1.
Styria
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Styria is a state or Bundesland, located in the southeast of Austria. In area it is the second largest of the nine Austrian federated states and it borders Slovenia and the Austrian states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Burgenland, and Carinthia. The capital city is Graz which had 276,526 inhabitants at the beginning of 2015, the March of Styria derived its name from the original seat of its ruling Otakar dynasty, Steyr, in todays Upper Austria. In German, the area is still called Steiermark while in English the Latin name Styria is used, the ancient link between Steyr and Styria is also apparent in their nearly identical coats of arms, a white Panther on a green background. The term Upper Styria used by an Austrian refers to the northern and northwestern parts of the federal-state, the term West Styria is used for the districts to the west of Graz, the districts east of Graz are referred to as East Styria. The western and eastern parts of the district Graz-Umgebung may or may not be considered parts of West and East Styria, the southern parts of the Duchy of Styria, which have formed part of Yugoslavia or Slovenia since 1918, were referred to as Lower Styria. During early Roman times, Styria was inhabited by Celtic tribes, after its conquest by the Romans, the eastern part of what is now Styria was part of Pannonia, while the western one was included in Noricum. During the Barbarian invasions, it was conquered or crossed by the Visigoths, the Huns, the Ostrogoths, the Rugii, the Lombards, the Franks, in 595 the latter were defeated by the Slavs, who thenceforth ruled it. In 1180 Styria separated from the Duchy of Carinthia and became a Grand Duchy of its own, after the hereditary subdivision of the latter, Styria formed the central part of Inner Austria. Styria developed culturally and economically under John, Archduke of Inner Austria between 1809 and 1859, as elsewhere in the developed world, there has been a shift away from the manufacturing sector towards the service sector in Styria. This has had consequences for the industrial regions of upper Styria which have suffered a steady decline in population in recent years. Styria is home to more than 150 clean technology companies, of one dozen are world technology leaders in their field. The revenue of Styrian cleantech companies totals €2.7 billion and this equals to 8 percent of the Gross Regional Product, and is one of the highest concentrations of leading clean technology companies in Europe. The companies have a growth rate of 22 percent per year—well above the worldwide cleantech market growth of 18 percent per year. The region created roughly 2,000 additional green jobs in 2008 alone, the state is divided into 13 districts, one of them a statutory city. Graz however is a stronghold of the left-wing Communist Party, the governor has usually been an ÖVP member. In these elections, the KPÖ also received votes after it had gained much popularity through its role in local politics in Graz during the preceding few years. The two right-wing populist parties, the Freedom Party of Austria and the Alliance for the Future of Austria, gebirgsdivision Robert Stolz, composer born in Graz Getty Kaspers, lead vocals of Dutch band Teach-In, who won the 1975 Eurovision Song Contest
2.
The Piano Teacher (Jelinek novel)
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The Piano Teacher is a novel by Austrian Nobel Prize winner Elfriede Jelinek, first published in 1983 by Rowohlt Verlag. Translated by Joachim Neugroschel, it was the first of Jelineks novels to be translated into English, like much of Jelineks work, the chronology of the events in the book are interwoven with images of the past and the internal thoughts of characters. While the English work was titled The Piano Teacher, the title in German means the piano player, in 2001, the novel was adapted into the film The Piano Teacher, directed by Michael Haneke. Erika herself does not wear it, but merely strokes it admiringly at night, Erika expresses this latent violence as well and need for control in many other scenes throughout the book. Erika takes large instruments on trains so that she can hit people with them and call it an accident and she is a voyeur who frequents peep shows, and on one occasion catches a couple having sex in a park, being so affected that she urinates. Walter Klemmer, a student, is introduced very early on. He comes early to class and watches Erika perform and he eventually becomes Erikas student and develops a desire for his instructor. When Erika visits Klemmer after the rape and finds him laughing and happy, she herself in the shoulder. Much of the criticism has been directed at the mother-daughter relationship, thus, Erika remains the object of her mothers desire, unable to attain subjectivity which the principles of her musical education had denied her in the first place. Other criticism has been directed toward the lack of a figure within the novel. Just as much as Erikas mother is present, so is her father noticeably absent. This provides her mother with sole psychological discretion as to Erikas upbringing, worth noting is that, the mothers power and influence increase with the absence of the father, who is admitted to an asylum and spatially exiled
3.
Nobel Prize in Literature
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Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here work refers to an authors work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year, the academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the worlds most prestigious literature prize, many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has become seen as a political one - a peace prize in literary disguise, whose judges are prejudiced against authors with different political tastes to them. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for Swedish professors, as of 2016,16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, Nobels vague wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word translates as either idealistic or ideal. The Nobel Committees interpretation has varied over the years, in recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that the Storting approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, the Royal Swedish Academy was to award the Prize in Literature. Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature and it is not permitted to nominate oneself. Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and as of 2011 about 220 proposals are returned and these proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates, by May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature
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Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
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History of the Jews in the Czech Republic
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Jews in Bohemia, todays Czech Republic, are predominantly Ashkenazic Jews, and the current Jewish population is only a fraction of the pre-WWII Czechoslovakias Jewish population. As of 2005, there were approximately 4,000 Jews living in the Czech Republic, there are ten small Jewish communities all around the country. The umbrella organisation for the Jewish communities in the country is the Federation of Jewish Communities, services have been held in Prague and some other cities. As part of the original Czechoslovakia, and before that the Austro-Hungarian Empire the Jews had an association with this part of Europe. Throughout the last thousand years there have emerged over 600 Jewish communities in the Kingdom of Bohemia, according to the 1930 census, Czechoslovakia had a Jewish population of 356,830. Most Slovak Jews were deported by the pro-Nazi Slovak Fascist government directly to Auschwitz, Treblinka, and other extermination camps, where they were murdered. Most Czech Jews were initially deported by the German occupiers with the help of local Czech Nazi collaborators to Terezin, known in German as Theresienstadt concentration camp, however many Czechoslovakian children were rescued by Kindertransport and escaped to the United Kingdom and other Allied countries. Some were reunited with their families after the war while many lost parents, Jews are believed to have settled in Prague as early as the 10th century. The 16th century was an age for Jewry in Prague. One of the famous Jewish scholars of the time was Judah Loew ben Bezalel known as the Maharal and he is buried at the Old Jewish Cemetery in Josefov, and his grave with its tombstone intact, can still be visited. It is said that the body of Golem lies in the attic of the Old New Synagogue where the genizah of Pragues community is kept, in 1708, Jews accounted for one-quarter of Prague’s population
6.
