1.
Chelsea, Massachusetts
–
Chelsea is a city in Suffolk County, Massachusetts, United States, directly across the Mystic River from the city of Boston. As of 2013, Chelsea had an population of 36,828. It is also the second most densely populated city in Massachusetts behind Somerville, with a total area of just 2.5 square miles, Chelsea is the smallest city in Massachusetts in terms of total area. Chelsea is a diverse, working-class community that contains a level of industrial activity. It is one of only three Massachusetts cities in which the majority of the population identifies as Hispanic or Latino, alongside Lawrence, after flirting with bankruptcy in the 1990s, the once-struggling industrial city has reversed a prolonged decline and in recent years has enjoyed sustained economic growth. There has also been significant office, retail and restaurant development throughout the city, the area of Chelsea was first called Winnisimmet by the Massachusett tribe, which once lived there. It was settled in 1624 by Samuel Maverick, whose palisaded trading post is considered the first permanent settlement by Boston Harbor, in 1635, Maverick sold all of Winnisimmet, except for his house and farm, to Richard Bellingham. The community remained part of Boston until it was set off and incorporated in 1739, when it was named after Chelsea, a neighborhood in London, England. In 1775, the Battle of Chelsea Creek was fought in the area, part of George Washingtons army was stationed in Chelsea during the Siege of Boston. On February 22,1841, part of Chelsea was annexed by Saugus, on March 19,1846, North Chelsea, which consists of present-day Revere and Winthrop was established as a separate town. Reincorporated as a city in 1857, Chelsea developed as an industrial center, as the century wore on, steam power began to overtake the age of the sail and industry in the town began to shift toward manufacturing. Factories making rubber and elastic goods, boots and shoes, stoves and it became home to the Chelsea Naval Hospital designed by Alexander Parris and home for soldiers. According to local records, Nathan Morse, the first Jewish resident of Chelsea, arrived in 1864. However, Chelsea was a destination for the great wave of Russian and Eastern European immigrants, especially Russian Jews. By 1910 the number of Jews had grown to 11,225, in the 1930s there were about 20,000 Jewish residents in Chelsea out of a total population of almost 46,000. Given the area of the city, Chelsea may well have had the most Jews per square mile of any city outside of New York City. On April 12,1908, nearly half the city was destroyed in the first of two fires that would devastate Chelsea in the 20th century. The fire left 18,000 people,56 percent of the population, despite the magnitude of the destruction, it would only take the city about two and a half years to rebuild and five years to surpass the extent of 1908s infrastructure
2.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Brandeis University
–
Brandeis University /ˈbrændaɪs/ is an American private research university in Waltham, Massachusetts,9 miles west of Boston. Founded in 1948 as a non-sectarian, coeducational institution sponsored by the Jewish community, the university is named after Louis Brandeis, the first Jewish Justice of the U. S Supreme Court. In 2015, it had an enrollment of 5,532 students on its suburban campus spanning over 235 acres. The institution offers more than 43 majors and 46 minors, the university has a strong liberal arts focus and a quarter of its students come from outside the United States. Brandeis was tied for 34th among national universities in the United States in the U. S. News & World Report rankings, Forbes listed Brandeis as 36th nationally for research and 37th for entrepreneurship. Times ranks it 185th globally while USA Today ranks it among the top 10 in the country for economics, the university is also home to the Heller School, ranked as one of the top 10 policy schools in the United States. Middlesex University was a school located in Waltham, Massachusetts. The founder, Dr. John Hall Smith, died in 1944, Smiths will stipulated that the school should go to any group willing to use it to establish a non-sectarian university. Within two years, Middlesex University was on the brink of financial collapse, ruggles Smith, was desperate for a way to save something of Middlesex University. He learned of a New York committee headed by Dr. Israel Goldstein that was seeking a campus to establish a Jewish-sponsored secular university. Goldstein agreed to accept Smiths offer, proceeding to recruit George Alpert, Alpert had worked his way through Boston University School of Law and co-founded the firm of Alpert and Alpert. Alperts firm had an association with the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. He was influential in Bostons Jewish community and his Judaism tended to be social rather than spiritual. He was involved in assisting children displaced from Germany, Alpert was to be chairman of Brandeis from 1946 to 1954, and a trustee from 1946 until his death. By February 5,1946, Goldstein had recruited Albert Einstein, Einstein believed the university would attract the best young people in all fields, satisfying a real need. In March 1946, Goldstein said the foundation had raised ten-million dollars that it would use to open the school by the following year, the foundation purchased Middlesex Universitys land and buildings for two-million dollars. The charter of this operation was transferred to the Foundation along with the campus, the founding organization was announced in August and named The Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, Inc. The new school would be a Jewish-sponsored secular university open to students and faculty of all races and religions
4.
Wesleyan University
–
Wesleyan University is a private liberal arts college in Middletown, Connecticut, founded in 1831. About 20 unrelated colleges and universities were named after Wesley. Wesleyan, along with Amherst College and Williams College, is a member of the Little Three colleges, Three histories of Wesleyan have been published, Wesleyans First Century by Carl F. Potts. Wesleyan was founded as an all-male Methodist college in 1831, the University, established as an independent institution under the auspices of the Methodist conference, was led by Willbur Fisk, its first President. Despite its name, Wesleyan was never a denominational seminary and it also has maintained a larger library collection than institutions comparable in size. The Wesleyan student body numbered about 300 in 1910 and had grown to 800 in 1960, the latter being a figure that Time described as small. In 1872, the University became one of the first U. S. colleges to attempt coeducation by allowing a number of female students to attend. Given that concern, Wesleyan ceased to admit women, and from 1912 to 1970 Wesleyan operated again as an all-male college, Wesleyan became independent of the Methodist church in 1937, although in 2000, the university was designated as an historic Methodist site. The building program begun under this system created three residential colleges on Foss Hill and then three more residential colleges. Although the facilities were created, only four of the academic programs were begun. Fund raising proved highly effective and by 1960 Wesleyan had the largest endowment, per student, of any college or university in America, and a student-faculty ratio of 7,1. The University and several of its admissions deans were featured in Jacques Steinbergs 2002 book The Gatekeepers, Inside The Admissions Process of a Premier College. In the fall 2007 semester, Michael S. Roth, a 1978 graduate of Wesleyan, when Wesleyan University was founded in 1831, it took over a campus on which two buildings, North College and South College, had already been built in 1825. They were originally constructed by the City of Middletown for use by Captain Partridge’s American Literary, Scientific, in 1829, after the Connecticut legislature declined it a charter to grant college degrees, Capt. Alden Partridge moved his Academy to Northfield, Vermont. The Academy later became Norwich University and the Middletown buildings were acquired by Wesleyan, the book, Norwich University, 1819-1911, Vol. I, provides the following description of South College and North College. These buildings were constructed of sandstone from the quarries in Portland. The Barracks was four stories high,150 feet long and 52 feet wide, with a large attic, halls extended the full length of the building. The Lyceum was located 20 feet south of the Barracks, was three high, with a basement partly above the ground
5.
