1.
Barnesville, Ohio
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Barnesville is a village in Belmont County, Ohio, United States. It is located in the portion of Warren Township in Belmont County and is part of the Wheeling. The population was 4,193 at the 2010 census, the town was named after James Barnes, who was the first settler. Barnes was born in Montgomery County, Maryland and was married to Nancy Harrison, Barnes owned a farm in Montgomery County, and later laid out a town there, also known as Barnesville, Maryland, where he operated a country store for a time. In 1803, he moved to Ohio, settling first in St. Clairsville, in 1806 Barnes settled in Warren Township, Belmont County and cleared away the forest and built a house, established a tannery and general store and planted orchards. In November 1808, the town of Barnesville was laid out, Barnesville was described in 1833 as having six stores and a steam mill. Barnesville was incorporated as a village in 1835, Barnesville is located at 39°59′17″N 81°10′32″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 1.95 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 4,193 people,1,763 households, the population density was 2,161.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 2,011 housing units at a density of 1,036.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 97. 0% White,0. 9% African American,0. 1% Native American,0. 3% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 6% of the population. 32. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.82. The median age in the village was 41.4 years. 21. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,8. 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24,23. 9% were from 25 to 44,25. 5% were from 45 to 64, and 20. 5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 46. 2% male and 53. 8% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 4,225 people,1,769 households, and 1,119 families residing in the village. The population density was 2,196.6 people per square mile, there were 1,964 housing units at an average density of 1,021.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 98. 41% White,0. 71% African American,0. 07% Native American,0. 17% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 26% of the population. 33. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.94
2.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
3.
Newtonville, Massachusetts
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Newtonville is a village of Newton, Massachusetts. Newtonville is a residential neighborhood. It is divided into two parts by the Massachusetts Turnpike and MBTA commuter rail, which runs through it below grade, so that there are several bridges over the turnpike. The Star Market on Austin Street was one of the first projects in the country to buy air rights for construction, Newtonville was once served by the now defunct Newton Nexus bus, a free service provided by the city of Newton. Walnut Street is the street of the village. The urban section of the road is home to restaurants, bakeries, and cafes, several banks, a specialty store, multiple fitness centers. Branching off of Walnut is the Austin Street commercial area, which sports a Starbucks, located in Newtonville is Newton North High School, one of the citys two high schools. Also located in Newtonville is the MBTA Commuter Rail train station, which is serviced by the buses 59,553,554, and 556
4.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
5.
Elliott Cresson Medal
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The Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute. The award was established by Elliott Cresson, life member of the Franklin Institute, the medal was first awarded in 1875,21 years after Cressons death. The Franklin Institute continued awarding the medal on a basis until 1998 when they reorganized their endowed awards under one umbrella. A total of 268 Elliott Cresson Medals were given out during the awards lifetime
6.
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886
7.
Western Electric
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Western Electric Company was an American electrical engineering and manufacturing company that served as the primary supplier to AT&T from 1881 to 1996. The company was responsible for technological innovations and seminal developments in industrial management. It also served as the agent for the member companies of the Bell System. In 1856, George Shawk purchased an engineering business in Cleveland. On December 31,1869, he partners with Enos M. Barton and, later the same year. In 1872 Barton, and Gray moved the business to Clinton Street, Chicago, Illinois, in 1875, Gray sold his interests to Western Union, including the caveat that he had filed against Alexander Graham Bells patent application for the telephone. Western Electric was the first company to join in a Japanese joint venture with foreign capital, in 1899, it invested in a 54% share of the Nippon Electric Company, Ltd. Western Electrics representative in Japan was Walter Tenney Carleton, in 1901, Western Electric secretly purchased a controlling interest in a principal competitor, the Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company, but was later forced by a lawsuit to sell. On July 24,1915, employees of the Hawthorne Works boarded the SS Eastland in downtown Chicago for a company picnic, the ship rolled over at the dock and over 800 people died. In 1920, Alice Heacock Seidel was the first of Western Electrics female employees to be given permission to stay on after she had married and this set a precedent in the company, which previously had not allowed married women in their employ. Miss Heacock had worked for Western Electric for sixteen years before her marriage, if the women at the top were permitted to remain after marriage then all women would expect the same privilege. How far and how fast the policy was expanded is shown by the fact that a few years later women were given maternity leaves with no loss of time on their service records. In 1925, ITT purchased the Bell Telephone Manufacturing Company of Brussels, Belgium, the company manufactured rotary system switching equipment under the Western Electric brand. Early on, Western Electric also managed an electrical equipment distribution business, Bell Telephone Laboratories was half-owned by Western Electric, the other half belonging to AT&T. Western Electric used various logos during its existence, starting in 1914 it used an image of AT&Ts statue Spirit of Communication. In 1915, Western Electric Manufacturing was incorporated in New York, New York, as an owned subsidiary of AT&T, under the name Western Electric Company. AT&T and Bell System companies were rumored to employ small armies of inspectors to check household line voltage levels to determine if non-leased phones were in use by consumers. Western Electric telephones were owned not by end customers but by the local Bell System telephone companies—all of which were subsidiaries of AT&T, each phone was leased from the phone company on a monthly basis by customers who generally paid for their phone as part of the recurring lease fees
8.
Invention of the telephone
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The invention of the telephone was the culmination of work done by many individuals, and involved an array of lawsuits founded upon the patent claims of several individuals and numerous companies. The concept of the dates back to the string telephone or lovers telephone that has been known for centuries. Sound waves are carried as mechanical vibrations along the string or wire from one diaphragm to the other. The classic example is the tin can telephone, a toy made by connecting the two ends of a string to the bottoms of two metal cans, paper cups or similar items. The essential idea of this toy was that a diaphragm can collect voice sounds from the air, as in the ear, gausss and Webers invention is purported to be the worlds first electromagnetic telegraph. In 1840, American Charles Grafton Page passed a current through a coil of wire placed between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. He observed that connecting and disconnecting the current caused a sound in the magnet. He called this effect galvanic music, innocenzo Manzetti considered the idea of a telephone as early as 1844, and may have made one in 1864, as an enhancement to an automaton built by him in 1849. Charles Bourseul was a French telegraph engineer who proposed the first design of a telephone in 1854. That is about the time that Meucci later claimed to have created his first attempt at the telephone in Italy. It is certain that, in a more or less distant future, I have made experiments in this direction, they are delicate and demand time and patience, but the approximations obtained promise a favourable result. The Reis transmitter was very difficult to the operate, since the position of the needle. Prior to 1947, the Reis device was tested by the British company Standard Telephones and Cables, the results also confirmed it could faintly transmit and receive speech. An early voice communicating device was invented around 1854 by Antonio Meucci, in 1871 Meucci filed a caveat at the US Patent Office. The first American demonstration of Meuccis invention took place in Staten Island, in the 1880s Meucci was credited with the early invention of inductive loading of telephone wires to increase long-distance signals. Unfortunately, serious burns from an accident, a lack of English, Meucci demonstrated some sort of instrument in 1849 in Havana, Cuba, however this may have been a variant of a string telephone that used wire. Meucci has been credited with invention of an anti-sidetone circuit. However, examination showed that his solution to sidetone was to two separate telephone circuits, and thus use twice as many transmission wires
9.