Czech language
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Czech, historically also Bohemian, is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group. It is spoken by over 10 million people and is the language of the Czech Republic. Czech is closely related to Slovak, to the point of being intelligible to a very high degree. In the later 18th to mid-19th century, the written standard was codified in the context of the Czech National Revival. The main vernacular, known as Common Czech, is based on the vernacular of Prague, the Moravian dialects spoken in the eastern part of the country are mostly also counted as Czech, although some of their eastern variants are closer to Slovak. The Czech phoneme inventory is moderate in size, comprising five vowels, words may contain uncommon consonant clusters, including one consonant represented by the grapheme ř, or lack vowels altogether. Czech orthography is simple, and has used as a model by phonologists. Czech is classified as a member of the West Slavic sub-branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family and this branch includes Polish, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Sorbian and Slovak. Slovak is by far the closest genetic neighbor of Czech, the West Slavic languages are spoken in an area classified as part of Central Europe. Around the 7th century, the Slavic expansion reached Central Europe, the West Slavic polity of Great Moravia formed by the 9th century. The Christianization of Bohemia took place during the 9th and 10th centuries, the Bohemian language is first recorded in writing in glosses and short notes during the 12th to 13th centuries. Literary works written in Czech appear in the early 14th century, the first complete Bible translation also dates to this period. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were produced outside the university as well, literary activity becomes widespread in the early 15th century in the context of the Bohemian Reformation. There was no standardization distinguishing between Czech and Slovak prior to the 15th century, the publication of the Kralice Bible between 1579 and 1593 became very important for standardization of the Czech language in the following centuries. In 1615, the Bohemian diet tried to declare Czech to be the official language of the kingdom. After the Bohemian Revolt which was defeated by the Habsburgs in 1620 and this emigration together with other consequences of the Thirty Years War had a negative impact on the further use of the Czech language. In 1627, Czech and German became official languages of the Kingdom of Bohemia and in the 18th century German became dominant in Bohemia and Moravia, the modern standard Czech language originates in standardization efforts of the 18th century. Changes include the shift of í to ej and é to í and the merging of í
7.
Chemist
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A chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties, chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, reaction rates, and other chemical properties, the word chemist is also used to address Pharmacists in Commonwealth English. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry, materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning, fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses, after gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy, the word chemist is derived from the New Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista. Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry, Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. Jobs for chemists usually require at least a degree, but many positions, especially those in research. At the Masters level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field, postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, there are also degrees specific to become a Chemical Technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional Chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and they are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of quality control. The higher the level achieved in the field of Chemistry, the higher the responsibility given to that chemist. Chemistry, as a field, have so many applications that different tasks/objectives can be given to workers/scientists with these different levels of education and/or experience
8.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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The Holocaust
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The Holocaust, also referred to as the Shoah, was a genocide in which some six million European Jews were killed by Adolf Hitlers Nazi Germany, and the World War II collaborators with the Nazis. The victims included 1.5 million children, and represented about two-thirds of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe, killings took place throughout German-occupied Europe, as well as within Nazi Germany, and across all territories controlled by its allies. Other victims of Nazi crimes included ethnic Poles and other Slavs, Soviet citizens and Soviet POWs, communists, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovahs Witnesses, some 42,500 detention facilities were utilized in the concentration of victims for the purpose of gross violations of human rights. Over 200,000 people are estimated to have been Holocaust perpetrators, the persecution was carried out in stages, culminating in the policy of extermination of European Jews termed the Final Solution to the Jewish Question. Following Hitlers rise to power, the German government passed laws to exclude Jews from civil society, starting in 1933 the Nazis began to establish a network of concentration camps. After the outbreak of war in 1939 both German and foreign Jews were herded into wartime ghettos, in 1941, as Germany began to conquer new territory in the East, all anti-Jewish measures radicalized. Specialized paramilitary units called Einsatzgruppen murdered around two million Jews in mass shootings actions in less than a year, by mid-1942, victims were being regularly transported by freight trains to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, most were systematically killed in gas chambers. This continued until the end of World War II in Europe in April–May 1945, the most notable exception was the Warsaw Ghetto uprising of 1943, when thousands of poorly-armed Jewish fighters held the Waffen-SS at bay for four weeks. An estimated 20, 000–30,000 Jewish partisans actively fought against the Nazis, French Jews took part in the French Resistance, which conducted a guerilla campaign against the Nazis and Vichy French authorities. Over a hundred armed Jewish uprisings took place, the term holocaust comes from the Greek adjective holókaustos, a variant of holókautos, referring to an animal sacrifice offered to a god in which the whole animal is completely burnt. Often used substantively in apposition with the noun thysia, the term appears in a fragment of pseudo-Callisthenes, writing in Latin, Jerome Latinized the Greek word as a neuter noun holocaustum, using it to translate references to the Jewish burnt offering in his translations of Exodus and Leviticus. In his Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, Richard of Devizes, the English poet John Milton had used the word to denote a conflagration in his 1671 poem Samson Agonistes and the word gradually developed to mean a massacre thereon. The term was used in the 1950s by historians as a translation of the Jewish word shoah to refer specifically to the Nazi genocide of Jews, the television mini-series Holocaust is credited with introducing the term into common parlance after 1978. The biblical word shoah, meaning calamity became the standard Hebrew term for the Holocaust as early as the 1940s, especially in Europe and Israel. Shoah is preferred by some Jews for several reasons including the offensive nature of the word holocaust which they take to refer to the Greek pagan custom. The Nazis used the phrase Final Solution to the Jewish Question, all branches of Germanys bureaucracy were engaged in the logistics that led to the genocides, turning the Third Reich into what one Holocaust scholar, Michael Berenbaum, has called a genocidal state. Every arm of the countrys sophisticated bureaucracy was involved in the killing process, as prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property, which was catalogued and tagged before being sent to Germany to be reused or recycled. Berenbaum writes that the Final Solution of the Jewish question was in the eyes of the perpetrators, through a concealed account, the German National Bank helped launder valuables stolen from the victims
10.
Child prodigy
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In psychology research literature, the term child prodigy is defined as a person under the age of ten who produces meaningful output in some domain to the level of an adult expert performer. Child prodigies are rare, and, in domains, there are no child prodigies at all. Prodigiousness in childhood does not always predict adult eminence, the term Wunderkind is sometimes used as a synonym for prodigy, particularly in media accounts. Wunderkind also is used to recognize those who achieve success and acclaim early in their adult careers, PET scans performed on several mathematics prodigies have suggested that they think in terms of long-term working memory. This memory, specific to a field of expertise, is capable of holding relevant information for extended periods, the PET scans also answer questions about which specific areas of the brain associate themselves with manipulating numbers. One subject never excelled as a child in mathematics, but he taught himself algorithms and tricks for calculatory speed and his brain, compared to six other controls, was studied using the PET scan, revealing separate areas of his brain that he manipulated to solve the complex problems. Some of the areas that he and presumably prodigies use are brain sectors dealing in visual and spatial memory, as well as visual mental imagery. Other areas of the brain showed use by the subject, including a sector of the brain related to childlike finger counting. Citing extensive imaging evidence, Vandervert first proposed this approach in two publications appeared in 2003. In addition to imaging evidence, Vanderverts approach is supported by the award winning studies of the cerebellum by Masao Ito. Some researchers believe that prodigious talent tends to arise as a result of the talent of the child. Others believe that the environment plays the dominant role, many times in obvious ways, but on the other hand George Frideric Handel was an example of the natural talent. He had discovered such a strong propensity to music, that his father who intended him for the study of the Civil Law, had reason to be alarmed. He strictly forbade him to meddle with any musical instrument but Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately conveyd to a room at the top of the house, to this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep. Despite his fathers opposition, Handel became a performer on the harpsichord. Chess prodigy List of child prodigies List of music prodigies Gifted education Giftedness Late bloomer Malleable intelligence Polymath Savant syndrome Ellenberg, the Wrong Way to Treat Child Geniuses. How working memory and the cerebellum collaborate to produce creativity and innovation, the Gradual Path to Creative Breakthroughs. Notebook, Child Prodigies, CBS News Online, YouTube, February 26,2010
11.