Stanford University
–
Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California, adjacent to Palo Alto and between San Jose and San Francisco. Its 8, 180-acre campus is one of the largest in the United States, Stanford also has land and facilities elsewhere. The university was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford in memory of their only child, Stanford was a former Governor of California and U. S. Senator, he made his fortune as a railroad tycoon. The school admitted its first students 125 years ago on October 1,1891, Stanford University struggled financially after Leland Stanfords death in 1893 and again after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would later be known as Silicon Valley. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the country. There are three schools that have both undergraduate and graduate students and another four professional schools. Students compete in 36 varsity sports, and the university is one of two institutions in the Division I FBS Pac-12 Conference. Stanford faculty and alumni have founded a number of companies that produce more than $2.7 trillion in annual revenue. It is the alma mater of 30 living billionaires,17 astronauts and it is also one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sixty Nobel laureates and seven Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Stanford as students, alumni, Stanford University was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford, dedicated to Leland Stanford Jr, their only child. The institution opened in 1891 on Stanfords previous Palo Alto farm, despite being impacted by earthquakes in both 1906 and 1989, the campus was rebuilt each time. In 1919, The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace was started by Herbert Hoover to preserve artifacts related to World War I, the Stanford Medical Center, completed in 1959, is a teaching hospital with over 800 beds. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, which was established in 1962, in 2008, 60% of this land remained undeveloped. Besides the central campus described below, the university also operates at more remote locations, some elsewhere on the main campus. Stanfords main campus includes a place within unincorporated Santa Clara County. The campus also includes land in unincorporated San Mateo County, as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park, Woodside. The academic central campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue, Junipero Serra Boulevard, the United States Postal Service has assigned it two ZIP codes,94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P. O. box mail
6.
Cognitive dissonance
–
In other words, the term refers to the perception of incompatibility of two simultaneous cognitions, which can impact on their attitudes. Leon Festingers 1957 theory of cognitive dissonance focuses on how human beings strive for internal consistency, to function in modern society, humans continually adjust the correspondence of their attitudes and actions, which adjustments result in one of three relationships among cognitions and actions. Ratio of cognitions, The proportion of dissonant-to-consonant elements, the psychological pressure to reduce cognitive dissonance is a function of the magnitude of the dissonance. Cognitive Dissonance Theory is founded upon the presumption that people seek psychological consistency between their expectations and the reality of life and this is integral to categorize a scheme of stereotypes about each category of person. These include prejudices—generalized negative beliefs, ideals, and values held about the category of a person causing the cognitive dissonance—in a given social interaction. At the determined place and time, the assembled, they believed that only they would survive planetary destruction. The disconfirmed prophecy caused them acute cognitive-dissonance, Had they been victims of a hoax, had they vainly donated away their material possessions. Moreover, upon overcoming the disconfirmed belief by changing to global environmentalism, the tasks were designed to induce a strong, negative, mental attitude in the subjects. One group of subjects were paid twenty dollars, a group were paid one dollar. The researchers, Festinger and Carlsmith, proposed that the subjects experienced dissonance, and I actually found it boring. Moreover, the subjects paid one-dollar were induced to comply, compelled to internalize the interesting task mental attitude, in the experiment, children were left in a room with a variety of toys, including a greatly desirable steam shovel, the forbidden toy. All of the children refrained from playing with the forbidden toy, the children threatened with mild punishment had to justify, to themselves, why they did not play with the forbidden toy. Without music in the background, the group of four-year-old children were told to avoid playing with a forbidden toy. In that group, the children did not later devalue the forbidden toy, the researchers, Nobuo Masataka and Leonid Perlovsky, concluded that music might inhibit cognitions that reduce cognitive dissonance. In an experiment conducted by Jack Brehm,225 female students rated a series of common, domestic appliances, a second round of ratings indicated that the participants increased their ratings of the domestic appliance they chose, and lowered their ratings of the appliances they rejected. This can be explained in terms of cognitive dissonance, when making a difficult decision, there are always aspects of the rejected choice that one finds appealing and these features are dissonant with choosing something else. In other words, the cognition, I chose X is dissonant with the cognition, more recent research has found similar results in four-year-old children and capuchin monkeys. In addition to internal deliberations, the structuring of decisions among other individuals may play a role in how an individual acts, researchers in a 2013 study examined social preferences and norms as related, in a linear manner, to wage giving among three individuals
7.