Highland Park, Illinois
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Highland Park is an affluent suburban city in Lake County, Illinois, United States, about 25 miles north of downtown Chicago. As of the 2010 census, the population was 29,763, Highland Park is one of several municipalities located on the North Shore of the Chicago metropolitan area. Highland Park was founded in 1869 with a population of 500, Highland Park was named from its parklike setting at a lofty elevation relative to the lake. The town annexed the village of Ravinia in 1899, Highland Park has several attractions including a vibrant downtown shopping district and the Ravinia Festival. Ravinia Festival is an open-air pavilion seating 3,200, which hosts classical, pop and it has been the summer home of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra since 1936. Concert-goers can purchase seats in the pavilion or tickets to sit on the lawn. Many visitors arrive early and picnic on the lawn before and during the concerts, the Ravinia Festival is located in the Ravinia District, originally an artists colony which still retains much of its early character and architecture. Highland Park has several structures listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Landscape architect Jens Jensen lived in Highland Park and designed a number of projects in the community that are listed on the register, there are two public beaches in Highland Park, Rosewood Beach and Park Avenue Beach. Highland Park is also home to the North Shore Yacht Club. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the city has an area of 12.2 square miles, of which 12.2 square miles is land and 0.039 square miles. Its geographic features include a 100-foot-high bluff running along 6 miles of Lake Michigan shoreline and deep, elevations range from 580 to 725 feet above sea level. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 29,763 people residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 91. 05% White,1. 84% Black or African American,2. 9% Asian,0. 18% Native American,0. 03% Pacific Islander,2. 51% of some other race and 1. 48% of two or more races. As of the census of 2000, there were 31,365 people,11,521 households, the population density was 2,537.5 people per square mile. There were 11,934 housing units at a density of 965. 5/sq mi. The racial makeup of the city was 91. 20% White,1. 78% African American,0. 08% Native American,2. 28% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,3. 46% from other races, and 1. 18% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8. 90% of the population,19. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
10.
Alexander Graham Bell
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Alexander Graham Bell was a Scottish-born scientist, inventor, engineer, and innovator who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone. Bells father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech and his research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in Bell being awarded the first U. S. patent for the telephone in 1876. Bell considered his most famous invention an intrusion on his work as a scientist. Many other inventions marked Bells later life, including groundbreaking work in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Although Bell was not one of the 33 founders of the National Geographic Society, he had a influence on the magazine while serving as the second president from January 7,1898. Alexander Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3,1847, the family home was at 16 South Charlotte Street, and has a stone inscription marking it as Alexander Graham Bells birthplace. He had two brothers, Melville James Bell and Edward Charles Bell, both of whom would die of tuberculosis and his father was Professor Alexander Melville Bell, a phonetician, and his mother was Eliza Grace. Born as just Alexander Bell, at age 10, he made a plea to his father to have a name like his two brothers. To close relatives and friends he remained Aleck, as a child, young Bell displayed a natural curiosity about his world, resulting in gathering botanical specimens as well as experimenting even at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill, young Bell asked what needed to be done at the mill. In return, Bens father John Herdman gave both boys the run of a workshop in which to invent. From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, with no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the familys pianist. Despite being normally quiet and introspective, he revelled in mimicry and he also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mothers forehead wherein she would hear him with reasonable clarity. Bells preoccupation with his mothers deafness led him to study acoustics and his family was long associated with the teaching of elocution, his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle in Dublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are well known, especially his The Standard Elocutionist. The Standard Elocutionist appeared in 168 British editions and sold over a quarter of a million copies in the United States alone, in this treatise, his father explains his methods of how to instruct deaf-mutes to articulate words and read other peoples lip movements to decipher meaning. Bells father taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but to any symbol. Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his fathers public demonstrations, as a young child, Bell, like his brothers, received his early schooling at home from his father
11.
Synthesizer
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A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate instruments like piano, Hammond organ, flute, vocals, natural sounds like ocean waves, etc. or generate new electronic timbres. Synthesizers without built-in controllers are called sound modules, and are controlled via USB, MIDI or CV/gate using a controller device. Synthesizers use various methods to generate electronic signals, synthesizers were first used in pop music in the 1960s. In the 1970s, synths were used in disco, especially in the late 1970s, in the 1980s, the invention of the relatively inexpensive, mass market Yamaha DX7 synth made synthesizers widely available. 1980s pop and dance music often made use of synthesizers. In the 2010s, synthesizers are used in genres of pop, rock. Contemporary classical music composers from the 20th and 21st century write compositions for synthesizer, the beginnings of the synthesizer are difficult to trace, as it is difficult to draw a distinction between synthesizers and some early electric or electronic musical instruments. One of the earliest electric musical instruments, the telegraph, was invented in 1876 by American electrical engineer Elisha Gray. He accidentally discovered the sound generation from a self-vibrating electromechanical circuit and this musical telegraph used steel reeds with oscillations created by electromagnets transmitted over a telegraph line. Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, consisting of a diaphragm in a magnetic field. This instrument was a remote electromechanical musical instrument that used telegraphy, though it lacked an arbitrary sound-synthesis function, some have erroneously called it the first synthesizer. In 1897, Thaddeus Cahill invented the Teleharmonium, which used dynamos, and was capable of additive synthesis like the Hammond organ, however, Cahills business was unsuccessful for various reasons, and similar but more compact instruments were subsequently developed, such as electronic and tonewheel organs. In 1906, American engineer, Lee De Forest ushered in the electronics age and he invented the first amplifying vacuum tube, called the Audion tube. This led to new entertainment technologies, including radio and sound films, ondes Martenot and Trautonium were continuously developed for several decades, finally developing qualities similar to later synthesizers. In the 1920s, Arseny Avraamov developed various systems of graphic sonic art, in 1938, USSR engineer Yevgeny Murzin designed a compositional tool called ANS, one of the earliest real-time additive synthesizers using optoelectronics. The earliest polyphonic synthesizers were developed in Germany and the United States, during the three years that Hammond manufactured this model,1,069 units were shipped, but production was discontinued at the start of World War II. Both instruments were the forerunners of the electronic organs and polyphonic synthesizers
12.