University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna
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The University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna is an Austrian university located in Vienna, established in 1817. Today, with a student body of three thousand, it is the largest institution of its kind in Austria, and one of the largest in the world. In 1817, it was established by the Society for the Friends of Music and it has had several names, Vienna Conservatory, Vienna Academy and in 1909 it was nationalized as the Imperial Academy of Music and the Performing Arts. In 1998, the university assumed its current name to reflect its university status, with a student body of more than 3000, the Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Wien is one of the largest arts universities in the world. The University consists of 24 departments including the Max Reinhardt Seminar, Vienna Film Academy, MDW facilities include the Schönbrunn Palace Theater, Antonio Vivaldi Room, Salesian Convent, St. Ursula Church, Lothringerstrasse and the Anton Von Webern Platz. Modern film studios were completed on the university campus in 2004, the University organizes around 10 competitions, including the International Beethoven Piano Competition. It also presents an acclaimed film festival every two years. The MDW may be considered an institution to all major orchestras in Austria. Calls for a conservatory in Vienna started in 1808. In 1811 an outline for an education institution for Vienna was published. A year later the Society for the Friends of Music was formed, the Vienna Conservatory was founded in 1817. It was meant to be modeled on the Paris Conservatory, but, due to a lack of funds, Antonio Salieri was the Conservatorys first director. In 1819, it hired violinist Joseph Böhm, and by 1827 offered courses in most orchestral instruments, the conservatorys finances were very unstable. Tuition fees were introduced in 1829, but by 1837 the institution was bankrupt, the state eventually funded the conservatory from 1841 to 1844 and from 1846 to 1848. In 1848 political unrest caused the state to discontinue funding, with support from the state and the city, finances again stabilized after 1851. Despite growing state subsidy, The Society for the Friends of Music, however, by a January 1,1909 imperial resolution the school was nationalized and became the Imperial Academy of Music and the Performing Arts. Joseph Hellmesberger, Sr. was director from 1851 to 1893, from 1907 Wilhelm Bopp had been the director of Conservatory. The Conservatory was still dominated by the aging Robert Fuchs and Hermann Grädener, in 1912, attempting to rejuvenate the conservatory Bopp offered teaching positions to Franz Schreker and Arnold Schoenberg
12.
Art history
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Art history is the study of objects of art in their historical development and stylistic contexts, i. e. genre, design, format, and style. This includes the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture as well as the minor arts of ceramics, furniture. As a term, art history encompasses several methods of studying the arts, in common usage referring to works of art. One branch of this area of study is aesthetics, which includes investigating the enigma of the sublime, technically, art history is not these things, because the art historian uses historical method to answer the questions, How did the artist come to create the work. Who were his or her teachers, who were his or her disciples. What historical forces shaped the artists oeuvre, and How did he or she and the creation, in turn, affect the course of artistic, political, and social events. It is, however, questionable whether many questions of this kind can be answered satisfactorily without also considering basic questions about the nature of art, unfortunately the current disciplinary gap between art history and the philosophy of art often hinders this inquiry. Art history is not only a biographical endeavor, Art historians often root their studies in the scrutiny of individual objects. They thus attempt to answer in historically specific ways, questions such as, what meaning did this object convey. Did the artist meet their goals well, the historical backbone of the discipline is a celebratory chronology of beautiful creations commissioned by public or religious bodies or wealthy individuals in western Europe. Such a canon remains prominent, as indicated by the selection of objects present in art history textbooks, nonetheless, since the 20th century there has been an effort to re-define the discipline to be more inclusive of non-Western art, art made by women, and vernacular creativity. Art history as we know it in the 21st century began in the 19th century but has precedents that date to the ancient world, advances in photographic reproduction and printing techniques after World War II increased the ability of reproductions of artworks. Such technologies have helped to advance the discipline in profound ways, the study of visual art thus described, can be a practice that involves understanding context, form, and social significance. Art historians employ a number of methods in their research into the ontology, Art historians often examine work in the context of its time. In short, this approach examines the work of art in the context of the world within which it was created, Art historians also often examine work through an analysis of form, that is, the creators use of line, shape, color, texture, and composition. This approach examines how the artist uses a picture plane or the three dimensions of sculptural or architectural space to create his or her art. The way these individual elements are employed results in representational or non-representational art, is the artist imitating an object or image found in nature. The closer the art hews to perfect imitation, the more the art is realistic, is the artist not imitating, but instead relying on symbolism, or in an important way striving to capture natures essence, rather than copy it directly
13.
University of Vienna
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The University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is one of the oldest universities in the German-speaking world. With its long and rich history, the University of Vienna has developed one of the biggest universities in Europe. It is associated with 15 Nobel prize winners and has been the home of a large number of figures both of historical and academic importance. The University was founded on 12 March 1365 by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, the University of Vienna was modelled after the University of Paris. However, Pope Urban V did not ratify the deed of foundation that had been sanctioned by Rudolf IV and this was presumably due to pressure exerted by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who wished to avoid competition for the Charles University in Prague. Approval was finally received from the Pope in 1384 and the University of Vienna was granted the status of a full university, the first university building opened in 1385. It grew into the biggest university of the Holy Roman Empire, in its early years, the university had a partly hierarchical, partly cooperative structure, in which the Rector was at the top, while the students had little say and were settled at the bottom. The Magister and Doctors constituted the four faculties and elected the academic officials from amidst their ranks, the students, but also all other Supposita, were divided into four Academic Nations. Their elected board members, mostly graduates themselves, had the right to elect the Rector and he presided over the Consistory which included procurators of each of the nations and the faculty deans, as well as over the University Assembly, in which all university teachers participated. Complaints or appeals against decisions of faculty by the students had to be brought forward by a Magister or Doctor, being considered a Papal Institution, the university suffered quite a setback during the Reformation. In addition, the first Siege of Vienna by Ottoman forces had devastating effects on the city, leading to a sharp decline, with only 30 students enrolled at the lowest point. For King Ferdinand I, this meant that the university should be tied to the church to a stronger degree. It was only in the Mid-18th century that Empress Maria Theresa forced the university back under control of the monarchy. Her successor Joseph II helped in the reform of the university. Big changes were instituted in the wake of the Revolution in 1848, with the Philosophical Faculty being upgraded into equal status as Theology, Law and Medicine. Led by the reforms of Leopold, Count von Thun und Hohenstein, the current main building on the Ringstraße was built between 1877 and 1884 by Heinrich von Ferstel. The previous main building was located close to the Stuben Gate on Iganz Seipel Square, current home of the old University Church, women were admitted as full students from 1897, although their studies were limited to Philosophy
14.
