1.
United States Secretary of State
–
Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S
2.
Theodore Roosevelt
–
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
3.
John Hay
–
John Milton Hay was an American statesman and official whose career in government stretched over almost half a century. Beginning as a secretary and assistant to Abraham Lincoln, Hays highest office was United States Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley. Hay was also an author and biographer and wrote poetry and other literature throughout much of his life, born in Indiana to an anti-slavery family that moved to Illinois when he was young, Hay showed great potential, and his family sent him to Brown University. After graduation in 1858, Hay read law in his uncles office in Springfield, Illinois, Hay worked for Lincolns successful presidential campaign and became one of his private secretaries at the White House. Throughout the American Civil War, Hay was close to Lincoln, in addition to his other literary works, Hay co-authored with John George Nicolay a multi-volume biography of Lincoln that helped shape the assassinated presidents historical image. After Lincolns death, Hay spent several years at posts in Europe, then worked for the New-York Tribune under Horace Greeley. Yet, Hay remained active in politics, and from 1879 to 1881 served as Assistant Secretary of State, afterward, he remained in the private sector, until President McKinley, for whom he had been a major backer, made him Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1897. Hay became Secretary of State the following year, Hay served for almost seven years as Secretary of State under President McKinley, and after his assassination, under Theodore Roosevelt. Hay was responsible for negotiating the Open Door Policy, which kept China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis, John Milton Hay was born in Salem, Indiana, on October 8,1838. He was the son of Dr. Charles Hay and the former Helen Leonard. Charles Hay, born in Lexington, Kentucky, hated slavery, a doctor, he practiced in Salem and married there in 1831. Helens father, David Leonard, had moved his family west from Assonet, Massachusetts, in 1818, but died en route to Vincennes, Indiana, Charles was not successful in Salem, and moved, with his wife and children, to Warsaw, Illinois, in 1841. John attended the schools, and in 1849 his uncle Milton Hay invited John to live at his home in Pittsfield, Pike County, and attend a well-regarded local school. Milton was a friend of Springfield attorney Abraham Lincoln and had read law in the firm Stuart, in Pittsfield, John first met John Nicolay, who was at the time a 20-year-old newspaperman. Once John Hay completed his studies there, the 13-year-old was sent to live with his grandfather in Springfield and his parents and uncle Milton sent him to Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, alma mater of his late maternal grandfather. Hay enrolled at Brown in 1855, although he enjoyed college life, he did not find it easy, his Western clothing and accent made him stand out, he was not well prepared academically and was often sick. Hay gained a reputation as a student and became a part of Providences literary circle that included Sarah Helen Whitman. He wrote poetry and experimented with hashish, Hay received his Master of Arts degree in 1858, and was, like his grandfather before him, Class Poet
4.
Robert Bacon
–
Robert Bacon was an American statesman and diplomat. He served as United States Secretary of State from January to March 1909, born in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, to William Benjamin Bacon and Emily Crosby Low, he was a graduate of Harvard University, where he was a member of the A. D. He was married on October 10,1883 to Martha Waldron Cowdin and they had four children, Robert Low Bacon, Gaspar Griswold Bacon, Elliot Cowdin Bacon, and Martha Beatrix Bacon who married George Whitney. Their son Robert was a United States Congressman and Gaspar was the President of the Massachusetts Senate from 1929–32 and he worked in the business world, including partnership with J. P. Morgan & Co. for many years starting in 1894. He acted as J. P. Morgans chief lieutenant and participated in the formation of the U. S. Steel Corporation, the pressure of the job shot his nerves, and he left the company in 1903. He was named Assistant Secretary of State in 1905, a position held until 1909. He became full Secretary only for the last 38 days of the term of President Theodore Roosevelt, Bacon obtained the advice and consent of the Senate for the Panama Canal treaties with Colombia and Panama. He served as United States Ambassador to France from 1909 until 1912 and he was supposed to return home on the Titanic with his wife and daughter, but his voyage was delayed by the late arrival of the new ambassador. Upon his safe arrival back in the U. S. he became a Fellow of Harvard in 1912, in August 1914, he went to France to help with the work of the American Field Service - which provide ambulances and drivers to support French and British forces. He was also attached to the British Army Medical Corps and assisted with the establishment of a hospital near Ypres. His book For Better Relations with Our Latin American Neighbors was published in 1915 and he was then commissioned a major in the U. S. Army in May 1917 before sailing to France as a member of General Pershings staff. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1918 and served as Chief of the American Military Mission at British General Headquarters and he returned to the United States in April 1919. Bacon died on May 29,1919 from blood poisoning after undergoing surgery on his mastoiditis, in it, the head of a 13th-century crusader lay on the lap of a draped woman. The sculpture was dedicated in 1923 at the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in New York, after the War Memorial Chapel at Harvard University was completed in 1932, it was installed there. Works by Robert Bacon at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Robert Bacon at Internet Archive
5.
United States Secretary of War
–
The Secretary of War was a member of the United States Presidents Cabinet, beginning with George Washingtons administration. A similar position, called either Secretary at War or Secretary of War, had appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation between 1781 and 1789. Benjamin Lincoln and later Henry Knox held the position, when Washington was inaugurated as the first president under the Constitution, he appointed Knox to continue serving. The Secretary of War was the head of the War Department, at first, he was responsible for all military affairs, including naval affairs. In 1798, the Secretary of the Navy was created by statute, from 1886 onward, the Secretary of War was third in the line of succession to the presidency, after the Vice President of the United States and the Secretary of State. The office of Secretary at War was modelled upon Great Britains Secretary at War, the office of Secretary at War was meant replaced both the Commander-in-Chief and the Board of War, and like the President of the Board, the Secretary wore no special insignia. The Inspector General, Quartermaster General, Commissary General, and Adjutant General served on the Secretarys staff, however, the Army itself under Secretary Henry Knox only consisted of 700 men. Parties No party Federalist Democratic-Republican Democratic Whig Republican Confederate States Secretary of War Bell, commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff 1775-2005, Portraits and Biographical Sketches. United States Army Center of Military History, encyclopedia of the United States Cabinet 1789-2010. Charlottesville, Virginia, The Judge Advocate Generals School, U. S. Army
6.
William McKinley
–
McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War, beginning as a private in the Union Army and ending as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law, in 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Partys expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial, which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office and he was elected Ohios governor in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 and he defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan, after a front-porch campaign in which he advocated sound money and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity. Rapid economic growth marked McKinleys presidency and he promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition, and in 1900, he secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898, McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election, in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism, and free silver. William McKinley, Jr. was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio, there, the elder McKinley was born in Pine Township, Mercer County. The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy and he met Nancy Allison there, and married her later. The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvanias earliest settlers, the family trade on both sides was iron-making, and McKinley senior operated foundries throughout Ohio, in New Lisbon, Niles, Poland, and finally Canton. The McKinley household was, like many from Ohios Western Reserve, steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment, William followed in the Methodist tradition, becoming active in the local Methodist church at the age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist, in 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland, Ohio so that their children could attend the better schools there. Graduating in 1859, he enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville and he remained at Allegheny for only one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. He also spent time at Mount Union College in Alliance, Ohio and he did not graduate from either university. Although his health recovered, family finances declined and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny, first working as a clerk and later taking a job teaching at a school near Poland. When the Southern states seceded from the Union and the American Civil War began, among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry. The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohios earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers, they would be designated by Ohios governor, William Dennison. Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as the commander of the regiment, McKinley quickly took to the soldiers life and wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause
7.
Russell A. Alger
–
Russell Alexander Alger was the 20th Governor and U. S. Senator from the state of Michigan and also U. S. Secretary of War during the Presidential administration of William McKinley, Russell Alexander Alger was born on February 27,1836, in Lafayette Township in Medina County, Ohio. His parents were Russell and Caroline Alger and he was orphaned at age 13 and worked on a farm to support himself and two younger siblings. He attended Richfield Academy in Summit County, Ohio, and taught school for two winters. He studied law in Akron, Ohio, and was admitted to the bar in March 1859 and he first began to practice law in Cleveland and moved to Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1860, where he engaged in the lumber business. On April 2,1861, he married Annette Huldana Squire Henry of Grand Rapids and they had six children, Henrietta Fay Huldana Bailey, Caroline Annette Shelden, Frances Aura Pike, Russell Alexander Alger, Jr. Frederick Charles Moulton Alger and Allan Alger. Frederick graduated from Harvard in 1899, served as a lieutenant colonel with the American Expeditionary Force in France during the First World War and was awarded the French Legion of Honor. Alger was the scion of a prominent family, many of whom became involved in 20th century Michigan politics and active in the Republican Party. His son, Russell A. Alger, Jr. Russell A. Alger had a home in Black River which is in Alcona Township, Michigan and he enlisted as a private soldier in the American Civil War on September 2,1861. He was commissioned and served as a captain and major in the 2nd Michigan Cavalry Regiment, at the Battle of Boonesville, July 11,1862, he was sent by Colonel Philip Sheridan to attack the enemys rear with ninety picked men. The Confederate forces were defeated, and although Alger was wounded and taken prisoner. On October 16, he was lieutenant colonel of the 6th Michigan Cavalry. On February 28,1863, he was promoted to colonel of the 5th Michigan Cavalry and his command was the first to enter Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, on June 28, and he was specially mentioned in the report of General George Armstrong Custer on cavalry operations there. He participated in General Sheridans Valley Campaigns of 1864 in Virginia, on June 11,1864, at Trevillian Station, he captured a large force of Confederates with a brilliant cavalry charge. Alger resigned from the army on September 20,1864, in three years, he served in 66 different battles and skirmishes. He was also a member of the Michigan Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, Algers two sons, Frederick W. Alger and Russell A. Alger, Jr. were hereditary companions of MOLLUS. After the Civil War, Alger settled in Detroit as head of Alger, Smith & Company and his great pine forest on Lake Huron comprised more than 100 square miles and produced annually more than 75,000,000 board feet of lumber. In order to transport the lumber, Alger led his company to create the Detroit, Bay City and Alpena Railroad, of which Alger served as president
8.