Graybar
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Graybar is an American employee-owned corporation, based in Clayton, Missouri. It conducts a wholesale business for electrical, communications and data networking products. It is included on the Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations, founded in 1869 in Cleveland, Ohio, by Elisha Gray and Enos Barton, it was the origin of the Western Electric Company. On December 11,1925, it was incorporated as Graybar Electric Company. During the post-Civil War Reconstruction Era, an entrepreneur named Enos Barton worked for Western Union in Rochester, during this period, Barton met George Shawk, the foreman of the companys Cleveland, Ohio shop. When that shop was closed down, Shawk bought some of the equipment and went into business for himself, making various kinds of electrical and other apparatus, while on a trip to Rochester, he and Barton, who was then 26, agreed to go into partnership. To raise the $400 her son needed for his share of the business venture, the new firm, located at 93 St. Clair Street in Cleveland, grew. In May 1869, Elisha Gray, an Oberlin College professor and inventor of telegraphic equipment, up until then, Gray had been one of the firms top customers. He had invented a needle annunciator for hotels and elevators, a telautograph, Gray and Barton joined forces with an investment of $2,500 each, with Gray as the senior partner. The success of the new company attracted the attention of General Anson Stager and he offered to enter the business as an equal partner with Gray and Barton, providing the companys headquarters was moved from Cleveland to Chicago, Illinois. In December 1869, the moved to 162 S. The great Great Chicago Fire in 1871 came within two blocks of its small plant, the destruction caused by the fire resulted in greater growth for Gray & Barton, as the company sold fire alarms and helped rebuild the Western Union infrastructure in the city. After several relocations, all in Chicago, the business was incorporated as the Western Electric Manufacturing Company in 1872 to meet the requirements of the telegraph supply business. The new company so closely allied with the elder Western that three of its five directors were Western Union executives, moreover, Stager was named president, although it was Barton as secretary/treasurer who actually handled day-to-day affairs. In 1876, he filed a caveat with the U. S, patent Office, announcing his intention to soon patent an invention that would transmit vocal sounds telegraphically. Gray dubbed his telephone the harmonic telegraph, only hours earlier, however, Alexander Graham Bell applied for a patent for the same idea, which became known as the telephone. As it turned out, what Bell actually patented would have never worked, therefore it was Bells patent and not Gray’s that launched the telecommunications industry. Stager served as president of Western Electric until shortly before his death in 1885, Western Electric Company was the first company to join in a Japanese joint venture with foreign capital
13.
Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
14.
Oberlin College
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Oberlin College is a private liberal arts college in Oberlin, Ohio. The college was founded as the Oberlin Collegiate Institute in 1833 by John Jay Shipherd and it is the oldest coeducational liberal arts college in the United States and the second oldest continuously operating coeducational institute of higher learning in the world. The Oberlin Conservatory of Music, part of the college, is the oldest continuously operating conservatory in the United States, the College of Arts & Sciences offers more than 50 majors, minors, and concentrations. Oberlin is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association and the Five Colleges of Ohio consortium, both the college and the town of Oberlin were founded in northern Ohio in 1833 by a pair of Presbyterian ministers, John Jay Shipherd and Philo Stewart. The College was built on 500 acres of land donated by the previous owners, Titus Street, founder of Streetsboro, Ohio, and Samuel Hughes. Shipherd and Stewert named their project after Jean-Frédéric Oberlin, an Alsatian minister whom they both admired, the ministers vision was for both a religious community and school. Oberlins founders bragged that Oberlin is peculiar in that which is good, asa Mahan accepted the position as first President of the Oberlin Collegiate Institute in 1835, simultaneously serving as the chair of intellectual and moral philosophy and a professor of theology. The college had some difficult beginnings, and Rev. John Keep, a nondenominational seminary, Oberlins Graduate School of Theology, was established alongside the college in 1833. Oberlins role as an educator of African-American students prior to the Civil War, in 1844, Oberlin College graduated its first black student, George B. Vashon, who one of the founding professors at Howard University. The African Americans of Oberlin and those attending Oberlin College have experienced intense challenges and its African American and other students of color have used education and activism to influence the college, the town, and beyond. Their efforts have helped Oberlin remain committed to its values of freedom, social justice, the Colleges approach to African Americans was by no means perfect. Intensely anti-slavery, Oberlin was the college to admit black students in the 1830s. By the 1880s, however, with the fading of evangelical idealism, nonetheless, Oberlin graduates accounted for a significant percentage of African-American college graduates by the end of the 19th century. The college was listed as a National Historic Landmark on December 21,1965, for its significance in admitting African Americans, Oberlin is also the oldest coeducational institution in the United States, having admitted four women in 1837. These four women, who were the first to enter as full students, were Mary Kellogg, Mary Caroline Rudd, Mary Hosford, Mary Jane Patterson graduated in 1862 as the first black woman to earn a B. A. degree. Soon women were integrated into the college, and comprised from a third to half of the student body. The religious founders, especially evangelical theologian Charles Grandison Finney, saw women as morally superior to men
15.
Telegraph
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767
16.
Western Union
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The Western Union Company is an American financial services and communications company. Its North American headquarters is in Meridian, Colorado, though the designation of nearby Englewood is used in its mailing address. Up until it discontinued the service in 2006, Western Union was the best-known U. S. company in the business of exchanging telegrams, Western Union has several divisions, with products such as person-to-person money transfer, money orders, business payments and commercial services. They offered standard Cablegrams, as well as more products such as Candygrams, Dollygrams. Western Union, as a monopoly, dominated the telegraph industry in the late 19th century. It was the first communications empire and set a pattern for American-style communications businesses as they are known today, meanwhile, Ezra Cornell had bought back one of his bankrupt companies and renamed it the New York & Western Union Telegraph Company. Originally fierce competitors, by 1856 both groups were convinced that consolidation was their only alternative for progress. The merged company was named the Western Union Telegraph Company at Cornells insistence, Western Union bought out smaller companies rapidly, and by 1860 its lines reached from the East Coast to the Mississippi River, and from the Great Lakes to the Ohio River. In 1861 it opened the first transcontinental telegraph, in 1865 it formed the Russian–American Telegraph in an attempt to link America to Europe, via Alaska, into Siberia, to Moscow. The company enjoyed phenomenal growth during the few years. Under the leadership of presidents Jeptha Wade and William Orton its capitalization rose from $385,700 in 1858 to $41 million in 1876. However it was top-heavy with stock issues, and faced growing competition from several firms, in 1881 Gould took control of Western Union. It introduced the first stock ticker in 1866, and a time service in 1870. The next year,1871, the company introduced its money transfer service, in 1879, Western Union left the telephone business, having lost a patent lawsuit with Bell Telephone Company. As the telephone replaced the telegraph, money transfer would become its primary business, when the Dow Jones Transportation Average stock market index for the New York Stock Exchange was created in 1884, Western Union was one of the original eleven all-American companies tracked. By 1900, Western Union operated a million miles of telegraph lines, the company continued to grow, acquiring more than 500 smaller competitors. Its monopoly power was almost complete in 1943 when it bought Postal Telegraph, in 1914, Western Union offered the first charge card for consumers, in 1923 it introduced teletypewriters to join its branches. Singing telegrams followed in 1933, intercity fax in 1935, in 1958, it began offering Telex service to customers in New York City
17.
Anson Stager
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He was born in Ontario County, New York. At age sixteen, Stager began working as an apprentice on the Rochester Daily Advertiser for a printer and telegraph builder named Henry OReilly of Rochester, New York. In the spring of 1848, he was chief operator of the National lines at Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1852 Stager was promoted to superintendent, and also served as the first general superintendent of Western Union Company, newly consolidated in 1856. After the Civil War broke out in April 1861, Stager was requested by Ohio governor William Dennison, Jr. to manage the telegraphs in southern Ohio, Stager obliged and immediately prepared a cipher by which he could securely communicate with those who had the key. In October he was called to Washington and appointed head of the Military Telegraph Department and he remained in service until September,1868, and was made a brevet brigadier general of volunteers for valuable services. In 1869 General Stager moved to Chicago, Illinois, where he served as president of Western Electric and he was also president of the Chicago Telephone Company and president of the Western Edison Company, and secured a consolidation of the two. Anson Stager died in Chicago, Illinois on March 26,1885 and was survived by three daughters, list of American Civil War generals Robert Luther Thompson, Wiring A Continent, The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, Princeton University Press,1947
18.