A Tale of Two Cities
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A Tale of Two Cities is a novel by Charles Dickens, set in London and Paris before and during the French Revolution. In 1775, a man flags down the nightly mail-coach on its route from London to Dover, the man is Jerry Cruncher, an employee of Tellsons Bank in London, he carries a message for Jarvis Lorry, a passenger and one of the banks managers. Mr. Lorry sends Jerry back to deliver a response to the bank. The message refers to Alexandre Manette, a French physician who has released from the Bastille after an 18-year imprisonment. Once Mr. Lorry arrives in Dover, he meets with Dr. Manettes daughter Lucie, Lucie has believed her father to be dead, and faints at the news that he is alive, Mr. Lorry takes her to France to reunite with him. In the Paris neighborhood of Saint Antoine, Dr. Manette has been given lodgings by his former servant Ernest Defarge and his wife Therese, owners of a wine shop. He does not recognize Lucie at first but does see the resemblance to her mother through her blue eyes and long golden hair. Mr. Lorry and Lucie take him back to England, in 1780, French émigré Charles Darnay is on trial for treason against the British Crown. The key witnesses against him are two British spies, John Barsad and Roger Cly, who claim that Darnay gave information about British troops in North America to the French, with Barsads eyewitness testimony now discredited, Darnay is acquitted. In Paris, the hated and abusive Marquis St. Evrémonde orders his carriage driven recklessly fast through the streets, hitting and killing the child of a peasant. The Marquis throws a coin to Gaspard to compensate him for his loss, as the Marquiss coach drives off, the coin is flung back into his coach by an unknown hand, enraging the Marquis. Arriving at his country château, the marquis meets with his nephew and heir, Out of disgust with his aristocratic family, Darnay has shed his real surname and adopted an anglicized version of his mothers maiden name, DAulnais. The following passage records the Marquis principles of aristocratic superiority, Repression is the only lasting philosophy. The dark deference of fear and slavery, my friend, observed the Marquis, will keep the dogs obedient to the whip, as long as this roof, looking up to it, shuts out the sky. That night, Gaspard, who followed the Marquis to his château by riding on the underside of the carriage, stabs, Gaspard leaves a note on the knife saying, Drive him fast to his tomb. After nearly a year on the run, he is caught, in London, Darnay gets Dr. Manettes permission to wed Lucie, but Carton confesses his love to Lucie as well. Knowing she will not love him in return, Carton promises to embrace any sacrifice for you, Stryver, the barrister who defended Darnay and with whom Carton has a working relationship, considers proposing marriage to Lucie, but Mr. Lorry talks him out of the idea. On the morning of the marriage, Darnay reveals his name and family lineage to Dr. Manette
15.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
16.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
17.
Austrian literature
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Austrian literature is the literature written in Austria, which is mostly, but not exclusively, written in the German language. Some scholars speak about Austrian literature in a sense from the year 1806 on when Francis II disbanded the Holy Roman Empire. A more liberal definition incorporates all the works written on the territory of todays and historical Austria. Thus, the seven volume history of Austrian literature by the editors Herbert Zeman, there are and have been many tries to work out a complete definition of Austrian literature. Something most people can agree on is that there are certain differences, from the 19th century onward, Austria contributed some of the greatest names in modern literature. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are Elfriede Jelinek and Peter Handke, well-known essayists are Robert Menasse, yet, it is hard to speak of an Austrian literature prior to that period. In the early 18th century, Lady Mary Wortly Montague, whilst visiting Vienna, was stunned to meet no writers at all. For all of Austrias contributions to architecture, and having one of the most hallowed musical traditions in Europe, a number of reasons can be given. Firstly, the arts were the preserve of the imperial court, fine baroque palaces, imperial portraits and commissions of music could all work very well to this aim, but literature was deemed less suitable, and thus not encouraged. It came mostly from Empress Maria Theresas Chastity Commission, intended to uphold public morals, but it had the not only of creating a facade of decency. But perhaps the greatest reason for Austrias late literary fruition was its cultural mindset, according to the cultural historian Carl Emil Schorske, profoundly Catholic, it was a deeply sensuous, plastic culture. The outlook of an aristocracy, it was copied by the lower classes. This mentality was not necessarily bad, the emphasis on beauty and fantasy was integral to establishing the capital of Vienna. But it was not the best ground for literary experiment, nevertheless, the liberalisation of Austria in the late 19th century created a more dynamic climate for writing, which soon produced a flowering. The main problem of defining a dynamic development may be that any definition will fall short of the currents which lead to a certain type of literature. Through the centuries, there have many different approaches. The Austrian literature developed out of a symbiosis of different regional traditions, in the Middle Ages, there was a homogeneous zone along the Danube river, spanning from Bavaria down to the eastern territories. Travellers and bards moved along this route, bringing them new influences
18.
Ingeborg Bachmann
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Ingeborg Bachmann was an Austrian poet and author. Bachmann was born in Klagenfurt, in the Austrian state of Carinthia and she studied philosophy, psychology, German philology, and law at the universities of Innsbruck, Graz, and Vienna. Furthermore, her first radio dramas were published by the station and her relationship with the Swiss author Max Frisch influenced the depiction of the second protagonist in Frischs 1964 novel Gantenbein upon her. His infidelity, and their separation in 1962, had a impact on Bachmann. On the night of 25/26 September 1973 a fire occurred in her bedroom, during her stay, she experienced withdrawal symptoms complicated from barbiturate substance abuse. The doctors treating her were not aware of this habit, and she is buried at the Annabichl cemetery in Klagenfurt. During her lifetime, Bachmann was known mostly for her two collections of poetry, Die gestundete Zeit and Anrufung des Grossen Bären, after her death, she became popular among feminist readers. Feminist scholars engagement with her work after her death led to a wave of scholarship that also drew attention to her prose work. Bachmanns literary work focuses on themes like personal boundaries, establishment of the truth, and philosophy of language, many of her prose works represent the struggles of women to survive and to find a voice in post-war Austrian society. She also addresses the histories of imperialism and fascism, in particular, the Ingeborg Bachmann Prize, awarded annually in Klagenfurt since 1977, is named after her. 1953, Die gestundete Zeit 1956, Anrufung des Grossen Bären 2000,2006, Darkness Spoken, The Collected Poems of Ingeborg Bachmann. Edited & translated into English by Damion Searls, green Integer Books,2004. de – das Kulturmagazin author page at Lyrikline. org, with audio and text in German, and translations into Dutch. The Drugs, the Words Center for the Art of Translation Web Exclusive Content, Translated by Peter Filkins The Drugs, The Words, The Bridges
19.