William Howard Taft
–
William Howard Taft served as the 27th President of the United States and as the tenth Chief Justice of the United States, the only person to have held both offices. In 1921, President Warren G. Harding appointed Taft to be chief justice, Taft was born in Cincinnati in 1857. His father, Alphonso Taft, was a U. S. Attorney General, William Taft attended Yale and was a member of Skull and Bones secret society like his father, and after becoming a lawyer was appointed a judge while still in his twenties. He continued a rapid rise, being named Solicitor General and as a judge of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, in 1901, President William McKinley appointed Taft civilian governor of the Philippines. In 1904, Roosevelt made him Secretary of War, and he became Roosevelts hand-picked successor, despite his personal ambition to become chief justice, Taft declined repeated offers of appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, believing his political work to be more important. With Roosevelts help, Taft had little opposition for the Republican nomination for president in 1908, in the White House, he focused on East Asia more than European affairs, and repeatedly intervened to prop up or remove Latin American governments. Taft sought reductions to trade tariffs, then a source of governmental income. Controversies over conservation and over antitrust cases filed by the Taft administration served to separate the two men. Roosevelt challenged Taft for renomination in 1912, Taft used his control of the party machinery to gain a bare majority of delegates, and Roosevelt bolted the party. The split left Taft with little chance of re-election, he took only Utah, after leaving office, Taft returned to Yale as a professor, continuing his political activity and working against war through the League to Enforce Peace. In 1921, President Harding appointed Taft as chief justice, an office he had long sought, Chief Justice Taft was a conservative on business issues, but under him, there were advances in individual rights. In poor health, he resigned in February 1930, after his death the next month, he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, the first president and first Supreme Court justice to be interred there. Taft is generally listed near the middle in historians rankings of U. S. presidents, William Howard Taft was born September 15,1857 in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Alphonso Taft and Louise Torrey. The Taft family was not wealthy, living in a modest home in the suburb of Mount Auburn, Alphonso served as a judge, ambassador and in the cabinet, as War Secretary and Attorney General under Ulysses S. Grant. William Taft was not seen as brilliant as a child, but was a worker, Tafts demanding parents pushed him and his four brothers toward success. He attended Woodward High School in Cincinnati, at Yale College, which he entered in 1874, the heavyset, jovial Taft was popular. One classmate described him succeeding through hard work rather than being the smartest, in 1878, Taft graduated, second in his class out of 121. He attended Cincinnati Law School, and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws in 1880, while in law school, he worked on The Cincinnati Commercial newspaper, edited by Murat Halstead
9.
United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
10.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
11.
Thomas C. Platt
–
Thomas Collier Platt was a two-term member of the U. S. House of Representatives and a three-term U. S. Senator from New York in the years 1881,1897 to 1909—is best known as the boss of the Republican Party in New York State in the late 19th century. Upon his death, the New York Times stated that no man ever exercised less influence in the Senate or the House of Representatives than he and he considered himself the political godfather of many Republican governors of the state, including Theodore Roosevelt. Platt played a key role in the creation of the City of Greater New York, Platt was born to William Platt, a lawyer, and Lesbia Hinchman, in Owego, New York on July 15,1833. State Senator Nehemiah Platt was William Platts brother, William Platt, a successful attorney and strict Presbyterian, encouraged his son to enter the ministry. Accordingly, the young Platt was prepared for college at the Owego Academy and attended Yale College, where he studied theology, after leaving Yale in 1852, he entered into a variety of employments. He started out as a druggist, was briefly an editor of a newspaper, served as President of the Tioga National Bank. He also acted as President of the Southern Central and other railways, in 1852, he married Ellen Lucy Barstow, with whom he had three sons, Edward T. Platt, Frank H. Platt, and Henry B. Platt became Secretary and a director of the United States Express Co. in 1879 and was elected President of the company in 1880 and he was a member and President of the Board of Quarantine Commissioners of New York from 1880 to 1888. He was President of the Tennessee Coal & Iron Company for several years, two years after his first wife died in 1901, he married Lillian Janeway, whom the New York Times described as young enough in appearance to pass for his daughter. Their legal separation was announced in 1906 and he died in New York City, March 6,1910 and was interred in Evergreen Cemetery, Owego, N. Y. At the time of his death he remained married to Lillian, running as a Republican, he was elected clerk of Tioga County, serving from 1859 to 1861. He was elected as a Republican to the Forty-third United States Congress and his influence on statewide politics began on his return from Congress in 1877, when he aligned with the Stalwart faction led by U. S. Senator Roscoe Conkling at the state convention, and against the Half-Breed faction loyal to President Rutherford B. In January 1881 he was elected with the support of the Stalwart faction to represent New York in the United States Senate and he became a member of the Forty-seventh Congress and the chairman of the Committee on Enrolled Bills. However, he served from March 4 to May 16,1881. The immediate occasion of their resignation was Garfields appointment of Half-Breed faction leader William H. Robertson as Collector of the Port of New York. Soon thereafter, however, Garfields assassination by Charles J. Guiteau, Platt and Conkling ran in the special election to fill the vacancies created by their own resignations, and lost
12.
James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.
–
James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr. was a Republican politician from New York. He was the son of New York State Comptroller James Wolcott Wadsworth, marks School, then graduated from Yale in New Haven, Connecticut in 1898, where he was a member of Skull and Bones. He served as a private in the Volunteer Army in the Puerto Rican Campaign during the Spanish-American War, upon leaving the Army, he entered the livestock and farming business, first in New York and then Texas. He became active early in Republican politics and he was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1905,1906,1907,1908,1909 and 1910, and was Speaker from 1906 to 1910. In 1911, while Wadsworth was on a European tour, he met his aunt, Cornelia Wadsworth Ritchie Adair and she maintained residences at Glenveagh Castle in Ireland and at the JA Ranch in the Texas Panhandle that her husband had financed. Mrs. Adair invited Wadsworth to become manager of the JA. The ranch was begun by her husband, John Jack Adair, and his partner. Wadsworth accepted his aunts offer and ran the ranch until 1915 and he once joked that he had no change of clothes for twelve days and fully expected the Board of Health to be after me. Wadsworth was succeeded as JA manager by Timothy Dwight Hobart, in 1912, he ran for Lieutenant Governor of New York on the Republican ticket with Job. In 1914, at the first popular election for the U. S. Senate, Wadsworth defeated Democrat James W. Gerard, Wadsworth was the Senate Minority Whip in 1915 because the Democrats held the majority of Senate seats. He was re-elected in 1920, but defeated by Democrat Robert F. Wagner in 1926, in 1921, Wadsworth was considered for the post of Secretary of War by President Warren G. Harding but was ultimately passed over in favor of John W. Weeks. Wadsworth was a proponent of rights and feared what he considered the threat of federal intervention into the private lives of Americans. He believed that the purpose of the United States Constitution is to limit the powers of government. For this reason, he voted against the Eighteenth Amendment when it was before the Senate, before Prohibition went into effect, Wadsworth predicted that there would be widespread violations and contempt for the law. By the mid-1920s, Wadsworth was one of a handful of congressmen who spoke out forcefully and frequently against prohibition and he was especially concerned that citizens could be prosecuted by both state and federal officials for a single violation of prohibition law. This seemed to him to double jeopardy, inconsistent with the spirit if not the letter of the Fifth Amendment. The Fifth Amendment in criminal cases prevents two trials for the offense in the same level of court, not two trials for the same charge in separate state and national jurisdictions. In 1926, he joined the Association Against the Prohibition Amendment and his political acumen and contacts proved valuable in overturning prohibition
13.
