged by this success, he painted a companion picture, Chairing the Member, returning to the prison to make drawings of some of the inmates. A third painting of contemporary life showed the audience at a Punch and his hopes that the king would buy this work were disappointed, a setback he blamed on the actions of the Keeper of the Kings Pictures, William Seguier. Curtius Leaping into the Gulf, and Uriel and Satan, as a supporter of parliamentary reform, he had the idea of painting a grand canvas of a meeting on Newhall Hill, addressed by Thomas Attwood, leader of the Birmingham Political Union
40.
Weimar
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Weimar is a city in the federal state of Thuringia, Germany. It is located between Erfurt in the west and Jena in the east, approximately 80 kilometres southwest of Leipzig,170 kilometres north of Nuremberg and 170 kilometres west of Dresden. Together with the neighbour-cities Erfurt and Jena it forms the metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants. Weimar is well known because of its cultural heritage and its importance in German history. The city was a point of the German Enlightenment and home of the leading characters of the literary genre of Weimar Classicism. Until 1948, Weimar was the capital of Thuringia, today, many places in the city centre have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites and tourism is one of the leading economic sectors of Weimar. Relevant institutions in Weimar are the Bauhaus University, the Liszt School of Music, in 1999, Weimar was the European Capital of Culture. Archaeological finds dating back to the Thuringii epoch show that the Weimar part of the Ilm valley was settled early, the oldest records regarding Weimar date to 899. Its name changed over the centuries from Wimares through Wimari to Wimar and finally Weimar, it is derived from Old High German wīh-, another theory derives the first element from OHG win. The place was the seat of the County of Weimar, first mentioned in 949, in 1062 it was united with the County of Orlamünde to the new County of Weimar-Orlamünde, which existed until the Thuringian Counts War in 1346 and fell to the Wettins afterwards. The Weimar settlement emerged around the wooden castle and two small churches dedicated to St Peter, and to St James. In 1240, the count founded the monastery in Oberweimar. Soon after, the counts of Weimar founded the town, which was an independent parish since 1249, from 1262 the citizens used their own seal. Nevertheless, the influence of the Weimar counts was declining as the influence of the Wettins in Thuringia increased. Hence, the new town was relatively marginal in a regional context. The settlement around St James Church developed into a suburb during the 13th century, after becoming part of the Wettins territory in 1346, urban development improved. The Wettins fostered Weimar by abolishing socage and granting privileges to the citizens, now Weimar became equal to other Wettinian cities like Weißensee and grew during the 15th century, with the establishment of a town hall and the current main church. Weimar acquired woad trade privileges in 1438, the castle and the walls were finished in the 16th century, making Weimar into a full city
41.
Elie Nadelman
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Elie Nadelman was a Polish-Jewish sculptor, draughtsman and collector of folk art. Nadelman was born and studied briefly in Warsaw and then visited Munich in 1902 where he interested in Classical antiquities at the Glyptothek. He lived in Paris from 1904 to 1914, closely involved with the avant-garde, exhibiting at the Société des Artistes Indépendants, for the most detailed and accurate studies of Nadelmans work from 1905–12, which was of crucial importance for early 20th-century modern sculpture, see Athena T. He moved to the United States during the outbreak of World War I and he married Mrs. Viola Flannery, a wealthy heiress, in 1920. He and his wife assembled a collection of folk art and erected a Museum of Folk Arts in Riverdale. At the same time, his own style was at times Classical, at times decorative and he attempted to release large, inexpensive editions of his simple, classical, Tanagra-like small figures. All in all, Nadelman collected thousands upon thousands of folk art, from the 1920s, until his death, Nadelman lived and worked in the Riverdale neighborhood of the Bronx. Eventually, as his wealth vanished in the Depression and his failed to interest the art world. He did not take commissions other than portraits, in 1937 the collection of the Museum of Folk Arts was sold to the New York Historical Society. He held his last one-man exhibition in 1930, in 1935 many of his plaster figures and wood-carvings were destroyed by workmen sent to remodel his studio. Nadelman packed away all his work in the attic and cellar of his home in Riverdale. After his death, in Riverdale, on 28, December,1946, his sculpture Man in the Open Air, was restored and reintroduced in a retrospective at MOMA, New York. His reputation has grown since his death, and his work is in major museums. Circus Women David H. Koch Theater The Resting Stag Honolulu Museum of Art The Wounded Stag Honolulu Museum of Art Chanteuse Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts Busch, Julia M. A Decade of Sculpture, the New Media in the 1960s ISBN 0-87982-007-1 Haskell, Barbara, Elie Nadelman, Sculptor of Modern Life, Whitney Museum, ISBN 0-87427-130-4 Kirstein, Lincoln, Elie Nadelman, Eakins Press,1973. ISBN 0-87130-035-4 Spear, Athena Tacha, Elie Nadelmans Early Heads, Allen Memorial Art Museum Bulletin, XXVIII,3, Spring 1971, Spear, Athena Tacha, The Multiple Styles of Elie Nadelman, Drawings and Figure Sculptures ca. 1905-12, Allen Memorial Art Museum Bulletin, XXXI,1, 1973–74, the Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 6/7/2005 The Frick Elie Nadelman, Classical Folk web gallery Entry at the-artists. org
42.