Association for Psychological Science
–
Tensions between the scientists and the practitioners escalated. The founding of the APS was only the most recent instance of long-standing intra-disciplinary tensions that have characterized the field since APAs inception in 1892, as a consequence, in August 1988, the ASAP became the APS. APS grew quickly, surpassing 5,000 members in its first six months, today,26,000 psychological scientists in the United States and abroad, whose specialties span the entire spectrum of scientific, applied, and teaching specialties, are members of the Association. The immediate past president is C, the Executive Director is Sarah Brookhart. The Executive Director Emeritus is Alan G. Kraut, APS has 26,000 members and includes the leading psychological scientists and academics, clinicians, researchers, teachers, and administrators. Members also receive a discount on registration rates at the APS Annual Convention, at these conventions, members can network with other members, present research, and meet other distinguished researchers. Membership is also allowed in a form to undergraduate and graduate students pursuing a degree or its equivalent in psychology at an accredited degree-granting institution. The APS Student Caucus is a body of these student affiliates of the Association for Psychological Science. All graduate and undergraduate student affiliates of APS automatically become a member of the APSSC, the APSSC presents a wide array of programming for students and early-career professionals each year at the APS Annual Convention. APS publicizes psychology research in an effort to increase understanding of psychological science. The APS website serves as a portal for psychological science, distilling research results for a general audience. In addition, the houses the archive for the blogs Were Only Human. A version of his blogs appeared on The Huffington Post, APS oversees several initiatives to facilitate the teaching of psychological science. APS also sponsored a Teaching Institute at the inaugural International Convention of Psychological Science, high school teachers of psychology may receive a complimentary online subscription to Current Directions In Psychological Science, which includes articles particularly well suited to classroom use. APS was established in part to provide a strong and separate voice for psychological science. APS led the efforts to establish the programs, A separate directorate for Social, Behavioral. According to an issue of Science & Government Report, APS was in the vanguard of that effort, grant programs for new behavioral science investigators at several National Institutes of Health institutes. Known as B/START, these programs provide support for newly minted PhDs
8.
Social psychology
–
Social psychology is the scientific study of how peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. In this definition, scientific refers to the method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all psychological variables that are measurable in a human being, Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the interaction of mental states and immediate social situations. Social psychology is a discipline that had traditionally bridged the gap between psychology and sociology, during the years immediately following World War II there was frequent collaboration between psychologists and sociologists. However, the two disciplines have become increasingly specialized and isolated from other in recent years, with sociologists focusing on macro variables to a much greater extent. Nevertheless, sociological approaches to social psychology remain an important counterpart to psychological research in this area, in addition to the split between psychology and sociology, there has been a somewhat less pronounced difference in emphasis between American social psychologists and European social psychologists. As a generalization, American researchers traditionally have focused more on the individual, however, the discipline had already developed a significant foundation. Following the 18th century, those in the field of social psychology were concerned with developing concrete explanations for different aspects of human nature. They desired to discover concrete cause and effect relationships that explained the social interactions in the world around them, in order to do so, they believed that the scientific method, an empirically based scientific measure, could be applied to human behavior. The first published study in this area was an experiment in 1898 by Norman Triplett, during the 1930s, many Gestalt psychologists, most notably Kurt Lewin, fled to the United States from Nazi Germany. Attitudes and small group phenomena were the most commonly studied topics in this era, during World War II, social psychologists studied persuasion and propaganda for the U. S. military. After the war, researchers interested in a variety of social problems, including gender issues. Most notable, revealing, and contentious of these were the Stanley Milgram shock experiments on obedience to authority, in the sixties, there was growing interest in new topics, such as cognitive dissonance, bystander intervention, and aggression. By the 1970s, however, social psychology in America had reached a crisis, there was heated debate over the ethics of laboratory experimentation, whether or not attitudes really predicted behavior, and how much science could be done in a cultural context. This was also the time when a radical situationist approach challenged the relevance of self, throughout the 1980s and 1990s social psychology reached a more mature level. Two of the social psychology matured in were theories and methods. Careful ethical standards now regulate research, pluralistic and multicultural perspectives have emerged. Modern researchers are interested in many phenomena, but attribution, social cognition, Social psychologists have also maintained their applied interests with contributions in health, environmental, and legal psychology
9.
Harvard University
–
Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
10.
University of Minnesota
–
The University of Minnesota, Twin Cities is a public research university in Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota. The Minneapolis and St. Paul campuses are approximately 3 miles apart, and it is the oldest and largest campus within the University of Minnesota system and has the sixth-largest main campus student body in the United States, with 51,147 students in 2013–14. The university is the institution of the University of Minnesota system, and is organized into 19 colleges and schools, with sister campuses in Crookston, Duluth, Morris. Minnesota is one of Americas Public Ivy universities, which refers to top universities in the United States capable of providing a collegiate experience comparable with the Ivy League. Founded in 1851, The University of Minnesota is categorized as an R1 Doctoral University with the highest research activity in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, Minnesota faculty, alumni, and researchers have won 25 Nobel Prizes and three Pulitzer Prizes. Notable University of Minnesota alumni include two Vice Presidents of the United States, Hubert Humphrey and Walter Mondale, and Bob Dylan, who received the 2016 Nobel Prize in Literature. The University of Minnesota Twin Cities is also a member of the Association of American Universities which is an association of the 62 leading research universities in the United States and Canada. In its 2017 edition, U. S. News & World Report ranked Minnesota 38th in their Best Global University Rankings, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2015 ranks Minnesota 46th in the world. In 2015, Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked the university 11th in the world for mathematics, the University of Minnesota is ranked 14 over-all among the nations top research universities by the Center for Measuring University Performance. The U. S. News & World Reports 2016 rankings placed the program of the University as the 69th-best National University in the United States. Additionally, nineteen of the Universitys graduate-school departments have been ranked in the nations top-twenty by the U. S. National Research Council, in both 2008 and 2012 U. S. News & World Report ranked the College of Pharmacy 2nd in the nation. 2016 U. S. News & Report now rank the College of Pharmacy 2nd in the nation. In 2011, U. S. News & World Report ranked the School of Public Health 8th in the nation, the University of Minnesota ranked 19th in NIH funding in 2008. Minnesota is listed as a Public Ivy in 2001 Greenes Guides The Public Ivies, the university developed Gopher, a precursor to the World Wide Web which used hyperlinks to connect documents across computers on the internet. However, the produced by CERN was favored by the public since it was freely distributed. The University also houses the Charles Babbage Institute, a research, the department has strong roots in early days of supercomputing with Seymour Cray of Cray supercomputers. Notable faculty of the department are Yousef Saad, Vipin Kumar, Jaideep Srivastava, John Riedl, some notable alumni of the department are Ed Chi, Imrich Chlamtac, Leah Culver, Jeff Dean, Mark P. McCahill, Arvind Mithal, and Calvin Mooers. Puffed rice - Alexander P. Anderson led to the discovery of puffed rice, transistorized cardiac pacemaker - Earl Bakken founded Medtronic, where he developed the first external, battery-operated, transistorized, wearable artificial pacemaker in 1957
11.