Clinton, Oneida County, New York
–
Clinton is a village in Oneida County, New York, United States. The population was 1,942 at the 2010 census and it was named for George Clinton, the first Governor of New York. The Village of Clinton, site of Hamilton College, is within the Town of Kirkland, the village was known as the village of schools due to the large number of private schools operating in the village during the 19th century. Part of Coxes Patent, 6th division, Clinton began in March 1787 when Revolutionary War veterans from Plymouth, pioneer Moses Foote brought 7 other families with him to the area. The new inhabitants found good soil, plentiful forests, and friendly Brothertown Indians in southern Kirkland along with Oneida Indians who passed through on trails. In 1793, Presbyterian minister Rev. Samuel Kirkland founded Hamilton-Oneida Academy as a seminary to serve as part of his work with the Oneida tribe. The seminary admitted both white and Oneida boys, Kirkland named it in honor of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, who was a member of the first Board of Trustees of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy. The Academy became Hamilton College in 1812, making it the third oldest college in New York after Columbia and Union, after it expanded to a four-year college curriculum. Elihu Root, secretary of war and state under presidents McKinley, both William Bristol and John Myers graduated from Hamilton College. Clara Barton, founder of American Red Cross, frederick Bee, builder of telegraph over Sierra Nevada Mountains and Consul of the Chinese Consulate in San Francisco. William McLaren Bristol, co-founder of Bristol-Meyers Squibb, edward P. Felt, passenger United Flight 93, died Sept.11,2001. Ulysses S. Grant III, United States Army officer and planner, Samuel Kirkland, a missionary among the Oneida, obtained a charter for Hamilton College in 1812. Mary Lyon, pioneer of womens education, John Ripley Myers, co-founder of Bristol-Meyers Squibb. Nick Palmieri, professional Ice Hockey player, was born in Clinton, christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters, Danish-born astronomer, working at Litchfield Observatory, Hamilton College, he discovered 48 asteroids. Ezra Pound, poet and intellectual, attended Hamilton College Elihu Root, born in Clinton, B. F. Skinner, graduated from Hamilton College. De Wayne Stebbins, Wisconsin State Senator from 1895 to 1903, was born in Clinton, hildegarde Swift, award-winning childrens author, was born in Clinton. The Clinton High School, Middle School, and Elementary School are located towards the center of the village, the village centers around a park where many community events take place. The Kirkland Art Center hosts many activities throughout the year including the KAC Road Race, also, a local favorite, the Clinton Cider Mill located on Elm Street produces cider on site each Fall
14.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
15.
Republican Party (United States)
–
The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
16.
Alma mater
–
Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
17.
Hamilton College (New York)
–
Hamilton College is a private, nonsectarian, liberal arts college located in the village of Clinton, New York, in the Mohawk Valley region of the Eastern United States. Founded as a school in 1793, it was chartered as Hamilton College in 1812. It has been coeducational since 1978, when it merged with its sister school Kirkland College, Hamiltons student body is 52% female and 48% male, and comes from 49 U. S. states and 45 countries. Hamilton College is ranked 12th among National Liberal Arts Colleges in the 2017 U. S. News & World Report Best Colleges rankings. Hamilton began in 1793 as the Hamilton-Oneida Academy, a seminary founded by Rev. Samuel Kirkland, the seminary admitted both white and Oneida boys. Kirkland named it in honor of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, who was a member of the first Board of Trustees of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy. The Academy became Hamilton College in 1812, making it the third oldest college in New York after Columbia and Union, after it expanded to a four-year college curriculum. By the end of the century, its colorful ninth President M. Woolsey Stryker distanced Hamilton from the Presbyterian Church. In 1978, the all-male Hamilton College merged with the womens Kirkland College, the merger provoked controversy, particularly since Hamilton refused to provide assistance with Kirklands debt burden. Hamilton publicly justified the merger as prompted by its desire for co-education, the merger took nearly 7 years to complete, women could still receive a Kirkland diploma instead of a Hamilton diploma until 1979. The original Hamilton campus is called the light side or north side of campus. The original side of campus was once called Stryker Campus after its former president, on the other side of College Hill Road, the original Kirkland campus is called the dark side or the south side. Since the 1970s, Hamilton has been a member of the New England Small College Athletic Conference and this conference also includes Amherst, Bates, Bowdoin, Colby, Connecticut College, Middlebury, Trinity, Tufts, Wesleyan, and Williams. Rivalries with many of schools, Middlebury in particular, predate the conference. During the summer of 2006, the school completed a new science building, the art department has separate studios for each of the studio arts taught, most of which are being renovated. Hamiltons athletic facilities include an ice rink, swimming pool, several fields, a golf course, a three-story climbing wall. The Kirner-Johnson Building, or KJ, is home to Hamiltons social science departments, the Arthur Levitt Public Affairs Center, the Nesbitt-Johnson Writing Center, the building has a large, naturally-lit, two-story commons that is a popular gathering place for students to study or socialize between classes. In 2004, planning for the renovation and expansion of the Kirner-Johnson building received an Award of Merit from the American Institute of Architects, the project was completed in 2008
18.
New York University School of Law
–
The New York University School of Law is the law school of New York University. Established in 1835, it is the oldest law school in New York City, the school offers J. D. LL. M. and J. S. D. degrees in law, and is located in Greenwich Village, in downtown Manhattan. NYU Law is regarded as one of the most prestigious and selective law schools in the world and is ranked in the top 5 by the QS World University Rankings. U. S. News & World Report currently ranks NYU Law 6th in the nation and has ranked the law school as high as 4th in recent years. Especially renowned for its strength in public interest law, NYU is also ranked 1st in the country by U. S. News & World Report in both law and tax law. The latest edition of Chicago Professor Brian Leiters ranking of the top law schools by student quality places NYU Law 4th out of the 144 accredited schools in the United States. According to New York University School of Laws 2013 ABA-required disclosures,93. 7% of the Class of 2013 obtained full-time, long-term, NYU Law publishes ten student-edited law journals, including the New York University Law Review. NYU Law offers several fellowships to students admitted to the LLM Program, the Hauser Global Scholarship admits eight to ten top LLM students from all over the world. The scholarship includes full tuition waiver and reasonable accommodation costs, in addition, it offers the Hugo Grotius as well as Vanderbilt scholarships for International law studies and other branches of law respectively. The Law school has a law and business program in eight of the nations student-leaders in law. In addition, the NYU Center for Law, Economics and Organization administers the Lawrence Lederman Fellowship to facilitate the study of Law & Economics, NYU Law also hosts the original chapter of the Unemployment Action Center. Blank is currently the faculty director of the program, students are permitted to enroll in a general course of study or specialize in specific areas such as business taxation or estate planning. Many of the professors are practitioners in their respective fields. LL. M is an abbreviation for Master of Laws, an academic degree. In general, there are two types of LL. M, the majority are programs designed to expose foreign legal graduates to the American Common Law. The other programs involve post doctoral study of an area of the law such as Admiralty, Tax Law, Banking and Financial Law, Elder Law. NYU has implemented a jointly granted NYU/Osgoode LLB/LLM program in which graduates are granted the LLB as well as an LLM from NYU in only 3 and a half years instead of the normally required four. More recently, the NYU School of Law has entered into similar dual degree agreements with the National University of Singapore Faculty of Law and the University of Melbourne Law School
19.
Lawyer
–
A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
20.
Washington, D.C.
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
21.
The Wise Men (book)
–
The Wise Men, Six Friends and the World They Made is a 1986 book by Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas. It describes the actions of a group of US government officials, starting in the immediate post-World War II period, the group developed the containment policy of dealing with the Communist bloc during the Cold War. They also helped to craft institutions and initiatives such as NATO, the World Bank, an updated edition of the book was released in 2012, as well as a Quicklet summary of the book. The group comprised two lawyers, two bankers, and two diplomats, five of the six were from the so-called Georgetown Set. Acheson, Harriman, and Lovett had known each other since their days at school or college. Bohlen, Kennan and McCloy were younger and did not know the others well until their public lives brought them into close contact and they coalesced as a group when Truman became President in 1945 and greatly needed advice on foreign policy, as he knew very little in that area. The group helped to create a bipartisan foreign policy based on resistance to the expansion of Soviet power, the authors describe them as the hidden architects behind the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, and Cold War containment. Kennan, in particular, is regarded as the father of containment, the book portrays them as personifying an ideal of statesmanship marked by nonpartisanship, pragmatic internationalism, and aversion to ideological fervor. They tended to be practical, realistic, and nonideological, after the six had retired from public life, they and other like-minded establishment elders were dubbed The Wise Men. In 1967 and 1968, Johnson summoned them and a few others to him on foreign policy. In November 1967, they unanimously recommended staying in Vietnam, but in a second meeting in March 1968, most said the war could not be won. Later public figures, such as Clark Clifford, James A. Baker III, a sober and straightforward account of what actually happened and why. In this context the book does a great service and it restores balance to our recent history, and some sheen to its heroes. It may generate a much-needed movement to correct revisionist history, —Foreign Affairs In their first major book, Isaacson and Thomas have written an engrossing work of popular history that will live well beyond the 1980s
22.