Marlen Haushofer
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Marlen Haushofer née Marie Helene Frauendorfer was an Austrian author, most famous for her novel The Wall. Haushofer was born in Frauenstein in Upper Austria and she attended Catholic boarding school in Linz, and went on to study German literature in Vienna, as well as Graz. After her years in school, she settled in Steyr, in 1941, she married Manfred Haushofer, a dentist, and had two sons, Christian and Manfred. In 1950, they divorced, only to remarry in 1958, earning literary awards as early as 1953, Haushofer went on to publish her first novel, A Handful of Life in 1955. In 1956, she won the Theodor-Körner Prize for early contributions and projects involving art, in 1958, her novella We Murder Stella was published. The Wall, considered her finest achievement, was completed in 1963, the novel was written out four times in longhand between 1960 and 1963, but had to wait until 1968, two years before Haushofers death, to be printed. I must continuously inquire whether what I say about animals and plants is actually correct, one can not be precise enough. I would be happy, indeed, if I were able to write the novel only half as well as I am imagining it in my mind. Haushofer commented a year later in a letter to the same friend and my novel is completed in its first draft. I have already completed one hundred pages of the rewrite, altogether there will be 360 pages. Writing strains me a deal and I suffer from headaches. But I hope that I will be finished by the beginning of May, and the household must keep on running also. All that is difficult for me because I can only concentrate on one thing and forcing me to be versatile makes me extremely nervous. I have the feeling as if I were writing into the air and her overall addition to Austrian literature, as well as her last short-story collection, Terrible Faithfulness, earned her a Grand Austrian State Prize for literature in 1968. Her last novel, The Attic, was published in 1969, as was her autobiographical account of a childhood, in 1970, she died of bone cancer at a clinic in Vienna. Her writing has influenced authors like Nobel Prize winner Elfriede Jelinek, who dedicated one of her Princess Plays to Haushofer
20.
Robert Musil
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Robert Musil was an Austrian philosophical writer. His unfinished novel The Man Without Qualities is generally considered to be one of the most important, Musil was born in Klagenfurt, Kärnten, the son of engineer Alfred Edler von Musil and his wife Hermine Bergauer. The orientalist Alois Musil was his second cousin, Musil was short in stature but strong and skilled at wrestling, and by his early teens, he proved to already be more than his parents could handle. They sent him to a boarding school at Eisenstadt and then Hranice. The school experiences are reflected in his first novel, Die Verwirrungen des Zöglings Törless, during his university studies, he studied engineering by day, but at night read literature and philosophy, and went to the theatre and art exhibits. Friedrich Nietzsche, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Ernst Mach were particular interests of his university years, Musil finished his studies in three years and, in 1902–1903, served as an unpaid assistant to Professor Julius Carl von Bach, in Stuttgart. Musil grew tired of engineering and what he perceived as the limited world-view of engineers and he launched a new round of doctoral studies in psychology and philosophy at the University of Berlin under the renowned Professor Carl Stumpf. In 1905, Musil met his wife, Martha Marcovaldi. She had already been widowed and remarried, with two children, and was seven years older than Musil and his first novel, Young Törless, was published in 1906. In 1909, Musil completed his doctorate and Professor Alexius Meinong offered him a position at the University of Graz, over the next two years, he wrote and published two stories collected in Vereinigungen published in 1911. During the same year, Marthas divorce was completed, and Musil married her, as she was Jewish, they both converted to Protestantism as a sign of their union. When World War I began, Musil joined the Army and was stationed first in Tirol, in 1916, Musil visited Prague and met Franz Kafka, whose work he held in high esteem. After the wars end, and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and he published a collection of short stories, Drei Frauen, in 1924. He also admired the Bohemian poet Rainer Maria Rilke at whose memorial service in 1926 in Berlin and he said that by the time of his death, Rilke had turned into a delicate, well-matured liqueur suitable for grown-up ladies. However, his work is too demanding to be considered relaxing, in 1930 and 1933, in Berlin –1, 074-page he published Volume 1 and 605-page unfinished Volume 2 of his masterpiece, The Man Without Qualities. Part III did not include 20 chapters withdrawn from Volume 2 of 1933 in printers galley proofs and it is set in Vienna on the eve of World War I. The Man Without Qualities brought Musil only mediocre commercial success, though he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature, he felt that he did not receive the recognition he deserved. In the early 1920s, Musil lived mostly in Berlin, in Vienna, Musil was a frequent visitor to Eugenie Schwarzwalds salon
21.
Feminism
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Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
22.
Exploitation of labour
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Exploitation refers to social relations where an actor or character of actors uses others for their own end because of a fundamentally asymmetric power relationship between them. When speaking about exploitation there is an affiliation with consumption in social theory. Traditionally, this would label exploitation as unfairly taking advantage of another person because of his or her inferior position, karl Marx, who is considered the most classical and influential theorist of exploitation, did not share the same traditional account of exploitation. Marxs theory explicitly rejects the moral framing characteristic of the notion of exploitation, in analyzing exploitation, many political economists are often stuck between the explanation of the exploitation of labour given by Marx and Adam Smith. Marxs exploitation theory is one of the major elements analyzed in Marxian economics, Marx credited the Scottish Enlightenment writers for originally propounding a materialist interpretation of history. Exploitation is when these two principles are not met, when the agents are not receiving according to their work or needs and this labour performed by a population over a certain time period is equal to the labour embodied to the goods that make up the net national product. The NNP is then parceled out to the members of the population in some way, the exploiters are the agents able to command goods, with revenue from their wages, that are embodied with more labour than the exploiters themselves have put forth. These agents often have class status and ownership of assets that aid the optimization of exploitation. The exploiters would typically be the bourgeoisie, meanwhile, the exploited are those who receive less than the average product he or she produces. If workers receive an amount equivalent to their product, there is no revenue left over. Thus, these workers cannot enjoy the fruits of their own labours, exploiters appropriate anothers surplus labour, which is the amount of labour exceeding what is necessary for the reproduction of a workers labour power and basic living conditions. In other terms, this entails the worker being able to maintain living conditions sufficient to be able to continue work. This comes from Marxs labour theory of value which claims that value is intrinsic in a product according to the amount of labour that has spent on producing the product. In a capitalist economy, workers are paid according to value and value is the source of all wealth. Value is determined by a goods particular utility for an actor, if the results from human activity it must be understood as a product of concrete labour. Capitalists are able to purchase power from the workers, who can only bring their own labour power in the market. Once capitalists are able to pay the worker less than the produced by their labour, surplus labour forms. This is what Marx meant by surplus value, which he saw as an expression for the degree of exploitation of labor-power by capital
23.