University of Texas at Austin
–
Founded in 1881 as The University of Texas, its campus is in Austin, Texas—approximately 1 mile from the Texas State Capitol. The institution has the nations seventh-largest single-campus enrollment, with over 50,000 undergraduate and graduate students and over 24,000 faculty, UT Austin was inducted into the American Association of Universities in 1929, becoming only the third university in the American South to be elected. It is a center for academic research, with research expenditures exceeding $550 million for the 2014–2015 school year. J. Pickle Research Campus and the McDonald Observatory, among university faculty are recipients of the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Emmy Award, the Turing Award, and the National Medal of Science, as well as many other awards. UT Austin student athletes compete as the Texas Longhorns and are members of the Big 12 Conference and its Longhorn Network is the only sports network featuring the college sports of a single university. The first mention of a university in Texas can be traced to the 1827 constitution for the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. Although Title 6, Article 217 of the Constitution promised to establish education in the arts and sciences. On April 18,1838, An Act to Establish the University of Texas was referred to a committee of the Texas Congress. On January 26,1839, the Texas Congress agreed to set aside fifty leagues of land towards the establishment of a publicly funded university, in addition,40 acres in the new capital of Austin were reserved and designated College Hill. In 1845, Texas was annexed into the United States, interestingly, the states Constitution of 1845 failed to mention higher education. On February 11,1858, the Seventh Texas Legislature approved O. B,102, an act to establish the University of Texas, which set aside $100,000 in United States bonds toward construction of the states first publicly funded university. The legislature also designated land reserved for the encouragement of railroad construction toward the universitys endowment, Texas secession from the Union and the American Civil War delayed repayment of the borrowed monies. At the end of the Civil War in 1865, The University of Texas endowment was just over $16,000 in warrants, the more valuable lands reverted to the fund to support general education in the state. The legislature additionally appropriated $256,272.57 to repay the funds taken from the university in 1860 to pay for frontier defense, the 1883 grant of land increased the land in the Permanent University Fund to almost 2.2 million acres. Under the Act of 1858, the university was entitled to just over 1,000 acres of land for every mile of railroad built in the state. On March 30,1881, the legislature set forth the structure and organization. By popular election on September 6,1881, Austin was chosen as the site, galveston, having come in second in the election was designated the location of the medical department. On November 17,1882, on the original College Hill, smite the earth, smite the rocks with the rod of knowledge and fountains of unstinted wealth will gush forth
12.
University of California, Santa Cruz
–
The University of California, Santa Cruz, is a public research university and one of 10 campuses in the University of California system. Located 75 miles south of San Francisco at the edge of the community of Santa Cruz. Founded in 1965, UC Santa Cruz began as a showcase for progressive, cross-disciplinary undergraduate education, innovative teaching methods and contemporary architecture. The residential college system, which consists of ten colleges, is intended to combine the student support of a small college with the resources of a major university. The Santa Cruz site was selected over a proposal to build the campus closer to the population center of San Jose. The formal design process of the Santa Cruz campus began in the late 1950s, construction had started by 1964, and the university was able to accommodate its first students in 1965. The campus was intended to be a showcase for contemporary architecture, progressive teaching methods, according to founding chancellor Dean McHenry, the purpose of the distributed college system was to combine the benefits of a major research university with the intimacy of a smaller college. UC President Clark Kerr shared a passion with former Stanford roommate McHenry to build a university modeled as several Swarthmores in close proximity to each other, roads on campus were named after UC Regents who voted in favor of building the campus. Early student and faculty activism at UCSC pioneered an approach to environmentalism that greatly impacted the development of the surrounding area. The lowering of the age to 18 in 1971 led to the emergence of a powerful student-voting bloc. City voters in 2006 passed two measures calling on UCSC to pay for the impacts of campus growth, a Santa Cruz Superior Court judge invalidated the measures, ruling they were improperly put on the ballot. In 2008, the university, city, county and neighborhood organizations reached an agreement to set aside numerous lawsuits and allow the expansion to occur. UCSC agreed to local government scrutiny of its campus expansion plans, to provide housing for 67 percent of the additional students on campus. George Blumenthal, UCSCs 10th Chancellor, intends to mitigate growth constraints in Santa Cruz by developing off-campus sites in Silicon Valley. The NASA Ames Research Center campus is planned to ultimately hold 2,000 UCSC students – about 10% of the universitys future student body as envisioned for 2020. In April 2010, UC Santa Cruz opened its new $35 million Digital Arts Research Center, the 2, 000-acre UCSC campus is located 75 miles south of San Francisco, in the Ben Lomond Mountain ridge of the Santa Cruz Mountains. Elevation varies from 285 feet at the entrance to 1,195 feet at the northern boundary. The southern portion of the campus consists of a large, open meadow
13.