Nobel Peace Prize
–
Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
23.
Andrew Carnegie
–
He built a leadership role as a philanthropist for the United States and the British Empire. During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away to charities, foundations and his 1889 article proclaiming The Gospel of Wealth called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, and it stimulated a wave of philanthropy. Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, and emigrated in 1848 to the United States with his parents, Carnegie started work as a telegrapher and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges and oil derricks. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman raising money for American enterprise in Europe and he built Pittsburghs Carnegie Steel Company, which he sold to J. P. Morgan in 1901 for $480 million. It became the U. S. Steel Corporation, after selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed John D. Rockefeller as the richest American for the next couple of years. Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to philanthropy, with special emphasis on local libraries, world peace, education. Andrew Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, in a typical weavers cottage with only one main room, the main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom. He was named after his legal grandfather, in 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street, following the demand for more heavy damask from which his father, William Carnegie, benefited. He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, which had been a gift to the town by the philanthropist Adam Rolland of Gask, Lauders son, also named George Lauder, grew up with Andrew and would become his business partner. When Carnegie was thirteen, his father had fallen on hard times as a handloom weaver. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother who was a cobbler and she eventually became the primary breadwinner by the 1840s. Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies then decided to move with his family to Allegheny, Pennsylvania, Andrews family had to borrow money from the Lauders in order to migrate. Allegheny was an industrial area that produced many products including wool. The Made in Allegheny label used on these and other diversified products was becoming more and more popular. His first job at age 13 in 1848 was as a bobbin boy and his starting wage was $1.20 per week. Andrews father, William Carnegie, started off working in a cotton mill and his mother, Margaret Morrison Carnegie, earned money by binding shoes. In 1849, Carnegie became a messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburghs businesses
24.
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
–
The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace is a foreign-policy think tank with centers in Washington, D. C. Moscow, Beirut, Beijing, Brussels, and New Delhi, the organization describes itself as being dedicated to advancing cooperation between nations and promoting active international engagement by the United States. Founded in 1910 by Andrew Carnegie, its work is not formally associated with any political party, in the University of Pennsylvanias 2015 Global Go To Think Tanks Report, Carnegie is ranked the third most influential think tank in the world, after the Brookings Institution and Chatham House. Its headquarters building, prominently located on the Embassy Row section of Massachusetts Avenue, was completed in 1989 on a design by architecture firm Smith and it also hosts the embassy of Papua New Guinea in the U. S. The President of Carnegies Board of Trustees is Harvey V. Fineberg, Andrew Carnegie, like other leading internationalists of his day, believed that war could be eliminated by stronger international laws and organizations. I am drawn more to this cause than to any, he wrote in 1907, Carnegies single largest commitment in this field was his creation of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. On his seventy-fifth birthday, November 25,1910, Andrew Carnegie announced the establishment of the Endowment with a gift of $10 million worth of first mortgage bonds, paying a 5% rate of interest. The interest income generated from these bonds was to be used to fund a new think tank dedicated to advancing the cause of world peace. Carnegie chose longtime adviser Elihu Root, Senator from New York and former Secretary of War and of State, awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1912, Root served until 1925. Carnegie is often remembered for having built Carnegie libraries, which were a major recipient of his largesse, the libraries were usually funded not by the Endowment but by other Carnegie trusts, operating mainly in the English-speaking world. However, after World War I the Endowment built libraries in Belgium, France, on July 14,1923, the Hague Academy of International Law, an initiative of the Endowment, was formally opened in the Peace Palace at The Hague. The Peace Palace had been built by the Carnegie Foundation in 1913 to house the Permanent Court of Arbitration, in 1925, Nicholas Murray Butler succeeded Elihu Root as president of the Endowment. For his work, including his involvement with the Kellogg–Briand Pact, in November 1944, the Carnegie Endowment published Raphael Lemkins Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, Laws of Occupation—Analysis of Government—Proposals for Redress. The work was the first to bring the genocide into the global lexicon. As chairman, Shotwell pushed for an amendment to establish a permanent United Nations Commission on Human Rights, in December 1945, Butler stepped down after twenty years as president and chairman of the board of trustees. Butler was the last living member of the board selected by Andrew Carnegie in 1910. Alger Hiss briefly succeeded Butler as president of the Endowment in 1946 but resigned in 1949 after being denounced as a communist, Hiss was replaced in the interim by James T. Shotwell. In 1947, the Carnegie Endowments headquarters were moved closer to the United Nations in New York City, in 1949, the Washington branch was shuttered
25.
Philippine Organic Act (1902)
–
The Philippine Organic Act was a basic law for the Insular Government that was enacted by the United States Congress on July 1,1902. It is also known as the Philippine Bill of 1902 and the Cooper Act, the approval of the act coincided with the official end of the Philippine–American War. Supervision of the islands was assigned to the War Departments Bureau of Insular Affairs, the act was preceded by the Spooner Amendment to the Army Appropriations Act of 1901 which had provided that. All military, civil, and judicial powers necessary to govern the Philippine Islands, the comprehensive Spooner Amendment, and these instructions and orders, virtually constituted for many months the charter of government for the Philippine Islands. Between September 1900 and August 1902, the Second Philippine Commission issued 499 laws, the act was enacted into law on July 1,1902, and the Philippine Commission executed its provisions. A census was conducted in 1903, and published on March 25,1905. The Philippine Assembly elections of 1907 were held on July 30,1907, for 80 seats, and on October 16,1907, as a result of the act, the Catholic Church agreed to gradually substitute Spanish priests with Filipinos and to sell its land. It refused however to send the friars immediately back to Spain, corpus Juris Online law library, retrieved 2011-02-08 Vicente Albano Pacis, Rizal in the American Congress, retrieved 2007-01-06 — A1926 interview with Congressman Henry A. Cooper
26.
Platt Amendment
–
On March 2,1901, the Platt Amendment was passed as part of the 1901 Army Appropriations Bill. It defined the terms of Cuban–U. S, Relations to essentially be an unequal one of U. S. dominance over Cuba. On December 25,1901, Cuba amended its constitution to contain, word for word, on May 22,1903, Cuba entered into a treaty with the United States to make the same required seven pledges, the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations of 1903. Two of the seven pledges were to allow the United States to intervene unilaterally in Cuban affairs, the 1903 Treaty of Relations was used as justification for the Second Occupation of Cuba from 1906 to 1909. On October 23,1906, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 518, on May 29,1934, the United States and Cuba signed the 1934 Treaty of Relations that in its first article abrogates the 1903 Treaty of Relations. During the Spanish–American War, the United States maintained a military arsenal in Cuba to protect U. S. holdings. In 1899, the McKinley administration settled on occupation as its response to the appearance of a government in Cuba following the end of Spanish control. In an effort to turn Cuba into a colony, the United States established The Platt Amendment to maintain public order. The Platt Amendment was also an addition to the earlier Teller Amendment, american General Leonard Wood used the financial resources of the Cuban treasury to create sanitation systems. The Platt Amendment was introduced to Congress by Senator Orville H. Platt on February 25,1901 and it passed the U. S. Senate by a vote of 43 to 20. Though initially rejected by the Cuban assembly, the amendment was accepted by a vote of 16 to 11 with four abstentions. The Platt Amendment outlined the role of the United States in Cuba and it mainly limited the right to make treaties with other nations. It restricted Cuba in the conduct of policy and commercial relations. It established that Cubas boundaries would not include the Isle of Pines until its title could be established in a future treaty, the amendment also demanded that Cuba sell or lease lands to the United States necessary for coaling or the development of naval stations. That all Acts of the United States in Cuba during its military occupancy thereof are ratified and validated and that the Isle of Pines shall be omitted from the proposed constitutional boundaries of Cuba, the title thereto being left to future adjustment by treaty. That by way of further assurance the government of Cuba will embody the foregoing provisions in a permanent treaty with the United States. Following acceptance of the amendment, the United States ratified a tariff that gave Cuban sugar preference in the U. S. market, tomás Estrada Palma, who had once favored outright annexation of Cuba by the United States, became president of Cuba on May 20,1902. José Manuel Cortina and other members of the Cuban Constitutional Convention of 1940 eliminated the Platt Amendment from the new Cuban constitution, the long-term lease of Guantánamo Bay continues
27.
Panama Canal
–
The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began operation on June 26,2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo, France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15,1914, Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U. S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, by 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal, the American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese, during an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction. Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up a trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700, another effort was made in 1843. They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor and it was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal across Mexicos Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either. )In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U. S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855
28.