Communist Party of Austria
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The Communist Party of Austria is a communist party in Austria. Established in 1918 as the Communist Party of German-Austria, it is one of the worlds oldest Communist parties, the KPÖ was banned between 1933 and 1945 under both the Austrofascist regime and the Nazi German control of Austria after the 1938 Anschluss. It played an important role in the Austrian resistance against the Nazis, the party currently holds two seats in the Styrian Landtag, but has not had representation in the National Council since 1959. At the legislative election held on September 29,2013, it won only 1. 03% of the votes and it is part of the New European Left Forum and the Party of the European Left. The KPÖ was officially established on the 3 November 1918, due to the Allies sea blockade during the First World War, there was a supply shortage in Austria, resulting in workers protests. Such actions included strikes such as the 1918 Jännerstreik, in 1917, concurrent with the Russian October Revolution, the left wing of the workers movement established the KPÖ. Ruth Fischer, Franz Koritschoner, and Lucien Laurat were among the co-founders, however, a Red Guard was formed and soon integrated with the Volkswehr. On November 12,1918 the party attempted a coup détat, within hours, the coup attempt was defeated. The party was seriously weakened by internal factional struggles. Due to these reforms, the party was able to overcome its factional struggles by the late-1920s, in 1933 the KPÖ was banned by an emergency decree of the Austrofascist government of Engelbert Dollfuß but continued to operate underground. According to internal sources, the KPÖ had been prepared for this situation since the mid-1920s, after the Social Democratic Party was also banned, many former SPÖ supporters and functionaries, such as Ernst Fischer and Christian Broda, worked underground in cooperation with the KPÖ. The KPÖ took part in the workers rebellion of February 12,1934. It marked a last attempt to save Austrian democracy from fascism, the Austrian communists dissent was avant-garde, with their refusal to condemn Social Democracy reflecting aspects of the 7th World Congress of the Comintern in 1935. The Austrian communists tolerant stance opened their party to an influx of more disappointed Social Democrats, after the crushing of the February 1934 uprising by the federal army and the Heimwehr, the KPÖ grew rapidly from 4,000 to 16,000 members. In contrast, many Austrian Social Democrats regarded the affiliation to the German nation as natural, echoing the thoughts of Klahr, the KPÖ expressed its firm belief in an independent Austria when the country was annexed to Nazi Germany in March 1938. In their historic call An das österreichische Volk, the party denounced Adolf Hitler’s dictatorship, after war broke out between Germany and the Soviet Union, the Soviets quickly reverted their stance and tried to support the Austrian Communists against their former allies. More than 4,000 communists were imprisoned or sent to camps and more than 2,000 lost their live during the resistance. There was also an Austrian communist resistance network in Belgium, the Österreichische Freiheitsfront, there is some disagreement amongst historians if the KPÖ fought the Nazis out of patriotism, or followed the pattern of the ideological fight of communism against fascism in general
24.
Freedom Party of Austria
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The Freedom Party of Austria is a right-wing populist and national-conservative political party in Austria. The party, led by Heinz-Christian Strache, is a member of the Europe of Nations and Freedom group in the European Parliament, as well as of the Movement for a Europe of Nations, the partys first leader was Anton Reinthaller, a former Nazi functionary and SS officer. When Jörg Haider was chosen as new FPÖ leader in 1986 and this new political course soon resulted in a strong surge in electoral support, although it also led the SPÖ to break ties. In the 1999 legislative election the FPÖ won 26. 9% of the vote, its result in a nationwide election. This led the ÖVP to agree to form a government with the FPÖ in 2000. In 2005 increasing internal disagreements in the FPÖ led Haider and several leading members to defect and form the Alliance for the Future of Austria, since then, under Straches leadership, the party has again attracted an increase in its popular support. The FPÖ is a descendant of the pan-German and national liberal camp dating back to the Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas, after a short civil war, the Federal State of Austria, an authoritarian Christian Social dictatorship, was established in 1934. Both Socialists and Christian Socials were persecuted under the Nazi regime, the VdU won 12% of the vote in the 1949 general election, but saw its support beginning to decline soon afterward. It evolved into the FPÖ by 1955/56 after merging with the minor Freedom Party in 1955, a new party was formed on 17 October 1955, the first FPÖ party leader was Anton Reinthaller, a former Nazi Minister of Agriculture and SS officer. He had been asked by ÖVP Chancellor Julius Raab to take over the movement rather than let it be led by a more socialist-leaning group. While the majority of former Nazis had probably joined the two parties in absolute numbers, they formed a greater percentage of FPÖ members due to the partys small size. Nevertheless, none of them were real revolutionaries and they pursued pragmatic, the ÖVP and the FPÖ ran a joint candidate for the 1957 presidential election, who lost. Reinthaller was replaced as leader in 1958 by Friedrich Peter, who led the party through the 1960s and 1970s, in 1966 the ÖVP-SPÖ Grand Coalition which had governed Austria since the war was broken, when the ÖVP gained enough votes to govern alone. In 1967 the more extreme faction in the FPÖ broke away and established the National Democratic Party, under the influence of Kreisky, a new generation of liberals brought the FPÖ into the Liberal International in 1978. During the years under Peter the party never won more than 8% of the vote in general elections. Liberal Norbert Steger was chosen as new FPÖ party leader in 1980, in an effort to gain popularity and his vision was to transform the FPÖ into an Austrian version of the German Free Democratic Party, focusing on free-market and anti-statist policies. In the 1980s, the Austrian political system began to change, the dominance of the SPÖ and ÖVP started to erode, SPÖ leader Bruno Kreisky had encouraged the FPÖs move to the centre, in order to establish an SPÖ-FPÖ alliance against the ÖVP. The 1983 general election was a watershed, the SPÖ lost its majority in Parliament
25.
National Council (Austria)
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The National Council is one of the two houses of the Austrian Parliament and is frequently referred to as the lower house. The constitution endows the National Council far more power than the Federal Council, the National Council is where Austrias federal legislative authority is concentrated, for a bill to become federal law, it must be resolved upon by this chamber. Bills passed by the National Council are sent to the Federal Council for corroboration, if the Federal Council approves of the bill or simply does nothing for eight weeks, the bill has succeeded. In other words, the Federal Council does not have any power to prevent adoption of legislation. The approval of the National Council is also required for most of the prerogatives of the Federal Assembly to be exercised. For example, motions to call for a referendum aimed at having the President removed from office by the electorate, only motions to impeach the President can also be from the Federal Council. National Council elections are general elections, the nine regional electoral districts are subdivided into a total of 43 local electoral districts. Political parties submit separate ranked lists of candidates for district, regional or local. They also submit a federal-level list, votes cast are first counted within their local electoral districts. Since there are 43 local districts but 183 seats to fill, the number of votes required to win one seat is simply the number of votes divided by the number of seats assigned to the district in question. For example, if 150,000 votes are cast in a local district. If a party has scored 61,000 votes out of the 150,000 votes cast, since 60,000 votes would have been sufficient to win two seats,1000 votes are left unaccounted for by this first round of tallying. Any vote not accounted for on the level is dealt with on the regional level. Any vote not accounted for on the level either is dealt with on the federal level. The DHondt method is used to allocate any National Council seats remaining to be filled, in addition to voting for a party list, voters may express preference for one individual candidate. It is not possible, however, to vote for party X. In practice, however, Austrias President plays no role in the administration, which is left to the Chancellor and Cabinet, which are dependent on the confidence of the National Council. While the President has the authority to dissolve a hostile National Council
26.