Leon Festinger
–
Leon Festinger was an American social psychologist, perhaps best known for cognitive dissonance and social comparison theory. He is also known in network theory for the proximity effect. Despite his preeminence in social psychology, Festinger turned to visual perception research in 1964 and then archaeology, following B. F. Skinner, Jean Piaget, Sigmund Freud, and Albert Bandura, Festinger was the fifth most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Festinger was born in Brooklyn New York on May 8,1919 to Russian-Jewish immigrants Alex Festinger and his father, an embroidery manufacturer, had left Russia a radical and atheist and remained faithful to these views throughout his life. Festinger attended Boys’ High School in Brooklyn, and received his BS degree in psychology from the City College of New York in 1939. He proceeded to study under Kurt Lewin at the University of Iowa, in 1943, Festinger married Mary Oliver Ballou, a pianist, with whom he had three children, Catherine, Richard, and Kurt. Festinger and Ballou were later divorced, and Festinger married Trudy Bradley, currently a professor of social work at New York University, in 1945, Festinger joined Lewin’s newly formed Research Center for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as an assistant professor. It was at MIT that Festinger, in his own words, became, by fiat, a social psychologist, and immersed myself in the field all its difficulties, vaguenesses. It was also at MIT that Festinger began his foray into social communication, as Festinger himself recalls, the years at M. I. T. Seemed to us all to be momentous, ground breaking, the new beginning of something important, yet, this endeavor started as almost an accident while Festinger was conducting a study on the impact of architectural and ecological factors on student housing satisfaction for the university. After Lewin’s death in 1947, Festinger moved with the center to the University of Michigan in 1948. He then moved to the University of Minnesota in 1951, following this, in 1957, Festinger published his theory of cognitive dissonance, arguably his most famous and influential contribution to the field of social psychology. He turned his attention to the system, focusing on human eye movement. In 1968, Festinger returned to his native New York City, continuing his research at The New School. In 1979, he closed his laboratory, citing dissatisfaction with working on narrower and narrower technical problems, and even worse, from a broader point of view we do not seem to have been working on many of the important problems. His efforts eventually culminated in the book, The Human Legacy, although seemingly the product of a disillusioned, wholesale abandonment of the field of psychology, Festinger considered this research as a return to the fundamental concerns of psychology. However, Festinger was diagnosed with cancer before he was able to publish this material and he decided not to pursue treatment, and died on February 11,1989. Festinger, Stanley Schachter and Kurt Back examined the choice of friends among students living in married student housing at MIT
14.
Abraham Maslow
–
Maslow was a psychology professor at Alliant International University, Brandeis University, Brooklyn College, New School for Social Research, and Columbia University. He stressed the importance of focusing on the qualities in people. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Maslow as the tenth most cited psychologist of the 20th century, born in 1908 and raised in Brooklyn, New York, Maslow was the oldest of seven children and was classed as mentally unstable by a psychologist. His parents were first generation Jewish immigrants from Russia from Kiev who fled from Czarist persecution in the early 20th century and they had decided to live in New York City and in a multiethnic, working-class neighborhood. His parents were poor and not intellectually focused, but they valued education and it was a tough time for Maslow, as he experienced anti-Semitism from his teachers and from other children around the neighborhood. He had various encounters with anti-Semitic gangs who would chase and throw rocks at him, the tension outside his home was also felt within it, he rarely got along with his mother, and eventually developed a strong revulsion to her. He also grew up with few friends other than his cousin Will, grew up in libraries and among books. It was here that he developed his love for reading and learning and he went to Boys High School, one of the top high schools in Brooklyn. Here, he served as the officer to many academic clubs and he also edited Principia, the schools Physics paper, for a year. Maslow attended the City College of New York after high school, in 1926 he began taking legal studies classes at night in addition to his undergraduate course load. He hated it and almost immediately dropped out, in 1927 he transferred to Cornell, but he left after just one semester due to poor grades and high costs. He later graduated from City College and went to school at the University of Wisconsin to study psychology. In 1928, he married his first cousin Bertha, who was still in school at the time. The pair had met in Brooklyn years earlier, Maslows psychology training at UW was decidedly experimental-behaviorist. At Wisconsin he pursued a line of research which included investigating primate dominance behavior, Maslows early experience with behaviorism would leave him with a strong positivist mindset. Upon the recommendation of Professor Hulsey Cason, Maslow wrote his masters thesis on learning, retention, Maslow regarded the research as embarrassingly trivial, but he completed his thesis the summer of 1931 and was awarded his masters degree in psychology. He was so ashamed of the thesis that he removed it from the psychology library, however, Professor Carson admired the research enough to urge Maslow to submit it for publication. Maslows thesis was published as two articles in 1934 and he continued his research at Columbia University, on similar themes
15.
Psychology
–
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
16.
American Psychological Association
–
The APA has an annual budget of around $115m. There are 54 divisions of the APA—interest groups covering different subspecialties of psychology or topical areas, the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association are sometimes distinguished as the bigger APA and the little APA because of their relative membership sizes. APA is a corporation chartered in the District of Columbia, APAs bylaws describe structural components that serve as a system of checks and balances that ensure democratic process. The organizational entities include, APA President, APAs president is elected by the membership. The president chairs the Council of Representatives and the Board of Directors, during his or her term of office, the president performs such duties as are prescribed in the bylaws. The Board oversees the associations administrative affairs and presents a budget for council approval. The council has authority to set policy and make decisions regarding APAs roughly $60 million annual income. It is composed of elected members from state/provincial/territorial psychological associations, APA divisions, APA Committee Structure, Boards and Committees. Members of boards and committees conduct much of APAs work on a volunteer basis and they carry out a wide variety of tasks suggested by their names. Some have responsibility for monitoring major programs, such as the directorates, the June 2013 GGP update on the recommended changes can be found in the document Good Governance Project Recommended Changes to Maximize Organizational Effectiveness of APA Governance. The suggested changes would change APA from a membership-based, representational structure to a corporate structure and these motions will be discussed and voted upon by Council on July 31,2013 and August 2,2013. State licensing laws specify state specific requirements for the education and training of psychologists leading to licensure, psychologists who are exempted from licensure could include researchers, educators, or general applied psychologists who provide services outside of the health and mental health field. The American Psychological Association Practice Organization and the Education Advocacy Trust and they engage in advocacy on behalf of psychological practitioners and health care consumers and psychology education, respectively. 124th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Denver Colorado 125th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, APA also publishes over 70 other journals encompassing most specialty areas in the field, APAs Educational Publishing Foundation is an imprint for publishing on behalf of other organizations. The APA has also published books under the Magination Press imprint, software for data analysis, videos demonstrating therapeutic techniques, reports. The awards are designed to recognize organizations for their efforts to foster employee health, the award program highlights a variety of workplaces, large and small, profit and non-profit, in diverse geographical settings. Applicants are evaluated on their efforts in the five areas, employee involvement, work-life balance, employee growth and development, health and safety. Awards are given at the local and national level, American Psychological Association Style is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences
17.