J. P. Morgan
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John Pierpont J. P. Morgan was an American financier and banker who dominated corporate finance and industrial consolidation in late 19th and early 20th Century United States. In 1892, Morgan arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and he was instrumental in the creation of the United States Steel Corporation, International Harvester and AT&T. He directed the banking coalition that stopped the Panic of 1907 and he was the leading financier of the Progressive Era, and his dedication to efficiency and modernization helped transform American business. Morgan has been described as America’s greatest banker, Morgan died in Rome, Italy, in his sleep in 1913 at the age of 75, leaving his fortune and business to his son, John Pierpont Morgan, Jr. His fortune was estimated at only US$80 million, prompting John D. Rockefeller to say, Morgan was born into the influential Morgan family in Hartford, Connecticut, and was raised there. He was the son of Junius Spencer Morgan and Juliet Pierpont, Pierpont, as he preferred to be known, had a varied education due in part to the plans of his father. In the fall of 1848, Pierpont transferred to the Hartford Public School and then to the Episcopal Academy in Cheshire, Connecticut, boarding with the principal. In September 1851, Morgan passed the exam for The English High School of Boston. In the spring of 1852, an illness struck which was to more common as his life progressed. Rheumatic fever left him in so much pain that he could not walk and he convalesced there for almost a year, then returned to the English High School in Boston to resume his studies. After he graduated, his father sent him to Bellerive, a school near the Swiss village of Vevey and his father then sent him to the University of Göttingen in order to improve his German. He attained a level of German within six months and also a degree in art history, then traveled back to London via Wiesbaden. Morgan went into banking in 1857 at the London branch of merchant banking firm Peabody, in 1858, he moved to New York City to join the banking house of Duncan, Sherman & Company, the American representatives of George Peabody and Company. Morgan had avoided serving during the war by paying a substitute $300 to take his place, from 1860 to 1864, as J. Pierpont Morgan & Company, he acted as agent in New York for his fathers firm, renamed J. S. Morgan & Co. upon Peabodys retirement in 1864, from 1864–72, he was a member of the firm of Dabney, Morgan, and Company. In 1871, he partnered with the Drexels of Philadelphia to form the New York firm of Drexel, at that time, Anthony J. Drexel became Pierponts mentor at the request of Junius Morgan. After the death of Anthony Drexel, the firm was rechristened J. P. Morgan & Company in 1895, retaining close ties with Drexel & Company of Philadelphia, Morgan, Harjes & Company of Paris, and J. S. By 1900, it was one of the most powerful banking houses of the world, Morgan had many partners over the years, such as George W. Perkins, but always remained firmly in charge
19.
United States Patent and Trademark Office
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The USPTO is unique among federal agencies because it operates solely on fees collected by its users, and not on taxpayer dollars. The USPTO is based in Alexandria, Virginia, after a 2005 move from the Crystal City area of neighboring Arlington, the head of the USPTO is Michelle K. Lee. She took up her new role on January 13,2014, on March 13, she formally took office as Director after being nominated by President Barack Obama and confirmed by the U. S. Senate. She formerly served as the Director of the USPTOs Silicon Valley satellite office, the USPTO cooperates with the European Patent Office and the Japan Patent Office as one of the Trilateral Patent Offices. The USPTO mission is to maintain a permanent, interdisciplinary historical record of all U. S. patent applications in order to fulfill objectives outlined in the United States Constitution. The legal basis for the United States patent system is Article 1, Section 8, an additional building in Arlington, Virginia, was opened in 2009. The USPTO was expected by 2014 to open its first ever satellite offices in Detroit, Dallas, Denver, the first satellite office opened in Detroit on July 13,2012. In 2013, due to the sequestration, the satellite office for Silicon Valley. However, renovation and infrastructure updates continued after the sequestration, and the Silicon Valley location is due to open in San Jose City Hall in mid-2015. As of September 30,2009, the end of the U. S. governments fiscal year, of those,6,242 were patent examiners and 388 were trademark examining attorneys, the rest are support staff. They are generally newly graduated scientists and engineers, recruited from universities around the nation. They hold degrees in scientific disciplines, but who do not necessarily hold law degrees. Unlike patent examiners, trademark examiners must be licensed attorneys, all examiners work under a strict, count-based production system. For every application, counts are earned by composing, filing, and mailing a first office action on the merits, the Patent Operations of the office is divided into nine different technology centers that deal with various arts. Prior to 2012, decisions of patent examiners may be appealed to the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences, the United States Supreme Court may ultimately decide on a patent case. Similarly, decisions of trademark examiners may be appealed to the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board, with subsequent appeals directed to the Federal Circuit, under the America Invents Act, the BPAI was converted to the Patent Trial and Appeal Board or PTAB. In recent years, the USPTO has seen increasing delays between when a patent application is filed and when it issues, to address its workload challenges, the USPTO has undertaken an aggressive program of hiring and recruitment. The USPTO hired 1,193 new patent examiners in Fiscal Year 2006,1,215 new examiners in fiscal 2007, in 2006, USPTO instituted a new training program for patent examiners called the Patent Training Academy
20.
Affidavit
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An affidavit is a written sworn statement of fact voluntarily made by an affiant or deponent under an oath or affirmation administered by a person authorized to do so by law. Such statement is witnessed as to the authenticity of the signature by a taker of oaths. The name is Medieval Latin for he/she has declared upon oath and it is done with the help of court, with a stamp paper. Affidavits may be written in the first or third person, depending on who drafted the document, in some cases, an introductory clause, called a preamble, is added attesting that the affiant personally appeared before the authenticating authority. On 2 March 2016, the High Court of Australia held that the ACT Uniform Evidence Legislation is neutral in the way sworn evidence and unsworn evidence is treated as being of equal weight. In Indian law, although an affidavit may be taken as proof of the facts stated therein, affidavit is treated as evidence within the meaning of Section 3 of the Evidence Act. Therefore, an affidavit cannot ordinarily be used as evidence in absence of an order of the Court. Affidavits are made in a way as to England and Wales. A declaration may be substituted for an affidavit in most cases for those opposed to swearing oaths, the person making the affidavit is known as the deponent but does not sign the affidavit. In American jurisprudence, under the rules for hearsay, admission of an affidavit as evidence is unusual with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear, may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of corroborating evidence. An affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the close in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witnesss recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence, affidavits are typically included in the response to interrogatories. Requests for admissions under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 36, however, are not required to be sworn, some types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence, in support of the need for the motion. The lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by him, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including disbarment. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent, the acceptance of an affidavit by one society does not confirm its acceptance as a legal document in other jurisdictions. Equally, the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court is not a given, thus most affidavits now require to be apostilled if used for cross border issues
21.