History of the United States Army
–
The history of the United States Army began in 1775. From its formation, the United States Army has been the land based part of the United States Armed Forces. The Armys primary responsibility has been the fighting of land battles, the Corps of Engineers has a major role in controlling rivers inside the United States. The Continental Army was founded in response to a need for professional soldiery in the American Revolutionary War in order to fight the invading British Army, until the 1940s, the Army was relatively small in peacetime. In 1947, the Air Force became completely independent from the Army Air Forces, the Army was under the control of the War Department until 1947, and the Defense Department since then. The U. S. Army fought the War of 1812, American Civil War, Spanish–American War, World War I, World War II, Korean War and Vietnam War. After the Cold War ended in 1991, the U. S. Army has focused on Western Asia, and was involved in the 1991 Gulf War and war in Iraq, and the war in Afghanistan. When the American Revolutionary War began in April 1775, the revolutionaries did not have an army. Previously, each colony had relied upon the militia, made up of part-time civilian-soldiers, the initial orders from Congress authorized ten companies of riflemen. The first full regiment of Regular Army infantry, the 3rd Infantry Regiment, was not formed until June 1784. During the War of 1812, an invasion of Canada failed, between 1815 and 1860, the main role of the U. S. Army was fighting Native Americans in the West in the American Indian Wars, and manning coast artillery stations at major ports. The U. S. used regular units and many units in the Mexican-American War of 1846-48. At the outset of the American Civil War, the regular U. S. Army was small, following the Civil War, the U. S. Army fought more wars with Native Americans, who resisted U. S. expansion into the center of the continent. A combined conscript and volunteer force, the National Army, was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I, during World War II, the Army of the United States was formed as a successor to the National Army. The end of World War II set the stage for the ideological confrontation known as the Cold War, with the outbreak of the Korean War, concerns over the defense of Western Europe led to the establishment of NATO. During the Cold War, American troops and their allies fought communist forces in Korea, the 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The Army converted to a force with greater emphasis on training. By 1989, the Cold War was coming to a close, the Army leadership reacted by starting to plan for a reduction in strength
29.
National Guard of the United States
–
All members of the National Guard of the United States are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by 10 U. S. C. National Guard units are under the control of the state. The majority of National Guard soldiers and airmen hold a civilian job full-time while serving part-time as a National Guard member, local militias were formed from the earliest English colonization of the Americas in 1607. The first colony-wide militia was formed by Massachusetts in 1636 by merging small older local units, the various colonial militias became state militias when the United States became independent. The title National Guard was used from 1824 by some New York State militia units, National Guard became a standard nationwide militia title in 1903, and specifically indicated reserve forces under mixed state and federal control from 1933. The first muster of militia forces in what is today the United States took place on September 16,1565, appropriately enough, this muster occurred in the shadow of an oncoming hurricane. This Spanish militia tradition and the English tradition that would be established to the north would provide the nucleus for Colonial defense in the New World. The militia tradition continued with the first permanent English settlements in the New World, Jamestown Colony and Plymouth Colony both had militia forces, which initially consisted of every able bodied adult male. By the mid-1600s every town had at least one militia company, as a result of the Spanish–American War, Congress was called upon to reform and regulate the training and qualification of state militias. The first national laws regulating the militia were the Militia acts of 1792, in 1903, with passage of the Dick Act, the predecessor to the modern-day National Guard was formed. It required the states to divide their militias into two sections, the law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, and Reserve Militia for all others. During World War I, Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916, Congress also authorized the states to maintain Home Guards, which were reserve forces outside the National Guards being deployed by the Federal Government. The National Guard of the states, territories, and the District of Columbia serves as part of the first-line of defense for the United States. C. Where the National Guard operates under the President of the United States or his designee, the governors exercise control through the state adjutants general. The National Guard may be called up for duty by the governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods. The National Guard is administered by the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity of the Army, the National Guard Bureau provides a communication channel for state National Guards to the DoD. S. C. The National Guard Bureau is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau, prior to 2008, the functions of Agricultural Development Teams were within Provincial Reconstruction Teams of the US Government. Today, ADTs consist of soldiers and airmen from the Army National Guard, today, ADTs bring an effective platform for enhanced dialogue, building confidence, sharing interests, and increasing cooperation amongst the disparate peoples and tribes of Afghanistan
30.
Permanent Court of International Justice
–
The Permanent Court of International Justice, often called the World Court, existed from 1922 to 1946. It was an international court attached to the League of Nations, created in 1920, the Court was initially well-received from states and academics alike, with many cases submitted to it for its first decade of operation. With the heightened tension of the 1930s, the Court became less used. By a resolution by the League of Nations on 18 April 1946, the Courts mandatory jurisdiction came from three sources, the Optional Clause of the League of Nations, general international conventions and special bipartite international treaties. Cases could also be submitted directly by states, but they were not bound to submit material unless it fell into three categories. The Court could issue either judgments or advisory opinions, judgments were directly binding while advisory opinions were not. In practice, member states of the League of Nations followed advisory opinions anyway, as they feared that otherwise, they could undermine the moral and legal authority of the Court, on occasion, the Court was accused of extending its jurisdiction. Strictly speaking, it was allowed to only in matters of international law. An international court had long proposed, Pierre Dubois suggested it in 1305. Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, created after the Treaty of Versailles, the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice was accepted in Geneva on December 13,1920. The Court elected Bernard Loder as President and Max Huber as Vice-President, on 14 February the Court was officially opened, and rules of procedure were established on 24 March, when the court ended its first session. The court first sat to decide cases on 15 June, the initial reaction to the Court was good, from politicians, practising lawyers and academics alike. The Court was given nine cases during 1922 and 1923, however, with judgments called cases, a replacement for Ruy Barbosa was also found, with the election of Epitácio Lindolfo da Silva Pessoa on 10 September 1923. During the same year, a new President and Vice-President were elected, at the elections on 4 September 1924, Charles Andre Weiss was again elected Vice-President and Max Huber became the second President of the Court. Judicial pensions were created at the time, with a judge being given 1/30th of his annual pay for every year he had served once he had both retired and turned 65. 1925 was a busy year for the court, which sat for 210 days, with four extraordinary sessions as well as the ordinary session. 1926 saw reduced business, with only one session and one extraordinary session, it was, however. Despite the reduction of work in 1926,1927 was another busy year, the judgments were in the Belgium-China Case, the Case Concerning the Factory at Chorzow, the Lotus Case and a continuation of the Mavrommatis Jerusalem Concessions Case
31.
Henry Cabot Lodge
–
Henry Cabot Lodge was an American Republican Senator and historian from Massachusetts. Lodge received his PhD in history from Harvard, Lodge was a long-time friend and confidant of Theodore Roosevelt. Lodge had the role of the first Senate Majority Leader and he is best known for his positions on foreign policy, especially his battle with President Woodrow Wilson in 1919 over the Treaty of Versailles. Lodge demanded Congressional control of declarations of war, Wilson refused and blocked Lodges move to ratify the treaty with reservations, as a result, the United States never joined the League of Nations. Lodge was born in Beverly, Massachusetts and his father was John Ellerton Lodge. His mother was Anna Cabot, through whom he was a great-grandson of George Cabot and he was cousin to the American polymath Charles Peirce. In 1872, he graduated from Harvard College, where he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon, the Porcellian Club, and the Hasty Pudding Club. In 1874, he graduated from Harvard Law School, and was admitted to the bar in 1875, after traveling through Europe, Lodge returned to Harvard, and in 1876, became one of the first recipients of a Ph. D. in history and government from Harvard. His dissertation dealt with the Germanic origins of Anglo-Saxon land law and his teacher and mentor during his graduate studies was Henry Adams, Lodge maintained a lifelong friendship with Adams. Lodge was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in 1881, he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. In 1880–1882, Lodge served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives, Lodge represented his home state in the United States House of Representatives from 1887 to 1893 and in the Senate from 1893 to 1924. Along with his close friend Theodore Roosevelt, Lodge was sympathetic to the concerns of the Mugwump faction of the Republican Party, nonetheless, both reluctantly supported James Blaine and protectionism in the 1884 election. Lodge was a supporter of the gold standard, vehemently opposing the Populists and the silverites. Lodge was easily reelected time and again but his greatest challenge came in his bid in January 1911. The Democrats had made significant gains in Massachusetts and the Republicans were split between the progressive and conservative wings, with Lodge trying to both sides. In a major speech before the legislature voted, Lodge took pride in his long service to the state. He emphasized that he had never engaged in corruption or self-dealing, most of all he appealed to party loyalty. Lodge was reelected by five votes, Lodge was very close to Theodore Roosevelt for both of their entire careers
32.