Austrian People's Party
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The Austrian Peoples Party is a Christian democratic and conservative political party in Austria. In federal governance, the ÖVP is currently the smaller partner in a government with the SPÖ. The Austrian Peoples Party is conservative, for the first election after World War II, ÖVP presented itself as the Austrian Party, was decidedly anti-Marxist and regarded itself as the Party of the Centre. The ÖVPs economic policies during the era generally upheld a social market economy, with regard to foreign affairs it strongly supports European integration. Over the last two decades, the Peoples Party has also adopted a more environmentalist stance than other conservative parties. The Austrian Peoples Party is popular mainly amongst white-collar workers, owners of large and small businesses, in particular, it receives the backing of a majority of Austrias civil servants, a remarkably large and influential group due to the size and scope of Austrias government bureaucracy. Austrias blue-collar workers, by comparison, tend to endorse the Social Democratic Party, all in all, Peoples Party supporters are comparatively educated and affluent. While still sometimes honored by ÖVP members for resisting Hitler, the built by Dollfuß was authoritarian in nature and has been dubbed as Austrofascism. In its present form, the Peoples Party was established immediately after the restoration of Austrias independence in 1945, it has been represented in both the Federal Assembly ever since. In terms of Federal Assembly seats, the Peoples Party has consistently been the strongest or second-strongest party, as such, at the state level, the Peoples Party has long dominated the rural states of Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Tyrol, and Vorarlberg. It is less popular in the city state of Vienna and in the rural but less strongly Catholic states of Burgenland and Carinthia. In 2004 it lost its plurality in the State of Salzburg, the ÖVP won a sweeping victory in Austrias first postwar election, in December 1945, winning almost half the popular vote and an absolute majority in the legislature. It remained the senior partner in coalition until 1966. Although the FPÖ was the larger of the two, it was considered far too controversial to lead a government, so the ÖVPs Wolfgang Schüssel became chancellor. This caused widespread outrage in Europe, and the European Union imposed informal diplomatic sanctions on Austria, bilateral relations were frozen, including contacts and meetings at an inter-governmental level, and Austrian candidates would not be supported for posts in EU international offices. Austria, in turn, threatened to veto all applications by countries for EU membership until the sanctions were lifted, a few months later, these sanctions were dropped as a result of a fact-finding mission by three former European prime ministers, the so-called three wise men. In November 2002, the 2002 legislative election resulted in a victory for the Peoples Party under Schüssel. Haiders Freedom Party was reduced to 10. 16% of the vote, after the Alliance for the Future of Austria had split from the FPÖ in 2005, so that they could continue their coalition together with the Peoples Party until 2007
27.
Authoritarianism
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Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. Individual freedoms are subordinate to the state and there is no constitutional accountability under an authoritarian regime, modern dictatorships use an authoritarian concept to form a government. Linz distinguished new forms of authoritarianism from personalistic dictatorships and totalitarian states, several subtypes of authoritarian regimes have been identified by Linz and others. Bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes are those governed by a coalition of military officers, mark J. Linz also has identified three other subtypes of authoritarian regime, corporatist or organic-statistic, racial and ethnic democracy and post-totalitarian. Examples include the Soviet Eastern bloc states in the mid-1980s, authoritarian regimes are also sometimes subcategorized by whether they are personalistic or populist. Personalistic authoritarian regimes are characterized by arbitrary rule and authority exercised mainly through patronage networks and coercion rather than through institutitions, personalistic authoritarian regimes have been seen in post-colonial Africa. By contrast, populist authoritarian regimes are mobilizational regimes in which a strong, charismatic, examples include Argentina under Perón, Egypt under Nasser, and Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro. Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression and it uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. Adam Przeworski has theorized that authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear, authoritarian political systems may be weakened through inadequate performance to demands of the people. Because the legitimacy of the state is dependent on performance, authoritarian states that fail to adapt may collapse, authoritarianism is marked by indefinite political tenure of the ruler or ruling party or other authority. The transition from a system to a more democratic form of government is referred to as democratization. John Duckitt suggests a link between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in opposition to individualism, Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities. Totalitarianism is a version of authoritarianism. Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control, building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Concomitant role conceptions differentiate totalitarians from authoritarians, authoritarians view themselves as individual beings largely content to control, and often maintain, the status quo. The tyrant is less a person than a function to guide. Consequently, the utilisation of power for personal aggrandizement is more evident among authoritarians than totalitarians, lacking the binding appeal of ideology, authoritarians support their rule by a mixture of instilling fear and granting rewards to loyal collaborators, engendering a kleptocracy. Compared to totalitarianism, the state still maintains a certain distinction between state and society
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Treason
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In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against ones nation or sovereign. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a lesser superior was petty treason. A person who commits treason is known in law as a traitor, orans Dictionary of the Law defines treason as a citizens actions to help a foreign government overthrow, make war against, or seriously injure the. In many nations, it is often considered treason to attempt or conspire to overthrow the government. At times, the term traitor has been used as a political epithet, in a civil war or insurrection, the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. In certain cases, as with the Dolchstoßlegende, the accusation of treason towards a group of people can be a unifying political message. Treason is considered to be different and on occasions a separate charge from treasonable felony in many parts of the world. In English law, high treason was punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered or burnt at the stake and those penalties were abolished in 1814,1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors, many of them would now just be considered dissidents. His treachery is considered so notorious that his name has long been synonymous with traitor, christian theology and political thinking until after the Enlightenment considered treason and blasphemy as synonymous, as it challenged both the state and the will of God. Kings were considered chosen by God, and to ones country was to do the work of Satan. Many nations laws mention various types of treason, Crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason, and may include a coup detat. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, Crimes Related to inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in Japan, the application of Crimes Related to Insurrection was considered about Aum Shinrikyo cult which caused religious terrorism. A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs, or if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature, the only permissible penalty for treason is life imprisonment. Section 24AA of the Crimes Act 1914 creates the offence of treachery. The Treason Act 1351, the Treason Act 1795 and the Treason Act 1817 form part of the law of New South Wales, Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by the Treason Act 1351. This section reproduces section 6 of the Treason Felony Act 1848, the offence of treason was created by section 9A of the Crimes Act 1958