Augustus Hill Garland
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Augustus Hill Garland was an Arkansas lawyer and politician. Garland was born in Covington, Tennessee, on June 11,1832, to Rufus and his parents moved to Lost Prairie in Arkansas in 1833, his father owning a store. Rufus Garland died several years later, and in 1836 his mother married Thomas Hubbard, Hubbard moved the family to Washington, Arkansas, near the Hempstead County seat of Hope. Garland attended Spring Hill Male Academy from 1838 to 1843 and he attended St. Marys College in Lebanon, Kentucky, and graduated from St. Josephs College in Bardstown, Kentucky, in 1849. He married Sarah Virginia Sanders on June 14,1853, they had nine children, Garland moved to Little Rock in June 1856, and Garland became a law partner to Ebenezer Cummins, a former associate of Albert Pike. Garland became one of Arkansass most prominent attorneys and was admitted to the bar of the Supreme Court of the United States in 1860, the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency of the United States led to the secession of the Deep South states from the Union. Garland consistently opposed secession and advocated Arkansass continued allegiance to the United States and he was elected to represent Pulaski County at the 1861 secession convention in Little Rock, where he voiced his opposition. After Lincoln called for 75,000 troops from Arkansas to help suppress the Confederate States and he was reelected in 1863, and in 1864 was appointed to the Confederate States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Charles B. He returned to Arkansas in February 1865, when it was clear the Confederacy was about to lose, at the end of the Civil War, Garland was pardoned by President Andrew Johnson on July 15,1865. Garland became the petitioner in the case of Ex parte Garland in which he made the argument that it was unconstitutional, on January 14,1867, by a vote of five to four, the Court agreed. He then pushed the Supreme Court to hear the case of Mississippi v. Johnson which challenged the constitutionality of those acts, however the Court refused. Garland was elected to the United States Senate for a beginning in 1867. He continued practicing law and observing the scene from a distance. S. During the conflict known as the Brooks-Baxter War, he sided with Governor Elisha Baxter and was a primary strategist for him and he was an advisor and constitutional scholar at the next state constitutional convention and, with strong support from the Democratic Party, was elected Governor of Arkansas. With help from the board, the debt was significantly lowered in two years time. Garland was a supporter of better education. Under his administration, he oversaw the creation of the Arkansas Bureau of Statistics. Garland ran successfully for the United States Senate in 1876 and was reelected in 1883, in the Senate, he served as a member of the Committees on Public Lands, the Territories and the Judiciary, serving as chairman of the Territories Committee in the 46th Congress
22.
Telautograph
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It was the first such device to transmit drawings to a stationary sheet of paper, previous inventions in Europe had used rotating drums to make such transmissions. The telautographs invention is attributed to Elisha Gray, who patented it on July 31,1888, grays patent stated that the telautograph would allow one to transmit his own handwriting to a distant point over a two-wire circuit. It was the first facsimile machine in which the stylus was controlled by horizontal and vertical bars, the telautograph was first publicly exhibited at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition held in Chicago. What you write in Chicago is instantly reproduced here in fac-simile and you may write in any language, use a code or cipher, no matter, a fac-simile is produced here. If you want to draw a picture it is the same, the artist of your newspaper can, by this device, telegraph his pictures of a railway wreck or other occurrences just as a reporter telegraphs his description in words. By the end of the 19th century, the telautograph was modified by Foster Ritchie, calling it the telewriter, Ritchies version of the telautograph could be operated using a telephone line for simultaneous copying and speaking. Teleautograph systems were installed in a number of railroad stations to relay hand-written reports of train movements from the interlocking tower to various parts of the station. The teleautograph network in Grand Central Terminal included a display in the main concourse into the 1960s. A Telautograph was used in 1911 to warn workers on the 10th floor about the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire that had broken out two floors below. An example of a Telautograph machine writing script can be seen in the 1956 movie Earth vs the Flying Saucers as the device for the mechanical translator. Telautograph Corporation changed its name several times, in 1971, it was acquired by Arden/Mayfair. In 1993, Danka Industries purchased the company and renamed it Danka/Omnifax, in 1999, Xerox corporation purchased the company and called it the Omnifax division, which has since been absorbed by the corporation. Archive of Xerox Omnifax Division website, the successor to Telautograph Corporation, Telautograph historical description Patent images in TIFF format U. S. Patent 0,386,814 Art of Telegraphy, issued July 1888 U. S, Patent 0,386,815 Telautograph, issued July 1888 U. S. Patent 0,461, 470Telautograph, issued October 1891 U. S, Patent 0,461,472 Art of and Apparatus for Telautographic Communication, issued October 1891 U. S. Patent 0,491,347 Telautograph, issued February 1893 U. S, Patent 0,494,562 Telautograph, issued April 1893
23.
Xerox
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Xerox Corporation /ˈzɪərɒks/ is an American global corporation that sells document solutions and services, and document technology products in more than 160 countries. Xerox is headquartered in Norwalk, Connecticut, though its largest population of employees is based around Rochester, New York, the company purchased Affiliated Computer Services for $6.4 billion in early 2010. As a large developed company, it is placed in the list of Fortune 500 companies. Xerox completed the separation of Conduent Incorporated effective on Dec.31,2016, creating two market-leading, publicly- traded companies. In connection with the spin-off, Xerox received a transfer from Conduent of $1.8 billion. Xerox continues to trade on the NYSE under the ticker symbol “XRX”, researchers at Xerox and its Palo Alto Research Center invented several important elements of personal computing, such as the desktop metaphor GUI, the computer mouse and desktop computing. These concepts were frowned upon by the board of directors. The concepts were adopted by Apple and, later, Microsoft, with the help of these innovations, Apple and Microsoft came to dominate the personal computing revolution of the 1980s, whereas Xerox was not a major player. Xerox was founded in 1906 in Rochester as The Haloid Photographic Company, in 1938 Chester Carlson, a physicist working independently, invented a process for printing images using an electrically charged photoconductor-coated metal plate and dry powder toner. However, it would more than 20 years of refinement before the first automated machine to make copies was commercialized, using a document feeder, scanning light. Wilson, credited as the founder of Xerox, took over Haloid from his father and he saw the promise of Carlsons invention and, in 1946, signed an agreement to develop it as a commercial product. Wilson remained as President/CEO of Xerox until 1967 and served as Chairman until his death in 1971, looking for a term to differentiate its new system, Haloid coined the term Xerography from two Greek roots meaning dry writing. Haloid subsequently changed its name to Haloid Xerox in 1958 and then Xerox Corporation in 1961, before releasing the 914, Xerox tested the market by introducing a developed version of the prototype hand-operated equipment known as the Flat-plate 1385. The 1385 was not actually a viable copier because of its speed of operation and it was little more than a high quality, commercially available plate camera mounted as a horizontal rostrum camera, complete with photo-flood lighting and timer. The glass film/plate had been replaced with an aluminum plate. Clever electrics turned this into a developing and reusable substitute for film. A skilled user could produce fast, paper and metal printing plates of a higher quality than almost any other method, having started as a supplier to the offset lithography duplicating industry, Xerox now set its sights on capturing some of offsets market share. The 1385 was followed by the first automatic xerographic printer, the Copyflo, the Copyflo was a large microfilm printer which could produce positive prints on roll paper from any type of microfilm negative
24.