Review of General Psychology
–
Review of General Psychology is the quarterly scientific journal of the American Psychological Association Division 1, The Society for General Psychology. Review of General Psychology publishes cross-disciplinary psychological articles that are conceptual, theoretical, other aspects of the journal include the evaluation and integration of research literature and the providing of historical analysis. The first issue of the Review appeared in 1997, the current editor is Gerianne M. Alexander of Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
18.
Great Depression
–
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
19.
SAT
–
The SAT is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. The SAT is owned and published by the College Board, a private and it is developed and administered on behalf of the College Board by the Educational Testing Service. The test is intended to assess students readiness for college, on March 5,2014, the College Board announced that a redesigned version of the SAT would be administered for the first time in 2016. Scores on the SAT range from 400 to 1600, combining test results from two 800-point sections, mathematics, and critical reading and writing. Taking the SAT, or its competitor, the ACT, is required for entry to many. The SAT is typically taken by high school juniors and seniors, the College Board states that the SAT measures literacy and writing skills that are needed for academic success in college. They state that the SAT assesses how well the test takers analyze, however, the test is administered under a tight time limit to help produce a range of scores. Various studies conducted over the lifetime of the SAT show a significant increase in correlation of high school grades. A large independent validity study on the SATs ability to predict college freshman GPA was performed by the University of California, the results of this study found how well various predictor variables could explain the variance in college freshman GPA. When high school GPA and the SAT I were combined, they explained 20. 8% of the variance in college freshman GPA, when high school GPA and the SAT II were combined, they explained 22. 2% of the variance in college freshman GPA. When SAT I was added to the combination of high school GPA and SAT II, SAT scores are intended to supplement the secondary school record and help admission officers put local data—such as course work, grades, and class rank—in a national perspective. However, independent research has shown that high school GPA is better than the SAT at predicting college grades regardless of school type or quality. SAT consists of three sections, Critical Reading, Mathematics, and Writing. Each section receives a score on the scale of 200–800, all scores are multiples of 10. Total scores are calculated by adding up scores of the three sections, each major section is divided into three parts. There are 10 sub-sections, including an additional 25-minute experimental or equating section that may be in any of the three major sections, the experimental section is used to normalize questions for future administrations of the SAT and does not count toward the final score. The test contains 3 hours and 45 minutes of actual timed sections, most administrations run for about four, the questions range from easy, medium, and hard depending on the scoring from the experimental sections. Easier questions typically appear closer to the beginning of the section while harder questions are toward the end in certain sections and this is not true for every section but it is the rule of thumb mainly for math, grammar, and the 19 sentence-completions in the reading sections
20.
David McClelland
–
David Clarence McClelland was an American psychologist, noted for his work on motivation Need Theory. He published a number of works during the 1950s and the 1990s and developed new scoring systems for the Thematic Apperception Test, McClelland is credited with developing the Achievement Motivation Theory commonly referred to as need achievement or n-achievement theory. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked McClelland as the 15th most cited psychologist of the 20th century, in 1987, he moved to Boston University, where he was awarded the American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions. The major themes of David McClelland’s work were on personality and the application of knowledge to helping people make their lives better. One theme was the development of the theory of human motivation. A second theme was the development of tests and operant methods, such as the Thematic Apperception Test, Behavioral Event Interview, David McClelland believed in applying the results from the research and testing to see if they helped people. Basing his work on the work of Henry Murray, he focused on three particular motives, the Need for Achievement, the Need for Affiliation, and the Need for Power, N Ach is the desire to excel in relation to a set of standards. It is the drive to succeed, N Pow is the desire to be influential and have an impact on an organization. N Aff is the desire for personal relationships. McClelland’s three needs, are non-sequential, but instead are used in relation to each other. ”The work in the 1940s through the late 1960s focused on the Achievement Motive and its impact on development of economies and entrepreneurship. He shifted his work in the 1960s to focus on the motive, first addressing issues of addiction and alcoholism, then to leadership effectiveness. The work on leadership and management helped to create a level of a person’s capability. This work was one of the foundational works helping to create the movement in human resources. He also led efforts to show how important competencies were relative to knowledge and his work on power extended into research on the body’s natural healing process. McClelland’s work on motivation was cited as the most useful approach to motivation in a study by the accounting firm Touche Ross & Company. Specifically, he claimed that operant methods had greater validity and sensitivity than respondent measures, McClelland believed that better operant measures were possible with the use of reliable codes for processing the information in them. He claimed his life long quest was to instill in psychological researchers a value of extracting people’s actual thought along with their behavior, job Competencies McClelland et al conceptualized a broad array of capabilities. Reviving his earlier personality theory, McClelland and his colleagues at McBer and Company intensified competency research on management, leadership, the definition of a job competency required that the person’s intent be understood, not merely that the person’s behavior be observed
21.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
–
Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
22.