English Americans
–
In the 2014 American Community Survey, English Americans are of the total population. Eight out of the ten most common surnames in the United States are of English origin or having possible mixed British Isles heritage, scotch-Irish Americans are for the most part descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English settlers who colonized Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century. The English were the top group, with 66% saying they were a good thing for the United States. Ben J. Wattenberg argues that this demonstrates an general American bias against Hispanics. English immigrants in the 19th century, as other groups. They began migrating in large numbers without state support, Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply American due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U. S. and their influence on the countrys population. While there may be reasons for this, after centuries of intermarriage and internal geographic mobility. For these reasons, no part of the pluralist American society is so difficult to describe as a separate entity as the English. The original 17th-century settlers were overwhelmingly English and it was conducted on August 2,1790. The ancestry of the 3,929,214 population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names in the very first United States official census and assigning them a country of origin. The estimate results indicate that people of English ancestry made up about 47. 5% of the population or 60. 9% of the European American population. Some 80. 7% of the total United States population was of European heritage, around 757,208 were of African descent with 697,624 being slaves. Of the remaining population, more than 75% was of British origin, in the 2000 census,24.5 million Americans reported English ancestry,8. 7% of the total U. S. population. This estimate is probably a serious undercount by over 30 million given that, in the 1980 census, as many as 80 million Americans may be wholly or partly of English ancestry. In 1980,23,748,772 Americans claimed wholly English ancestry, in 1860, an estimated 11 million or almost 35% of the population of the United States was wholly or primarily of English ancestry. The population has increased by almost ten times the numbers in 1860, in total, there are estimated to be around 678,000 British born expatriates in the United States with the majority of these being English. English Americans are found in numbers throughout America, particularly in the Northeast, South. Dark blue and purple colours indicate a percentage, highest in the east and west
33.
Williston Northampton School
–
The 125-acre campus offers a range of extra-curricular activities in the arts and athletics. Located in the Pioneer Valley, the school is within 15 miles of Amherst, Smith, Mount Holyoke, the idea of opening a new academy in the neighborhood had been in the air ever since the closing in 1834 of the Round Hill School in nearby Northampton. In its early days, there was no arrangement of studies by terms, luther Wright, its principal from 1841 to 1849, believed it was desirable to have his pupils study together in a single room under his direction. However, the student population grew rapidly and the one-room schoolhouse scheme was soon no longer practicable, as more instructors. By the 1850s the schools campus was dominated by three buildings, North Hall, Middle Hall and South Hall. For many years the school was co-educational, with the divided and taught separately in male and female departments. The Seminary comprised two faculties, classical and scientific, Samuel Williston remained the dominant influence in the schools growth until his death in 1874. In the late 19th century the dual curricula had evolved into a modern comprehensive course. Williston Northampton encompasses the school and the upper school. The school had 535 students in the 2009-2010 academic year, including 78 in the middle school, the boarding students come from 25 states and 20 countries around the world. International students come from eastern Asia, the Middle East and Europe, every year, a dozen or so post-graduate students – students who have graduated from another high school but take an extra year before college – matriculate into the 12th grade. Williston employs 114 teachers, making for a ratio of approximately 4.75,1. The average class consists of 13 students, most teachers also take on the roles of dorm parents, advisors, and athletics coaches, fostering deep relationships with students. As of the 2013–14 academic year, the student body currently represents 22 different countries and 25 different states, many of the schools buildings and dorms are situated around the main quad. In 1996, the gymnasium, originally built in 1924, was transformed into the Reed Campus Center. The Dodge room is the setting for many guest speakers and instrumental and choral concerts, after a fire destroyed the school’s theater in 1994, it was rebuilt adjacent to the science laboratories, Scott Hall. The Williston Theatre is a 288-seat performance space, among the improvements is the new theaters flexibility, the seating and stage areas can be moved to create a traditional theater with stage, a thrust-stage, or a theater-in-the-round. The theater also boasts a fly system, high-tech computerized lighting system, upgraded sound system, downstairs are the new theater studio, costume shop, and dressing rooms
34.
G. Stanley Hall
–
Granville Stanley Hall was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association and the first president of Clark University, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Hall as the 72nd most cited psychologist of the 20th century, in a tie with Lewis Terman. Born in Ashfield, Massachusetts, Hall attended Williston Seminary and graduated from Williams College in 1867, in 1878, Hall earned the first psychology doctorate awarded in America. He began his career by teaching English and philosophy at Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio, following successful lecture series at Harvard and Johns Hopkins University, Hall secured a position in the philosophy department at Johns Hopkins, teaching psychology and pedagogy. He remained at Johns Hopkins from 1882 to 1888 and, in 1883, Hall was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1888. In 1887, Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology, in 1889 he was named the first president of Clark University, a post he filled until 1920. During his 31 years as president, Hall remained intellectually active and he was instrumental in the development of educational psychology, and attempted to determine the effect adolescence has on education. He was also responsible for inviting Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung to visit, Hall and Freud shared the same beliefs on sex and adolescence. Hall promised Freud an Honorary Degree from Clark University and this was Freuds first and only visit to America. It was the biggest conference held at Clark University and it was the most controversial conference because Freuds research was based on theories that Halls colleagues criticized as non-scientific. His establishment of laboratories at Johns Hopkins, the first in the discipline. Over his 32 years as a president at Clark, he had an astonishing influence over the future shape of the field of psychology. What attracted some to Hall and his ideas, and alienated others, were his music man propensities and he was the promoter, the impresario par excellence. Hall could put on a party, as he did with the celebrations in 1899 and 1909. He did so with a sense of daring—inviting major figures with unconventional, unpopular, or even scandalous ideas. He seemed always to be founding new journals or scholarly associations to disseminate his ideas, among his creations were the widely respectedAmerican Journal of Psychology and the American Psychological Association. He also helped found the Association of American Universities, ross described this side of Hall as journalist, entrepreneur, and preacher
35.
Phi Beta Kappa Society
–
The Phi Beta Kappa Society - the oldest honor society for the liberal arts and sciences in the United States - is widely recognized and considered as the nations most prestigious honor society. Phi Beta Kappa aims to promote and advocate excellence in the arts and sciences and to induct the most outstanding students of arts. Phi Beta Kappa stands for Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Cybernētēs, according to Phi Beta Kappa, they have chapters in about 10% of American higher learning institutions, and about 10% of these schools Arts and Sciences graduates are invited to join the society. Although most students are elected their senior year, many colleges elect a limited number of extremely select students in their junior year. There is an initiation fee, which is sometimes covered by the inductees university. There had been earlier fraternal societies at the College, but these, Society, founded in 1750, were Latin-letter societies, their names were taken from initial letters of a secret Latin motto. William and Mary alumnus and third U. S. President Thomas Jefferson was perhaps the most famous member of the F. H. C, other notable members of the original Society included Col. James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe. Jefferson noted that When I was a student of Wm. & Mary college of this state, Society, confined to the number of six students only, of which I was a member, but it had no useful object, nor do I know whether it now exists. The best opinion is that the society did not survive the invasion by British forces during the Revolution, a second Latin-letter fraternity at William and Mary was the P. D. A. John Heath, chief organizer of Phi Beta Kappa, according to tradition earlier sought but was refused admission to the P. D. A, though he may instead have disdained to join it. The new society was intended to be purely of domestic manufacture, without any connexion whatever with anything European, either English or German. The founders of Phi Beta Kappa declared that the society was formed for congeniality and to good fellowship, with friendship as its basis and benevolence. Like the older, Latin-letter fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa was a secret society, the new society was given the motto, Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs, which means in English The Love for Knowledge be the Guide of Life. Greek was chosen, because Greek was in Roman times the language of science like Latin in medieval times, one official historian of the society, William T. The heading on the original list of states, A List of the members. This new complex of gestures was created to allow the recognition of members in any foreign country or place. A second chapter was founded at Yale College in late 1780, a third, at Harvard College in 1781, from these new chapters, the Phi Beta Kappa evolved from a fraternity with principally academic and some social purposes to an entirely honorary organization recognizing scholastic achievement. Further chapters appeared at Union College in 1817, Bowdoin College in 1825, the original chapter at William and Mary was re-established
36.
Rome, New York
–
Rome is a city in New York State. It is located in Oneida County, which is in north-central or Upstate New York, the population was 33,725 at the 2010 census. Rome is in New Yorks 22nd congressional district, the city developed at an ancient portage site of Native Americans, including the historic Iroquois. The original European settlements developed around fortifications erected in the 1750s to defend the waterway, following the war, the city began to develop with the construction of the Rome Canal in 1796, to connect Wood Creek and the Mohawk River. In the same year the Town of Rome was formally created as a section of Oneida County, for a time, the small community next to the canal was informally known as Lynchville, after the original owner of the property. The Town of Rome was converted into a city by the New York State Legislature on February 23,1870, the residents have called Rome the City of American History. These names refer to a road or path between the Mohawk River to the east, which leads to the Hudson River, and Wood Creek to the west. This ancient trade route joined the Great Lakes and Canada via the Mohawk River to the Hudson River, during the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, this region had much fighting. The British colonists had erected several small forts to guard the Oneida Carrying Place, but, a combined French regular army, Canadian and allied Native American force overwhelmed and massacred a British force here in the Battle of Fort Bull. Later in 1758, after abortive attempts to fortify the area, the British sent a very large force to secure the Oneida Carry and build a stronger rampart complex. Following defeat by the English during the war, the French ceded their territory in North America east of the Mississippi River to England. The English signed the Treaty of Fort Stanwix with the Iroquois, by which they promised to preserve areas west of the Appalachian Mountains as an Indian reserve and it has been described as one of the worst treaties in the History of Anglo-Indian relationships. The treaty has also described as the last desperate effort of the British to create order west of the Appalachians. The British abandoned the fort after that war, it deteriorated and was torn down. At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, American Continental forces took control of the Fort Stanwix site, the installation survived a siege by the British in the Saratoga Campaign of 1777, becoming renowned as the fort that never surrendered. Patriot militia, regulars, and their Oneida Nation allies under the command of Col. Barry St. Leger. The failed siege, combined with the battle at nearby Oriskany as well as the battles of Bennington, following this success, the Americans were able to gain alliances with France and the Netherlands, now more confident that the rebels had a chance to win. After the repulse of the British at Fort Stanwix, bloody fighting erupted along the American northern frontier, there were terrible losses for both American settlers and the people of the Six Nations, as retaliatory raids were made against each side
37.