World's Columbian Exposition
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The Worlds Columbian Exposition was a worlds fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World in 1492. The centerpiece of the Fair, the water pool, represented the long voyage Columbus took to the New World. Chicago bested New York City, Washington, D. C. the Exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on architecture, sanitation, the arts, Chicagos self-image, and American industrial optimism. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was, in part, designed by John Wellborn Root, Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted. It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be and it was designed to follow Beaux Arts principles of design, namely French neoclassical architecture principles based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the generally used to cover the buildings facades gave the fairgrounds its nickname. Many prominent architects designed its 14 great buildings, artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition. The exposition covered more than 600 acres, featuring nearly 200 new buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture, canals and lagoons, more than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21,1892, the fair continued until October 30,1893. On October 9,1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million. Chicago has commemorated the fair one of the stars on its municipal flag. Schwab, Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnate John Whitfield Bunn, and Connecticut banking, insurance, the fair was planned in the early 1890s during the Gilded Age of rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. Worlds fairs, such as Londons 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition, had been successful in Europe as a way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines, the first American attempt at a worlds fair in Philadelphia in 1876, drew crowds but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC and Chicago expressed an interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, Congress was called on to decide the location. What finally persuaded Congress was Chicago banker Lyman Gage, who raised several million dollars in a 24-hour period, over. The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled on Jackson Park, Daniel H. Burnham was selected as director of works, and George R. Davis as director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the periods top talent to design the buildings, the temporary buildings were designed in an ornate Neoclassical style and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the “White City”
25.
International Electrical Congress
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The International Electrical Congresses were a series of meetings of experts in the then new field of applied electricity. The first International Electrical Congress took place in 1881 at the International Exposition of Electricity, at that time the International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units was agreed to. Other meetings included,1893 in Chicago, at the Worlds Columbian Exposition,1900 in Paris, where meetings led to the creation of the International Electrotechnical Commission in 19061904 held at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, Missouri
26.
Closed-circuit television
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Closed-circuit television, also known as video surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs from broadcast television in that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it may point to point, point to multipoint. Videotelephony is seldom called CCTV but the use of video in distance education, Surveillance of the public using CCTV is common in many areas around the world. In recent years, the use of body worn video cameras has been introduced as a new form of surveillance, video surveillance has generated significant debate about balancing its use with individuals right to privacy even when in public. In industrial plants, CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process from a control room. CCTV systems may operate continuously or only as required to monitor a particular event, a more advanced form of CCTV, utilizing digital video recorders, provides recording for possibly many years, with a variety of quality and performance options and extra features. More recently, decentralized IP cameras, some equipped with sensors, support recording directly to network-attached storage devices. There are about 350 million surveillance cameras worldwide as of 2016, about 65% of these cameras are installed in Asia. The growth of CCTV has been slowing in recent years, the first CCTV system was installed by Siemens AG at Test Stand VII in Peenemünde, Nazi Germany in 1942, for observing the launch of V-2 rockets. The noted German engineer Walter Bruch, Wayne Cox, and Tashara Arnold were responsible for the technological design, in the U. S. the first commercial closed-circuit television system became available in 1949, called Vericon. Very little is known about Vericon except it was advertised as not requiring a government permit, marie Van Brittan Brown invented the home security system. The patent was granted in 1969, browns system had a set of 4 peep-holes and a camera that could slide up and down to look through each one. The system included a device that enabled a homeowner to use a set to view the person at the door. The earliest video surveillance systems involved constant monitoring because there was no way to record, the development of reel-to-reel media enabled the recording of surveillance footage. Due to these shortcomings, video surveillance was not widespread, VCR technology became available in the 1970s, making it easier to record and erase information, and use of video surveillance became more common. During the 1990s, digital multiplexing was developed, allowing cameras to record at once, as well as time lapse. This increased savings of time and money and the led to an increase in the use of CCTV, recently CCTV technology has been enhanced with a shift toward Internet-based products and systems, and other technological developments. In September 1968, Olean, New York was the first city in the United States to install video cameras along its main street in an effort to fight crime
27.
Gray code
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The reflected binary code, also known as Gray code after Frank Gray, is a binary numeral system where two successive values differ in only one bit. The reflected binary code was designed to prevent spurious output from electromechanical switches. Today, Gray codes are used to facilitate error correction in digital communications such as digital terrestrial television. Bell Labs researcher Frank Gray introduced the term reflected binary code in his 1947 patent application and he derived the name from the fact that it may be built up from the conventional binary code by a sort of reflection process. The code was named after Gray by others who used it. Two different 1953 patent applications use Gray code as a name for the reflected binary code, one of those also lists minimum error code. A1954 patent application refers to the Bell Telephone Gray code, many devices indicate position by closing and opening switches. In the transition between the two shown above, all three switches change state. In the brief period while all are changing, the switches will read some spurious position, even without keybounce, the transition might look like 011 —001 —101 —100. When the switches appear to be in position 001, the observer cannot tell if that is the real position 001, if the output feeds into a sequential system, possibly via combinational logic, then the sequential system may store a false value. This is called the property of a Gray code. In the standard Gray coding the least significant bit follows a pattern of 2 on,2 off, the next digit a pattern of 4 on,4 off. These codes are known as single-distance codes, reflecting the Hamming distance of 1 between adjacent codes. Reflected binary codes were applied to mathematical puzzles before they became known to engineers, martin Gardner wrote a popular account of the Gray code in his August 1972 Mathematical Games column in Scientific American. The French engineer Émile Baudot used Gray codes in telegraphy in 1878 and he received the French Legion of Honor medal for his work. The Gray code is attributed, incorrectly, to Elisha Gray. The method and apparatus were patented in 1953 and the name of Gray stuck to the codes. The PCM tube apparatus that Gray patented was made by Raymond W. Sears of Bell Labs, working with Gray and William M. Goodall, Gray codes are used in position encoders, in preference to straightforward binary encoding
28.
Timeline of the telephone
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For the timeline of the smart phone, see Smartphone. This timeline of the telephone covers landline, radio, and cellular technologies and provides many important dates in the history of the telephone. 1667, Robert Hooke creates a string telephone that conveys sounds over a taut extended wire by mechanical vibrations. 1844, Innocenzo Manzetti first suggests the idea of a speaking telegraph. 1849, Antonio Meucci demonstrates a device to individuals in Havana. It is disputed if this is a telephone, but is said to involve direct transmission of electricity into the users body. 1854, Charles Bourseul publishes a description of a telephone transmitter and receiver in LIllustration. 1854, Meucci demonstrates an electric voice-operated device in New York,1860, Johann Philipp Reis of Germany demonstrates a make-and-break transmitter after the design of Bourseul and a knitting-needle receiver. Witnesses said they heard human voices being transmitted,1861, Johann Philipp Reis transfers voice electrically over a distance of 340 feet with his Reis telephone. 1864, In an attempt to give his musical automaton a voice and he shows no interest in patenting his device, but it is reported in newspapers. 1865, Meucci reads of Manzettis invention and writes to the editors of two newspapers claiming priority and quoting his first experiment in 1849 and he writes I do not wish to deny Mr. If he reads Meuccis offer of collaboration, Manzetti does not respond,1871, Meucci files a patent caveat for a Sound Telegraph, but it does not describe an electromagnetic telephone. 1872, Elisha Gray founds the Western Electric Manufacturing Company,1872, Professor Vanderwyde demonstrates Reiss telephone in New York. July 1873, Thomas Edison notes varying resistance in carbon grains due to pressure, may 1874, Gray invents an electromagnet device for transmitting musical tones. Some of his receivers use a metallic diaphragm, July 1874, Alexander Graham Bell conceives the theoretical concept for the telephone while vacationing at his parents farm near Brantford, Canada. Alexander Melville Bell records notes of his sons conversation in his personal journal,29 December 1874, Gray demonstrates his musical tones device and transmits familiar melodies through telegraph wire at the Presbyterian Church in Highland Park, Illinois. 4 May 1875, Bell conceives of using varying resistance in a wire conducting electric current to create a varying current amplitude,2 June 1875, Bell transmits the sound of a plucked steel reed using electromagnet instruments. 1 July 1875, Bell uses a bi-directional gallows telephone that was able to transmit indistinct but voice-like sounds, both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane electromagnet instruments
29.