Desegregation
–
Desegregation is the process of ending the separation of two groups usually referring to races. This is most commonly used in reference to the United States, racial integration of society was a closely related goal. Starting with King Philips War in the 17th century, blacks served alongside whites in an environment in the North American colonies. They continued to fight in every American war integrated with whites up until the War of 1812 and they would not fight in integrated units again until the Korean War. Thousands of black men fought on the side of rebellious colonists in the American Revolutionary War and their names, accomplishments or total numbers are unknown because of poor record keeping. During the American Civil War, Blacks enlisted in large numbers and they were mostly enslaved blacks who escaped in the South, although there were many northern black Unionists as well. More than 180,000 blacks served with the Union Army and Navy during the Civil War, in segregated units known as the United States Colored Troops and they were recorded and are part of the National Park Services Civil War Soldiers & Sailors System. Around 18,000 black people also joined the Union Navy as sailors and they were recorded and are part of the National Park Services War Soldiers & Sailors System. Many African Americans served with the Confederacy as well, either forcibly or willingly is not completely clear, but many historians have agreed upon this. In the final days of the Civil War, Confederate Congress signed a law permitting freed and enslaved men to join the Confederacy, some professors state that stories of African Americans in Confederate units is evidence that the conflict may not have been completed based on slavery. Upon entering office, President Woodrow Wilson segregated the United States Navy, during World War II, most officers were white and most black troops still served only as truck drivers and as stevedores. The Red Ball Express, which was instrumental in facilitating the advance of Allied forces across France after D-Day, was operated almost exclusively by African-American truck drivers. In the midst of the Battle of the Bulge in late 1944, in World War II, the U. S. Navy first experimented with integrating the USCGC Sea Cloud, then later the USS Mason, a ship with black crew members and commanded by white officers. Some called it Eleanors folly, after President Franklin Roosevelts wife, the Masons purpose had been to allow black sailors to serve in the full range of billets rather than being restricted to stewards and messmen, as they were on most ships. The Navy was pressured to train sailors for billets by Eleanor Roosevelt. In 1948, President Harry S. Trumans Executive Order 9981 ordered the integration of the armed forces shortly after World War II, using the Executive Order meant that Truman could bypass Congress. Representatives of the Solid South, all white Democrats, would likely have stonewalled related legislation, for instance, in May 1948, Richard B. Truman signed Executive Order 9981 on July 26,1948. In June 1950 when the Selective Services Law came up for renewal, at the end of June 1950, the Korean War broke out
23.
Austin, Texas
–
Austin is the capital of the U. S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County. It is the 11th-most populous city in the U. S. and it is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix, Arizona. As of the U. S. Census Bureaus July 1,2015 estimate and it is the cultural and economic center of the Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1,2016. In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River, in 1839, the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas and the republics first secretary of state. The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a city and, by the 1980s, it emerged as a center for technology. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including Amazon. com, cisco, eBay, Google, IBM, Intel, Oracle Corporation, Texas Instruments, 3M, and Whole Foods Market. Dells worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock, a suburb of Austin, residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to an influx of technology. In the late 1800s, Austin was known as the City of the Violet Crown because of the glow of light across the hills just after sunset. Even today, many Austin businesses use the term Violet Crown in their name, Austin is known as a clean-air city for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings, including restaurants and bars. The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U. S. for the year 2012, U. S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U. S. in 2017. Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of habitation since at least 9200 BC. When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area, the Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area for centuries, in 1730, three missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in area for only about seven months
24.
Race (human categorization)
–
Race is the classification of humans into groups based on physical traits, ancestry, genetics, or social relations, or the relations between them. First used to refer to speakers of a language and then to denote national affiliations. The term was used in a general biological taxonomic sense, starting from the 19th century. Social conceptions and groupings of races vary over time, involving folk taxonomies that define essential types of individuals based on perceived traits, scientists consider biological essentialism obsolete, and generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits. Although still used in contexts, race has often been replaced by less ambiguous and emotionally charged synonyms, populations, people, ethnic groups, or communities. A popular view in American sociology is that the categories that are common in everyday usage are socially constructed. For this reason, there is no current consensus about whether racial categories can be considered to have significance for understanding human genetic variation, when people define and talk about a particular conception of race, they create a social reality through which social categorization is achieved. In this sense, races are said to be social constructs and these constructs develop within various legal, economic, and sociopolitical contexts, and may be the effect, rather than the cause, of major social situations. Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups, as a result, racial groups possessing relatively little power often find themselves excluded or oppressed, while hegemonic individuals and institutions are charged with holding racist attitudes. Racism has led to instances of tragedy, including slavery. In some countries, law enforcement uses race to profile suspects and this use of racial categories is frequently criticized for perpetuating an outmoded understanding of human biological variation, and promoting stereotypes. Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of stratification, for social scientists studying social inequality. As sociological factors, racial categories may in part reflect subjective attributions, self-identities, accordingly, the racial paradigms employed in different disciplines vary in their emphasis on biological reduction as contrasted with societal construction. Groups of humans have identified themselves as distinct from neighboring groups. These features are the features of how the concept of race is used today. As Europeans encountered people from different parts of the world, they speculated about the physical, social, a set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities. Brutal conflicts between groups have existed throughout history and across the world. In the 18th century the differences among human groups became a focus of scientific investigation, Homo sapiens europaeus was described as active, acute, and adventurous, whereas Homo sapiens afer was said to be crafty, lazy, and careless
25.
Columbine High School massacre
–
The perpetrators, senior students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, murdered 12 students and one teacher. They injured 21 additional people, and three more were injured attempting to escape the school. The attack has been referred to by USA Today as an attack planned as a grand—if badly implemented—terrorist bombing. The massacre has been reported as the deadliest high school shooting in US history, the massacre sparked debate over gun control laws, high school cliques, subcultures, and bullying. In 1996, Eric Harris created a website on America Online. Harris initially created the site to host gaming levels he and his friend, Dylan Klebold, created for use in the video game Doom, on this site, Harris began a blog, which included jokes and short journal entries with thoughts on parents, school, and friends. Beginning in early 1997, the blog began to show the first signs of Harriss ever-growing anger against society. Harriss site attracted few visitors, and caused no concern until March 1998, Klebold gave the web address to Brooks Brown, a former friend of Harris. Browns mother had filed complaints with the Jefferson County Sheriffs office concerning Harris. After Browns parents viewed the site, they contacted the Jefferson County Sheriffs Office, the investigator Michael Guerra was told about the website. When he accessed it, Guerra discovered numerous violent threats directed against the students, other material included blurbs that Harris had written about his general hatred of society, and his desire to kill those who annoyed him. Harris had noted on his site that he had made pipe bombs, as Harris had posted on his website that he possessed explosives, Guerra wrote a draft affidavit, requesting a search warrant of the Harris household. The affidavit also mentioned a suspicion of Harris being involved in a pipe bomb case in February 1998. It was concealed by the Jefferson County Sheriffs Office and not revealed until September 2001, after the revelation about the affidavit, a series of grand jury investigations were begun into the cover-up activities of Jefferson County officials. The investigation revealed that high-ranking county officials had met a few days after the massacre to discuss the release of the affidavit to the public, following the press conference, the original Guerra documents disappeared. In September 1999, a Jefferson County investigator failed to find the documents during a search of the countys computer system. A second attempt in late 2000 found copies of the document within the Jefferson County archives, the documents were reconstructed and released to the public in September 2001, but the original documents are still missing. The final grand jury investigation was released in September 2004, on January 30,1998, Harris and Klebold stole tools and other equipment from a van parked near the city of Littleton
26.