Presbyterian polity
–
Presbyterian polity is a method of church governance typified by the rule of assemblies of presbyters, or elders. Each local church is governed by a body of elected elders usually called the session or consistory, though other terms, such as church board, may apply. Responsibility for conduct of services is reserved to an ordained minister or pastor known as a teaching elder, or a minister of the word. Presbyterian polity was developed as a rejection of governance by hierarchies of single bishops, in contrast to the other two forms, authority in the presbyterian polity flows both from the top down and from the bottom up. This theory of governance developed in Geneva under John Calvin and was introduced to Scotland by John Knox after his period of exile in Geneva and it is strongly associated with French, Dutch, Swiss and Scottish Reformation movements, and the Reformed and Presbyterian churches. St. Jerome In Epistle Titus, vol, decreed throughout the world that one chosen from among the presbyters should be placed over the others. This observation was made by Chrysostom in Homilia i, in Phil. I,1 and Theodoret in Interpret ad, Presbyterianism was first described in detail by Martin Bucer of Strasbourg, who believed that the early Christian church implemented presbyterian polity. The first modern implementation was by the Geneva church under the leadership of John Calvin in 1541, Presbyterian polity is constructed on specific assumptions about the form of the government intended by the Bible, Bishop and elder are synonymous terms. Episcopos means literally overseer and describes the function of the elder, rather than the maturity of the officer, a bishop holds the highest office of the church. In addition to these ministers, there are also others … with gifts for government … commonly call elders or ruling elders. Pastoral care, church discipline, leadership and legislation are committed to the care of ruling assemblies of presbyters among whom the ministers, all Christian people together are the priesthood, on behalf of whom the elders are called to serve by the consent of the congregation. Presbyterianism uses a method of church government. Thus, the presbyters and elders govern together as a group, the elders together exercise oversight over the local congregation, with superior groups of elders gathered on a regional basis exercising wider oversight. Presbyterians typically have viewed this method of government as approximating that of the New Testament, however, sometimes it is admitted that episcopacy was a form of government that was used very early in the church for practical reasons. Presbyterianism is also distinct from congregationalism, in that individual congregations are not independent, moreover, the ordained ministry possesses a distinct responsibility for preaching and sacraments. Thus, these are ruled by only at the level of the congregations. Reformed Baptist churches are organized to be governed by elders, on the congregationalist model, there are two types of elder, the teaching elder and the ruling elder
38.
William M. Tweed
–
Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852 and the New York County board of supervisors in 1858, the year he became the head of the Tammany Hall political machine. According to Tweed biographer Kenneth D. Ackerman, Its hard not to admire the skill behind Tweeds system. The Tweed ring at its height was a marvel, strong and solid, strategically deployed to control key power points, the courts, the legislature, the treasury. Its frauds had a grandeur of scale and an elegance of structure, money-laundering, profit sharing, unable to make bail, he escaped from jail once, but was returned to custody. He died in the Ludlow Street Jail, Tweed was born April 3,1823, at 1 Cherry Street, on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Son of a third-generation Scottish-Irish chair-maker, Tweed grew up on Cherry Street, at the age of 11, he left school to learn his fathers trade, and then became an apprentice to a saddler. He also studied to be a bookkeeper and worked as a brushmaker for a company he had invested in, on September 29,1844, he married Mary Jane C. Skaden and lived with her family on Madison Street for two years, Tweed became a member of the Odd Fellows and the Masons, and joined a volunteer fire company, Engine No.12. In 1848, at the invitation of state assemblyman John J. Reilly, he and some friends organized the Americus Fire Company No. 6, also known as the Big Six, as a fire company, which took as its symbol a snarling red Bengal tiger. At the time, volunteer fire companies competed vigorously with each other, the competition could be so fierce that buildings would sometimes burn down while the fire companies fought each other. Tweed became known for his violence, and was soon elected the Big Six foreman. He lost that election to the Whig candidate Morgan Morgans, but ran again the year and won. Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852, in an attempt by Republican reformers in Albany, the state capital, to control the Democratic-dominated New York City government, the power of the New York County Board of Supervisors was beefed up. By 1853, Tweed was running the ward for Tammany. Although he was not trained as a lawyer, Tweeds friend, Judge George G. Barnard, certified him as an attorney, and Tweed opened a law office on Duane Street. Several months later, in April, he became Grand Sachem and he also started to form what became known as the Tweed Ring, by having his friends elected to office, George G. Barnard was elected Recorder of New York City, Peter B. Sweeny was elected New York County District Attorney, and Richard B. Connolly was elected City Comptroller and he invested his now considerable illegal income in real estate, so that by the late 1860s he ranked among the biggest landowners in New York City
39.
Jay Gould
–
Jason Jay Gould was a leading American railroad developer and speculator. He has been referred to as one of the robber barons of the Gilded Age. He was hated and reviled, but some historians like Walter R. Borneman and Maury Klein. Jason Gould was born in Roxbury, New York to Mary More and his maternal grandfather, Alexander T. More, was a businessman, and his great-grandfather John More was a Scottish immigrant who founded the town of Moresville, New York. Jay Gould studied at schools and the Hobart Academy in Hobart, Delaware County. As a young boy, Gould decided he wanted nothing to do with farming which was what his father did, and so his father dropped him off at a school with 50 cents. His principal was credited with getting him a job working as a bookkeeper for a blacksmith, a year later the blacksmith offered him half interest in the blacksmith shop, which he sold to his father during the early part of 1854. Gould devoted himself to study, emphasizing surveying and mathematics. In 1854, Gould surveyed and created maps of the Ulster County, in 1856 he published History of Delaware County, and Border Wars of New York, which he had spent several years writing. In 1856, Gould entered a partnership with Zadock Pratt to create a business in Pennsylvania in what would become Gouldsboro. Eventually, he bought out Pratt, who retired, in 1856, Gould entered another partnership with Charles Mortimer Leupp, a son-in-law of Gideon Lee, and one of the leading leather merchants in the United States at the time. Leupp and Gould was a partnership until the Panic of 1857. Leupp lost all his money, while Gould took advantage of the opportunity of the depreciation of property value, after the death of Charles Leupp, the Gouldsboro Tannery became a disputed property. Leupps brother-in-law, David W. Lee, who was also a partner in Leupp and Gould and he believed that Gould had cheated the Leupp and Lee families in the collapse of the business. Eventually, Gould took physical possession, but was forced to sell his shares in the company to Lees brother. In 1859 Gould began speculative investing by buying stock in small railways, Gould purchased stock for 10 cents on the dollar, which left him in control of the company. Through the Civil War era, he did more speculation on railroad stocks in New York City, in 1863 he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer and Saratoga Railroad. The Erie Railroad encountered financial troubles in the 1850s, despite receiving loans from financiers Cornelius Vanderbilt, the Erie entered receivership in 1859 and was reorganized as the Erie Railway
40.
Chester A. Arthur
–
Chester Alan Arthur was an American attorney and politician who served as the 21st President of the United States, he succeeded James A. Garfield upon the latters assassination. At the outset, Arthur struggled to overcome a slightly negative reputation and he succeeded by embracing the cause of civil service reform. His advocacy for, and subsequent enforcement of, the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act was the centerpiece of his administration, Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont, grew up in upstate New York, and practiced law in New York City. He served as general in the New York Militia during the American Civil War. Following the war, he devoted time to Republican politics. In 1878, the new president, Rutherford B, Hayes, fired Arthur as part of a plan to reform the federal patronage system in New York. When Garfield won the Republican nomination for president in 1880, Arthur, after just half a year as vice president, Arthur found himself in the executive mansion due to the assassination of his predecessor. To the surprise of reformers, Arthur took up the cause of reform and he signed the Pendleton Act into law and strongly enforced its provisions. He gained praise for his veto of a Rivers and Harbors Act that would have appropriated federal funds in a manner he thought excessive. He presided over the rebirth of the United States Navy, but was criticized for failing to alleviate the federal budget surplus, suffering from poor health, Arthur made only a limited effort to secure the Republican Partys nomination in 1884, he retired at the close of his term. Journalist Alexander McClure later wrote, No man ever entered the Presidency so profoundly and widely distrusted as Chester Alan Arthur, more generally respected, alike by political friend and foe. The New York World summed up Arthurs presidency at his death in 1886, No duty was neglected in his administration, mark Twain wrote of him, t would be hard indeed to better President Arthurs administration. Over the 20th and 21st centuries, however, Arthurs reputation mostly faded among the public, Chester Alan Arthur was born October 5,1829, in Fairfield, Vermont. Arthurs mother, Malvina Stone, was born in Vermont, the daughter of George Washington Stone, malvinas family was primarily of English and Welsh descent, and her grandfather, Uriah Stone, fought in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. His father, William Arthur, was born in Dreen, Cullybackey, County Antrim, Ireland, he graduated college in Belfast. Arthurs mother met his father while William Arthur was teaching at a school in Dunham, Quebec, the two married in Dunham on April 12,1821, soon after meeting. After their first child, Regina, was born, the Arthurs moved to Vermont and they quickly moved from Burlington to Jericho, and finally to Waterville, as William received positions teaching at different schools. William Arthur became an outspoken abolitionist, which made him unpopular with members of his congregations
41.