The Telephone Cases
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The Telephone Cases were a series of U. S. Those telephone patents were relied on by the American Bell Telephone Company, the objector in the notable Supreme Court case was initially the Western Union telegraph company, which was at the time a far larger and better financed competitor than American Bell Telephone. Had Western Union succeeded it would have destroyed the Bell Telephone Company. The U. S. Supreme Court came within one vote of overturning the Bell patent, I had been experimenting in that direction. I don’t remember of getting at it by accident either, I don’t remember of anyone talking to me of it. In this case the court affirmed several other court cases. V American Bell Tel. Co.15 Fed, Rep.604, Molecular Te. Co. et al. V American Bell Tel. Co.32 Fed, Rep 214, Peoples Tel. Co. et al. V American Bell Tel. Co.22 Fed, well reversing American Bell Tel Co. et al. Co et al.32 Fed Rep.214, bell’s second fundamental patent expired on January 30,1894, at which time the gates were then opened to independent telephone companies to compete with the Bell System. The Courts decision in the Telephone Cases is notable for the size of the opinions delivered, together, lawyers, Patents, and the Judgments of History, Technology and Culture, Vol.51, No. 4, October 2010, pp. 854–878, DOI,10. 1353/tech.2010.0038. Volume 126, Supreme Court Judgment 126 U. S.1 Dolbear v. American Bell etc at Open Jurist Volume 126, Supreme Court Judgment 126 U. S.1 Dolbear v. American Bell etc at Justia Legat, reproducing sounds on extra galvanic way. Quote, The Edison National Historical Park archives has seven bound volumes, four of these volumes contain the record of a group of interferences entitled Cases A through L and Case No.1. The disputant parties were Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Elisha Gray, A. E. Dolbear, J. W. McDonough, richmond, William L. Voelker, J. H. Irwin, and Francis Blake, Jr. Although Edisons preliminary statements were filed in September 1878, testimony was not taken until 1880 and this record was printed in 1881. The second volume contains Edisons exhibits, including photo-lithographs of laboratory drawings, patents and patent applications, many of the documents in this numbered series were not selected as exhibits, they remain in the archives at the Edison National Historical Park
30.
Elsevier
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Elsevier is one of the worlds major providers of scientific, technical, and medical information, and a technology company originally established in 1880. It is now a part of the RELX Group, known until 2015 as Reed Elsevier, Elsevier publishes approximately 400,000 articles annually in 2,500 journals. Its archives contain over 13 million documents and 30,000 e-books, total yearly downloads amount to 900 million. Elseviers high profit margins and its practices have subjected it to criticism by researchers. Elsevier was founded in 1880 and took the name from the Dutch publishing house Elzevir which has no connection with the present company, the Elzevir family operated as booksellers and publishers in the Netherlands, the founder, Lodewijk Elzevir, lived in Leiden and established the business in 1580. The expansion of Elsevier in the field after 1945 was funded with the profits of the newsweekly Elsevier. The weekly was an instant success and earned lots of money, in 1947, Elsevier began publishing its first English-language journal, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. In 2013, Elsevier acquired Mendeley, a UK company making software for managing and sharing research papers, Mendeley, previously an open platform for sharing of research, was greatly criticized for the acquisition, which users saw as acceding to the paywall approach to research literature. Mendeleys previously open sharing system now allows exchange of paywalled resources only within private groups, the New Yorker described Elseviers reasons for buying Mendeley as two-fold, to acquire its user data, and to destroy or coöpt an open-science icon that threatens its business model. In December 2013, Elsevier announced a collaboration with University College, London, Elseviers investment is substantial and thought to be more than £10 million. In the primary research market during 2015, researchers submitted over 1. 3m research papers to Elsevier-based publications. Over 17,000 editors managed the peer review and selection of these papers, in 2013, the five editorial groups Elsevier, Springer, Wiley-Blackwell, Taylor & Francis and SAGE Publications published more than half of all academic papers in the peer-reviewed literature. At that time, Elsevier accounted for 16% of the market in science, technology. Elsevier breaks down its revenue sources by format and by geographic region, approximately 41% of revenue by geography in 2014 derived from North America, 27% from Europe and the remaining 32% from the rest of the world. Approximately 76% of revenue by format came from Electronic, 23% came from Print, Elsevier employs more than 7,200 people in over 70 offices across 24 countries. The company publishes 2,500 journals and 30,000 e-books and it is headed by Chief Executive Officer Ron Mobed. In 2015, Elsevier accounted for 35% of the revenues of RELX group, in operating profits, it represented 42%. Adjusted operating profits rose by 2% from 2014 to 2015, following the integration of its Science & Technology and Health Sciences divisions in 2012, Elsevier has operated under a traditional business structure with a single CEO
31.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
32.
A. W. F. Edwards
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Anthony William Fairbank Edwards, FRS is a British statistician, geneticist, and evolutionary biologist, sometimes called Fishers Edwards because he was mentored by Ronald Fisher. Edwards is a Life Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge and retired Professor of Biometry at the University of Cambridge and he has written several books and numerous scientific papers. In a 2003 paper, Edwards criticized Richard Lewontins argument in a 1972 paper that race is an invalid taxonomic construct, Edwards was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2015. His elder brother John H. Edwards was also a geneticist and also an FRS, their father and he was awarded the Telesio-Galilei Academy Award in 2011 for Biology
33.
Johns Hopkins University Press
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The Johns Hopkins University Press is the publishing division of Johns Hopkins University. It was founded in 1878 and is the oldest continuously running university press in the United States, the Press publishes books, journals, and electronic databases. Considering all its units it is a contender for Americas largest university press and its headquarters are in Charles Village, Baltimore. Daniel Coit Gilman, the first president of the Johns Hopkins University, the Press began as the Universitys Publication Agency, publishing the American Journal of Mathematics in its first year and the American Chemical Journal in its second. It published its first book, Sidney Lanier, A Memorial Tribute, in 1891, the Publication Agency became the Johns Hopkins Press, since 1972, it has been known as the Johns Hopkins University Press. After various moves on and off the Universitys Homewood campus, the Press acquired a permanent home in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood in 1993, when it relocated to a renovated former church. Built in 1897, the granite and brick structure was the church of the Saints Philip and James Roman Catholic parish. JHU Press publishes 65 scholarly journals and more than 200 new books each year, since 1993, JHU Press has run Project MUSE, an online provider of more than 550 scholarly journals and more than 20,000 electronic books
34.