Guide dog
–
Guide dogs, are assistance dogs trained to lead blind and visually impaired people around obstacles. Although the dogs can be trained to navigate obstacles, lots of them are color blind and are not capable of interpreting street signs. The human does the directing, based on skills acquired through previous mobility training, the handler might be likened to an aircrafts navigator, who must know how to get from one place to another, and the dog is the pilot, who gets them there safely. In several countries, guide dogs, along with most service and hearing dogs, are exempt from regulations against the presence of animals in such as restaurants. References to service animals date at least as far back as the mid-16th century, in the 19th-century verse novel Aurora Leigh by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, the title character remarks, The blind man walks wherever the dog pulls / And so I answered. Earlier that same year, U. S. Sen. Thomas D, in 1929, Eustis and Frank co-founded The Seeing Eye school in Nashville, Tennessee. The first service animals in Great Britain were German shepherds, four of these first were Flash, Judy, Meta, and Folly, who were handed over to their new owners, veterans blinded in World War I, on 6 October 1931 in Wallasey, Merseyside. Judys new owner was Musgrave Frankland, important studies on the behavior and training methods of service animals were done in the 1920s and 1930s by Jakob von Uexküll and Emanuel Georg Sarris. They studied the richness of animals and introduced advanced methods of training. There have also been important studies into the experienced by people that use service and assistance animals. Guide dog breeds are chosen for temperament and trainability, crosses such as Golden Retriever/Labrador and Labradoodles are also common. The most popular breed used globally today is the Labrador Retriever and this breed has a good range of size, is easily kept due to its short coat, is generally healthy and has a gentle but willing temperament. However, religious organizations are not required to provide such access, whether service animals in training have the same rights or not usually falls on each individual state government. Service providers have to make adjustments to accommodate service animals. In most South American countries and Mexico, service animal access depends solely upon the goodwill of the owner or manager, in more tourist-heavy areas, service animals are generally welcomed without problems. In Brazil, however, a 2006 federal decree requires allowance of service animals in all public, the Brasília Metro has developed a program that trains service animals to ride it. In Malta, the Equal Opportunities Act 2000 states that it is illegal to discriminate against a person who needs an assistant, in this case. The few exceptions are restaurant kitchens, hospital wards, toilets
27.
Carol Tavris
–
Carol Anne Tavris is an American social psychologist and feminist. Her many writings have dealt with critical thinking, cognitive dissonance, anger, gender, Tavris received a B. A. in comparative literature and sociology from Brandeis University and a Ph. D. in social psychology from the University of Michigan. She has taught psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles and she is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association, the Association for Psychological Science and the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Tavris is also a member of the board of Psychological Science in the Public Interest. Her articles, book reviews, and op-eds have appeared in The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, in 2014 she began writing a column for Skeptic under the heading The Gadfly. In an interview with The Skeptics Society, Carol Tavris describes her early life and she grew up in Los Angeles, California, with her parents, Sam and Dorothy Tavris, secular Jews who promoted and practiced critical thinking and equality for women. She was encouraged to argue and discuss everything with them, from household rules to religion and her parents gave her books about successful women—ranging from Phillis Wheatley to Susan B. Anthony—and her father taught her poetry and storytelling and her grandparents were Russian Jews who emigrated to Chicago in the early 1900s. Her mother, who earned a law degree at 21, became the breadwinner of the family in 1956 when Tavris’ father died suddenly. Tavris majored in literature and sociology at Brandeis University, graduating summa cum laude. Brandeis faculty in her field were enamored with Freud during her college years, but her undergraduate infatuation with Freudian approaches did not survive her first year of graduate school. When Tavris went to the University of Michigan to get her Ph. D. in social psychology and she loved learning about the different methods of investigating questions, from field work and experiments to interviews and observations. Tavris took a year off from school to write for a new magazine. She returned to the magazine after receiving her Ph. D. in the 1980s, Tavris joined Carole Wade in writing an introductory psychology textbook, Psychology. Wade and Tavris also published Invitation to Psychology, a version of their main textbook. As of 2015, Psychology is in its 11th edition and Invitation its 6th, on the contrary, she showed, repeated venting rehearses anger, raises blood pressure, and often makes the other person angry back at you. In ways typical of her approach, she brought skepticism, data. In her chapter on anger in social movements, she took as her main examples the efforts to promote womens rights and civil rights, and the role of anger in igniting the pursuit of justice
28.
Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me)
–
Mistakes Were Made is a non-fiction book by social psychologists Carol Tavris and Elliot Aronson, first published in 2007. It describes a positive feedback loop of action and self-deception by which slight differences between peoples attitudes become polarized, michael Shermer in the Scientific American wrote that Tavris and Aronson brilliantly illuminate the fallacies that underlie irrational behavior. A review in O, The Oprah Magazine praised the book for the evidence it provides. The British comedian and novelist Alexei Sayle listed the book among his six favorites, recommending it as endlessly fascinating if youre interested in politics
29.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
30.
The Social Animal (Aronson book)
–
The Social Animal is an APA-medal winning book about social psychology by Elliot Aronson. Originally published in 1972, The Social Animal is currently in its eleventh edition, in a style written for the general audience, the book covers what modern psychology knows about the reasons for some of the most important aspects of human behavior. The rest of the book is spent primarily on explaining how human minds operate and interact with each other, the book covering topics include the causes of prejudice, aggression, and cognitive dissonance. In explaining the reasons why people behave in ways, Aronson cites his first law. As a scientist, Aronson leans on the importance of case work, thus, the Social Animals explanations of human behavior are largely validated with citations of studies done by researchers of social psychology. Throughout the book, Aronson relies on the use of controlled experiments to validate empirical observation