Charles Anderson Dana
–
Charles Anderson Dana was an American journalist, author, and senior government official. He was a top aide to Horace Greeley as the editor of the powerful Republican newspaper New York Tribune until 1862. During the American Civil War, he served as Assistant Secretary of War and he at first appealed to working class Democrats but after 1890 became a champion of business-oriented conservatism. Dana was born in Hinsdale, New Hampshire on August 8,1819 and he was a descendant of Richard Dana, progenitor of most of the Danas in the United States, who emigrated from England, settled in Cambridge in 1640, and died there about 1695. At the age of twelve, Charles Dana became a clerk in his uncles general store at Buffalo, at this time, he began the study of Latin grammar, and prepared himself for college. In 1839 he entered Harvard, but the impairment of his eyesight forced him to college in 1841. He also abandoned his intentions to study in Germany and enter the ministry, during his time with Brook Farm, he also wrote for the Transcendental publication, the Harbinger. In 1846, he married widow Eunice MacDaniel, Dana had written for and managed the Harbinger, the Brook Farm publication, devoted to social reform and general literature. Later, beginning 1844, he wrote for and edited the Boston Chronotype of Elizur Wright for two years. In 1847 he joined the staff of the New York Tribune, in Cologne he visited Karl Marx and Ferdinand Freiligrath. However, his writing expressed racist feelings towards blacks on at least one occasion, in 1895, as editor of the New York Sun, he wrote we are in the midst of a growing menace, the year of eventual black heavy weight champion Jack Johnsons first professional fight. The black man is rapidly forging to the front ranks in athletics and we are in the midst of a black rise against white supremacy. In 1861 Dana went to Albany to advance the cause of Greeley as a candidate for the U. S. Senate, and nearly succeeded in nominating him. The caucus was about equally divided between Greeleys friends and those of William M. Evarts, while Ira Harris had a few votes which held the balance of power, at the instigation of Thurlow Weed, the supporters of Evarts went over to Harris. When Dana left the Tribune, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton immediately made him a special Investigating Agent of the War Department, in this capacity, Dana discovered frauds committed by quartermasters and contractors. In particular, the War Department was concerned about rumors of Ulysses S. Grants alcoholism, Dana spent considerable time with Grant, becoming a close friend and assuaging administration concerns. Dana reported to Secretary of War Edwin Stanton that he found Grant modest, honest, not an original or brilliant man, but sincere, thoughtful, deep, and gifted with a courage that never faltered. Although quiet and hard to know, he loved a humorous story, Dana also observed the growing problem of cotton speculators, who were often going beyond established limits into rebel territory with the purpose of trading and often collaborating with the rebels
42.
William Collins Whitney
–
William Collins Whitney was an American political leader and financier and a prominent descendant of the John Whitney family. He served as Secretary of the Navy in the first administration of President Grover Cleveland from 1885 through 1889, a conservative reformer, he was considered a Bourbon Democrat. William Whitney was born at Conway, Massachusetts, of Puritan stock, the family were descended from John Whitney of London, who settled at Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1635. William Whitneys father was Brigadier General James Scollay Whitney, his mother and his sister Laurinda Collins Lily Whitney married Charles T. Barney, who became the president of the Knickerbocker Trust Company. Another sister, Susan Collins Whitney, married attorney Henry F. Dimock, educated at Williston Seminary, Easthampton, Massachusetts, Whitney was graduated from Yale University in 1863, where he was a member of Skull and Bones, and then studied law at Harvard. He left in 1864 to study law with Abraham R. Lawrence in New York City, Whitney was active in organizing the Young Mens Democratic Club in 1871. He was an opponent of the Tweed Ring, and was actively allied with the anti-Tammany County Democracy of 1871-1890. In 1872, he was inspector of schools, but the same year met defeat in the election for district attorney. In 1882, he resigned to attend to personal interests, in 1883, through the Broadway Railroad Company, Whitney became involved in a struggle with Jacob Sharp and Thomas Fortune Ryan for the Broadway street-railway franchise. Sharp initially won the franchise by means of bribery, but in December 1884 Ryan formed an alliance with Whitney, by arousing public opinion, instituting court action, and prompting legislative investigation, they defeated Sharp. The Ryan syndicate finally received the franchise in 1886, during President Clevelands first administration, Whitney was United States Secretary of the Navy, and did much to develop the United States Navy. Whitney promoted the adoption by industry of the technology needed for the construction of steamships and modern naval guns. He also reorganized the finances and logistics of the Navy Department and these constituted the nucleus of the New Navy During Whitneys four years in the cabinet, his home in Washington, D. C. was a social center of great attraction. In 1888, Yale conferred upon him the degree of LL. D. Whitney joined Charles T. Barney, Henry F. Dimock, stokes, Francis W. Jenks, and others in forming the New York Loan and Improvement Company in 1890. This concern developed the Washington Heights section of New York City, Barney was president of the company when he died in 1907, three years after Whitney. In opposition to Tammany, Whitney was instrumental in bringing about the nomination of Cleveland in 1892. Other early investors included Henry F. Dimock, Almeric H. Paget, in the next general election, in 1896, disapproving of the free-silver agitation, Whitney refused to support his partys candidate, William Jennings Bryan
43.
Thomas Fortune Ryan
–
Thomas Fortune Ryan was an American tobacco, insurance and transportation magnate. Although he lived in New York City for much of his adult career, in addition to paying for schools, hospitals and other charitable works, Ryans donations paid for the construction of the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart in Richmond, Virginia. Rural Virginia where Ryan grew up attracted few of those emigrants, Ryans father was a tailor and managed a small hotel. He traced his ancestry to Protestant Anglo-Irish settlers who came to North America in the seventeenth century, Ryans mother, Lucinda Fortune Ryan, died in 1856 when he was five years old. His father remarried and moved to Tennessee two years later, Ryan was raised as a Protestant by his mothers extended family in Lovingston, south of Charlottesville in Virginias Piedmont. Local Baptist ministers taught the youth to read and write, before the American Civil War, Ryan and his younger brother owned three slaves. Aged 17, three years after the war ended, Ryan fled the lack of opportunity for post-war Virginia and so moved to the nearest big city, Baltimore. En route, Ryan converted to Catholicism, purportedly after long discussions with the conductor, in Baltimore, John S. Barry, a prosperous dry goods merchant and Catholic, hired young Ryan. By 1872, Barry helped Ryan secure an assistant position on Wall Street where he would be tutored by William Collins Whitney. Ryan opened a firm with two partners, Lee, Ryan & Warren, the following year. In 1873 Ryan married his bosss daughter, Ida Mary Barry. In 1874, his firm purchased Ryan a seat on the New York Stock Exchange, at the same time, Ryan became active in politics, especially the Tammany Hall machine that controlled much of the citys operations, giving him political and industrial contacts across the city. Ryans fortune began in public transit, in 1883, he founded the New York Cable Railroad and bid on the proposed route from lower Manhattan to Midtown. After numerous legal and financial problems, in 1886 Ryan reorganized his cable railroad as the Metropolitan Traction Company, by 1893, construction of Ryans rail system was underway on Broadway. Metropolitan continually acquired additional lines so that by 1900 it controlled 3,000 cars and 300 miles of track the majority of New York’s streetcar operations, Ryans most profitable investment was tobacco. Having invested in its stocks throughout the 1890s, Ryan joined tobacco assets in 1898, shortly thereafter, he merged Union Tobacco with his greatest competitor, James Duke of North Carolina, forming the American Tobacco Company. Together Ryan and Duke developed the British-American Tobacco Company to protect American tobacco trade in Europe, upon his death, Ryan also had major holdings in R. J. Reynolds and Liggett & Myers. In 1905, amid public outcry, Ryan purchased the $400-million-strong Equitable Life Assurance Society, although Ryan strove to make Equitable more responsive to its policy holders, public reaction to his purchase was overwhelmingly negative
.jpg)