Joseph Durham
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Joseph Durham ARA was an English sculptor. Durham was born in London in 1814 and was apprenticed to John Francis and he later worked in the studio of E. H. Baily for three years, and exhibited his first piece of sculpture in the Royal Academy in 1835. His busts of Jenny Lind and of Queen Victoria attracted a deal of attention the former proving particularly popular when reproduced in Parian ware by Copeland. A statue by him of Sir Francis Crossley was erected at Halifax and he executed four statues for the portico of London University in Burlington Gardens. In 1858 he won the commission for the Memorial to the Great Exhibition of 1851, Durham had originally planned that the main figure should be a representation of Britannia. The Memorial was erected in the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington in 1863, a commission from the Duke of Buccleuch, a statue of the Dukes younger brother - John Douglas Montagu Douglas Scott - was erected in Dunchurch and unveiled by the Duke in September 1867. Between 1835 and 1878 Durham exhibited 126 pieces of sculpture at the Royal Academy and he was noted for his figures of boys engaged in sporting activities. A porcelain reproduction of his sculpture Go to Sleep was distributed as a prize to members of the Art Union of London in 1865 and he became an associate of the Royal Academy in 1866. One of his works was a Leander and the Syren. His statues entitled Hermione and Alastor were purchased for the Mansion House and he died in London, after a long illness, on 27 October 1877. He died at his home at 21 Devonshire Street, London, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Durham, Joseph
43.
Albert, Prince Consort
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Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was the husband of Queen Victoria. He was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europes ruling monarchs, at the age of 20, he married his first cousin, Queen Victoria, they had nine children. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851, the Queen came to depend more and more on his support and guidance. Albert died at the young age of 42, plunging the Queen into deep mourning for the rest of her life. Upon Queen Victorias death in 1901, their eldest son succeeded as Edward VII, Albert was born at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany, the second son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his first wife, Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. Alberts future wife, Victoria, was earlier in the same year with the assistance of the same midwife. Albert was baptised into the Lutheran Evangelical Church on 19 September 1819 in the Marble Hall at Schloss Rosenau with water taken from the local river, in 1825, Alberts great-uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, died. His death led to a realignment of Saxon duchies the following year and Alberts father became the first reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg, Albert and his elder brother, Ernest, spent their youth in a close companionship marred by their parents turbulent marriage and eventual separation and divorce. After their mother was exiled from court in 1824, she married her lover, Alexander von Hanstein, Count of Polzig and she presumably never saw her children again, and died of cancer at the age of 30 in 1831. The brothers were educated privately at home by Christoph Florschütz and later studied in Brussels, like many other German princes, Albert attended the University of Bonn, where he studied law, political economics, philosophy and the history of art. He played music and excelled at sport, especially fencing and riding and his tutors at Bonn included the philosopher Fichte and the poet Schlegel. By 1836, the idea of marriage between Albert and his cousin, Victoria, had arisen in the mind of their ambitious uncle Leopold, at this time, Victoria was the heiress presumptive to the British throne. Her father, Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent, the son of King George III, had died when she was a baby. Her mother the Duchess of Kent, was the sister of both Alberts father—the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha—and King Leopold. Leopold arranged for his sister, Victorias mother, to invite the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander, second son of the Prince of Orange. Victoria was well aware of the matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes. Alexander, on the hand, she described as very plain. Victoria wrote to her uncle Leopold to thank him for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me and he possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy
44.
Royal Albert Hall
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The Royal Albert Hall is a concert hall on the northern edge of South Kensington, London, which holds the Proms concerts annually each summer since 1941. It has a capacity of up to 5,272 seats, the Hall is a registered charity held in trust for the nation and receives no public or government funding. A further 400 events are each year in the non-auditorium spaces. In 1851, the Great Exhibition was held in Hyde Park, the Exhibitions Royal Commission bought Gore House and its grounds on the advice of the Prince. Progress on the scheme was slow and in 1861 Prince Albert died, however, a memorial was proposed for Hyde Park, with a Great Hall opposite. The proposal was approved and the site was purchased with some of the profits from the Exhibition, the Hall was designed by civil engineers Captain Francis Fowke and Major-General Henry Y. D. Scott of the Royal Engineers and built by Lucas Brothers. The designers were heavily influenced by ancient amphitheatres, but had also exposed to the ideas of Gottfried Semper while he was working at the South Kensington Museum. The recently opened Cirque dHiver in Paris was seen in the press as the design to outdo. The Hall was constructed mainly of Fareham Red brick, with terra cotta block decoration made by Gibbs, the dome on top was made of wrought iron and glazed. There was an assembly made of the iron framework of the dome in Manchester, then it was taken apart again and transported to London via horse. When the time came for the structure to be removed from the dome after reassembly in situ. It did drop – but only by five-sixteenths of an inch, the Hall was scheduled to be completed by Christmas Day 1870 and the Queen visited a few weeks beforehand to inspect. The official opening ceremony of the Hall was on 29 March 1871, a welcoming speech was given by Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Victoria was too overcome to speak. At some point, the Queen remarked that the Hall reminded her of the British constitution, a concert followed, when the Halls acoustic problems became immediately apparent. Engineers first attempted to solve the strong echo by suspending a canvas awning below the dome, in July 1871, French organist Camille Saint-Saëns performed Church Scene from the Faust by Charles Gounod, The Orchestra described his performance as an exceptional and distinguished performer. Initially lit by gas, the Hall contained a system where its thousands of gas jets were lit within ten seconds. Though it was demonstrated as early as 1873 in the Hall, full electric lighting was not installed until 1888, during an early trial when a partial installation was made, one disgruntled patron wrote to The Times declaring it to be a very ghastly and unpleasant innovation. In May 1877, Richard Wagner himself conducted the first half of each of the eight concerts which made up the Grand Wagner Festival