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Fritzl case
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Josef confined Elisabeth, tricking her into the basement, when she was 18 years old. Three of Elisabeths children, born during her confinement, were imprisoned with their mother, 19-year-old daughter Kerstin and sons Stefan,18, and Felix,5. Another, Michael, died of respiratory problems three days after birth, having been deprived of all help, his body was incinerated by Josef Fritzl on his property. The three other children were raised by Josef and his wife Rosemarie in the upstairs home. Josef claimed that he had discovered the children outside his house as foundlings, Lisa at 9 months in 1993, Monika at 10 months in 1994, and Alexander at 15 months in 1997. When the eldest daughter, Kerstin, became ill, Josef acceded to Elisabeths pleas to take her to a hospital. Josef Fritzl was born on 9 April 1935, in Amstetten, in 1956, at age 21, he married 17-year-old Rosemarie and they had seven children, two sons and five daughters, including Elisabeth, who was born in 1966. He reportedly began abusing her in 1977 when she was 11, after completing compulsory education at age 15, Elisabeth started a course to become a waitress. In January 1983, she ran away home and went into hiding in Vienna with a friend from work. She was found by police within three weeks and returned to her parents and she rejoined her waitress course, finished it in mid-1984 and was offered a job in nearby Linz. On 29 August 1984, when Elisabeth was 18 years of age, her father lured her into the basement of the family home and this was the last piece needed to seal the chamber. Elisabeth held it in place while Josef fitted it into the frame, then he held an ether-soaked towel on Elisabeths face until she was unconscious, and threw her into the chamber. After Elisabeths disappearance, her mother filed a missing-persons report, almost a month later, her father handed over a letter to the police, the first of several that he had forced Elisabeth to write while in captivity. The letter, postmarked Braunau, stated that she was tired of living with her family and was staying with a friend and her father told police that she had most likely joined some religious cult. Over the next 24 years, Josef visited her in the hidden cellar every three days on average, to bring food and other supplies, after his arrest, he admitted that he repeatedly raped her. Elisabeth gave birth to seven children during her captivity, officials said that Josef Fritzl very plausibly explained how three of his infant grandchildren had appeared on his doorstep. The family received visits from social workers, who saw. Following the fourth childs birth in 1994, Josef allowed the enlargement of the prison,35 m2 to 55 m2, putting Elisabeth, the captives had a television, radio, and videocassette player
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Franz Kafka Prize
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The Franz Kafka Prize is an international literary award presented in honour of Franz Kafka, the German language novelist. The prize was first awarded in 2001 and is co-sponsored by the Franz Kafka Society, at a presentation held annually in the Old Town Hall, the recipient receives $10,000, a diploma, and a bronze statuette. Each award is called the Kafka Prize or Kafka Award. List of literary awards List of Czech literary awards Official website
31.
The Piano Teacher (film)
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At the 2001 Cannes Film Festival it won the Grand Prix, with the two leads, Isabelle Huppert and Benoît Magimel, winning Best Actress and Best Actor. Erika Kohut is a professor at a Vienna music conservatory. Although already in her forties, she lives in an apartment with her domineering mother. Her father is a resident in a psychiatric asylum. The audience is gradually shown truths about Erikas private life, behind her assured façade, she is a woman whose sexual repression is manifested in a long list of paraphilia, including voyeurism and sadomasochistic fetishes such as sexual self-mutilation. When Erika meets Walter Klemmer, a charming 25-year-old engineering student from a middle class background, even though she initially attempts to prevent consistent contact and even tries to undermine his application to the conservatory, he eventually becomes her pupil. Like her, he appreciates and is an interpreter of Schumann. She does so by hiding shards of glass inside one of Annas coat pockets, damaging her right hand, Erika then pretends to be sympathetic when Annas mother asks for advice on her daughters recuperation. In a moment of irony, the girls mother rhetorically asks Erika who could do something so evil. Walter pursues Erika into a lavatory immediately after she has ruined her pupils hand. Walter passionately kisses Erika even though she is rebuffing him, Erika finally responds to his passion, but insists on repeatedly controlling, humiliating and frustrating Walter. Walter is increasingly insistent in his desire to start a relationship with Erika, but Erika is only willing if he will satisfy her masochistic fantasies. The film climaxes, however, when he attacks her in her apartment in the fashion she let him know she desired, beating and then raping her, outside her mothers bedroom door. The next day, Erika takes a knife to the concert where she is scheduled to fill in for the injured Anna. She delays going to the stage because she is desperate to see Walter, moments before the concert is due to start, Erika stabs herself superficially in the shoulder and exits the concert hall into the street. Isabelle Huppert as Erika Kohut Benoît Magimel as Walter Klemmer Annie Girardot as The Mother Susanne Lothar as Mrs. Schober Udo Samel as Dr. A
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Michael Haneke
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Michael Haneke is an Austrian film director and screenwriter best known for films such as Funny Games, Caché, The White Ribbon and Amour. His work often examines social issues, and depicts the feelings of estrangement experienced by individuals in modern society, Haneke has worked in television‚ theatre and cinema. Besides working as a filmmaker, Haneke also teaches film direction at the Film Academy Vienna. At the 2009 Cannes Film Festival, his film The White Ribbon won the Palme dOr, in 2012, his film Amour premiered and competed at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival. The film received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Original Screenplay and it won in the category of Best Foreign Language Film. Haneke has made films in French, German and in English, in 2013 Haneke won the Prince of Asturias Award for the arts. Haneke was born in Munich, Germany, the son of the German actor and director Fritz Haneke and his stepfather, the composer Alexander Steinbrecher, had later married the mother of actor Christoph Waltz. After graduating, he became a critic and from 1967 to 1970 he worked as editor. He made his debut as a director in 1974. Hanekes feature film debut was 1989s The Seventh Continent, which served to trace out the violent, three years later, the controversial Bennys Video put Hanekes name on the map. Haneke achieved great success in 2001 with the critically successful French film The Piano Teacher and it won the prestigious Grand Prize at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival and also won its stars, Benoît Magimel and Isabelle Huppert, the Best Actor and Actress awards. He has worked with Juliette Binoche, after she expressed interest in working with him, Haneke frequently worked with real-life couple Ulrich Mühe and Susanne Lothar – thrice each. His film, The White Ribbon, premiered at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival, in 2012, his film Amour also won the Palme dOr. Haneke says that films should offer more space for imagination and self-reflection. Films that have too much detail and moral clarity, Haneke says, are used for consumption by their viewers. It is often difficult for people to ascertain Hanekes philosophy and the messages he wishes to illustrate in his works. His 2012 film Amour won the Best Foreign Language Oscar and was nominated for the Best Picture Oscar at the 85th Academy Awards, in 2013 he was the subject of the documentary film Michael H – Profession, Director. Haneke has directed a number of productions in German, which include works by Strindberg, Goethe