Donald Knuth
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Donald Ervin Knuth is an American computer scientist, mathematician, and professor emeritus at Stanford University. He is the author of the multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming and he contributed to the development of the rigorous analysis of the computational complexity of algorithms and systematized formal mathematical techniques for it. In the process he also popularized the asymptotic notation, Knuth strongly opposes granting software patents, having expressed his opinion to the United States Patent and Trademark Office and European Patent Organization. Knuth was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to German-Americans Ervin Henry Knuth and his father had two jobs, running a small printing company and teaching bookkeeping at Milwaukee Lutheran High School. Donald, a student at Milwaukee Lutheran High School, received academic accolades there, for example, in eighth grade, he entered a contest to find the number of words that the letters in Zieglers Giant Bar could be rearranged to create. Although the judges only had 2,500 words on their list, Donald found 4,500 words, as prizes, the school received a new television and enough candy bars for all of his schoolmates to eat. Knuth had a time choosing physics over music as his major at Case Institute of Technology. He also joined Beta Nu Chapter of the Theta Chi fraternity, while studying physics at the Case Institute of Technology, Knuth was introduced to the IBM650, one of the early mainframes. After reading the manual, Knuth decided to rewrite the assembly and compiler code for the machine used in his school. In 1958, Knuth created a program to help his schools basketball team win their games and he assigned values to players in order to gauge their probability of getting points, a novel approach that Newsweek and CBS Evening News later reported on. Knuth was one of the editors of the Engineering and Science Review. In 1963, with mathematician Marshall Hall as his adviser, he earned a PhD in mathematics from the California Institute of Technology, after receiving his PhD, Knuth joined Caltechs faculty as an associate professor. He accepted a commission to write a book on computer programming language compilers and he originally planned to publish this as a single book. As Knuth developed his outline for the book, he concluded that he required six volumes and he published the first volume in 1968. Knuth then left this position to join the Stanford University faculty, Knuth is a writer as well as a computer scientist. Knuth has been called the father of the analysis of algorithms, in the 1970s, Knuth described computer science as a totally new field with no real identity. And the standard of available publications was not that high, a lot of the papers coming out were quite simply wrong. So one of my motivations was to put straight a story that had been very badly told, by 2013, the first three volumes and part one of volume four of his series had been published
35.
The Telephone Gambit
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The Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell controversy concerns the question of whether Gray and Bell invented the telephone independently. This issue is narrower than the question of who deserves credit for inventing the telephone, at issue are roles of each inventors lawyers, the filing of patent documents, and allegations of theft. Bell formed a partnership with two of his students parents, including prominent Boston lawyer Gardiner Hubbard, to fund his research in exchange for shares of any future profits. Elisha Gray was a prominent inventor in Highland Park, Illinois and his Western Electric company was a major supplier to the telegraph company Western Union. In 1874, Bell was in competition with Elisha Gray to be the first to invent a practical harmonic telegraph, in the summer of 1874, Gray developed a harmonic telegraph device using vibrating reeds that could transmit musical tones, but not intelligible speech. In December 1874, he demonstrated it to the public at Highland Park First Presbyterian Church, on February 11,1876, Gray included a diagram for a telephone in his notebook. On February 14, Grays lawyer filed a patent caveat with a similar diagram, the same day, Bells lawyer filed a patent application on the harmonic telegraph, including its use for transmitting vocal sounds. S. Congress had abolished the requirement for patent models in 1870, however, Bells lawyers argued strenuously for an exception to be made in their case, likely on the basis of the Congressional amendment to the patent law. On February 24,1876, Bell traveled to Washington DC, nothing was entered in his lab notebook until his return to Boston on March 7. Bells patent was issued on March 7, on March 8, Bell recorded an experiment in his lab notebook, with a diagram similar to that of Grays patent caveat. Bell finally got his telephone model to work on March 10, in a letter of March 2,1877, Bell admitted to Gray that he was aware Grays caveat had something to do with the vibration of a wire in water — and therefore conflicted with my patent. At this time, Grays caveat was still confidential, in 1879, Bell testified under oath that he discussed in a general way Grays caveat with patent examiner Zenas Fisk Wilber. When patent examiners investigate possible interferences between applications, it was not uncommon for them to ask questions of the inventors directed at the places of possible interference. In an affidavit from April 8,1886, Wilber admitted that he was an alcoholic who owed money to his friend and Civil War Army companion Marcellus Bailey. Wilber says that after he issued the suspension on Bells patent application, in violation of Patent Office rules, he told Bailey about Grays caveat and told his superiors that Bells patent application had arrived first. During Bells visit to Washington, Prof, Bell was with me an hour when I showed him the drawing and explained Grays methods to him. He says Bell returned at 2pm to give him a hundred-dollar bill, Wilbers other affidavits leave out these details. However, Wilbers April 8,1886, affidavit was also sworn to, the April 8 affidavit was published in the Washington Post on May 22,1886
36.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
37.
Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
38.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
39.
LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
40.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
41.
Rosehill Cemetery
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Rosehill Cemetery is an American Victorian-era cemetery on the North Side of Chicago, Illinois, and at 350 acres, is the largest cemetery in the City of Chicago. The name Rosehill resulted from a City Clerks error – the area was previously called Roes Hill and he refused to sell his land to the city until it was promised that the cemetery be named in his honor. It is located in the north east section of the Lincoln Square community area, rosehills Joliet-limestone entrance gate was designed by William W. Boyington, the architect of the Chicago Water Tower and the Old University of Chicago, who is buried in Rosehill. The Rosehill Cemetery Administration Building and Entry Gate was listed on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places in 1975, like its sister cemetery Graceland, Rosehill is the burial place of many well-known Chicagoans. The cemetery contains many monuments that are notable for their beauty and eccentricity, several graves from the old City Cemetery, originally located in what is now Lincoln Park were relocated to Rosehill. Some of the gravestones and monuments were moved to Rosehill Cemetery. Dedicated in 1914, Rosehill Mausoleum was designed by architect Sidney Lovell and it is the largest mausoleum in Chicago and has two levels, the lower level being partially underground. The interior is constructed almost entirely of marble, the floors are Italian Carrara marble. There are many small family-owned rooms with bronze gates. Some of these private rooms feature stained glass windows by Louis Comfort Tiffany among other artists, ogilvie, Governor of Illinois, is entombed near the ceiling in the west part of the Mausoleum. Other notables include Aaron Montgomery Ward and his business rival Richard Warren Sears, Civil War buffs have long been attracted to Rosehill, where approximately 350 Union soldiers and sailors and at least three Confederates who gave their lives in service are entombed. Rosehill Cemetery maintains the distinction of being the largest private burial ground of Union veterans, including 16 generals, to honor those who fought for country and cause, Rosehill officially opened its own Civil War Museum on January 15,1995. A monument To Honor All the Courageous Volunteer Firefighters of Chicago was erected in Rosehill Cemetery in 1864, the monument, designed by Leonard Volk, features a vigilant fireman standing atop a tall column. A fire hose is wrapped around the base, four old-style hydrants make up the corners of the memorial. The granite marker at the base contains the names of all firefighters killed in the line of duty, Rosehill was featured in the film Next of Kin. The funeral scene in Backdraft takes place at the Volunteer Firefighters Monument at Rosehill, Lulu Fellowes also appeared in the film U. S. Marshals. The roadhouse now known as the Fireside Restaurant & Lounge has stood across from historic Rosehill Cemetery for more than a century and it is one of the oldest continuously operating taverns in Chicago. The original tavern once served traveling farmers and mourners alike, even offering accommodations, in 2015, the Chicago Park District Park No.568 - West Ridge Nature Preserve was established along the north western edge of Rosehill Cemetery
