1.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
2.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
3.
MacArthur Fellows Program
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The MacArthur Fellows Program, MacArthur Fellowship, or Genius Grant, is a prize awarded annually by the John D. and Catherine T. According to the Foundations website, the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishment, but rather an investment in a persons originality, insight, the current prize is $625,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a review of the MacArthur Fellows Program, since 1981,942 people have been named MacArthur Fellows, ranging in age from 18 to 82. The award has been called one of the most significant awards that is no strings attached. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the Foundation and reviewed by an anonymous, the committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the President and board of directors. Most new Fellows first learn of their nomination upon receiving a phone call. MacArthur Fellow Jim Collins described this experience in a column of The New York Times. Cecilia Conrad is the Managing Director leading the MacArthur Fellows Program and she debunked several myths about the Fellowship in The Washington Post. Guggenheim Fellowship MacArthur Fellows Program website
4.
National Medal of Arts
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The National Medal of Arts is an award and title created by the United States Congress in 1984, for the purpose of honoring artists and patrons of the arts. A prestigious American honor, it is the highest honor given for achievement in the arts conferred to an individual artist on behalf of the people. Honorees are selected by the National Endowment for the Arts, the medal was designed for the NEA by sculptor Robert Graham. In 1989, composer and conductor, Leonard Bernstein refused his award, in 1997, poet Adrienne Rich refused her award as a protest against “inconsistencies” between art and “the cynical politics” of the Clinton White House administration. National Medal of Science National Medal of Technology and Innovation National Endowment for the Arts
5.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
6.
Alpha Kappa Alpha
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Alpha Kappa Alpha was the first Greek-lettered sorority established by African-American college women. The sorority was founded on January 15,1908, at the historically black Howard University in Washington, D. C. by a group of sixteen students led by Ethel Hedgeman Lyle. Forming a sorority broke barriers for African-American women in areas where they had power or authority, due to a lack of opportunities for minorities. Alpha Kappa Alpha was incorporated on January 29,1913, Women may join through undergraduate chapters at a college or university or they may also join through a graduate chapter after acquiring an undergraduate or advanced college degree. After the organizations establishment, Alpha Kappa Alpha has helped to improve social, the sorority works with communities through service initiatives and progressive programs relating to education, family, health, and business. Alpha Kappa Alpha is part of the National Pan-Hellenic Council, the current International President is Dorothy Buckhanan Wilson, and the sororitys document and pictorial archives are located at Moorland-Spingarn Research Center. In spring 1907, Ethel Hedgeman led efforts to create a sisterhood at Howard University, Hedgeman was also inspired by her mentors at Howard. To implement her idea, Hedgeman began recruiting interested classmates during the summer of 1907, eventually, nine women including Hedgeman were instrumental in organizing Alpha Kappa Alpha in the fall of 1907. With Hedgeman serving as the chairperson, the women wrote the sororitys constitution, devised the motto, chose the favorite colors. Later in 1908, seven sophomore honor students expressed interest in joining and were accepted without initiation, the first initiation was held in a wing of Miner Hall on Howard University on February 11,1909. On May 25,1909, Alpha Kappa Alpha held its first Ivy Week, Alpha Kappa Alpha continued to grow at Howard. By the end of the 1911–12 school year, there were more than twenty members of the sorority, on January 13,1913, the entire twenty-two-member undergraduate chapter voted to transform the original Alpha Kappa Alpha into Delta Sigma Theta. Quander actively worked to maintain the integrity and tenets of Alpha Kappa Alpha and she, along with the women who had become ΑΚΑs during the four years of the sororitys existence who had since graduated, elected to remain Alpha Kappa Alpha. Quander set up a committee that successfully petitioned to incorporate ΑΚΑ as a perpetual entity. Alpha Kappa Alpha was nationally incorporated on January 29,1913, Alpha Kappa Alpha continued to grow nationally. A second chapter at the University of Chicago was chartered in fall 1913, in addition, Alpha Kappa Alpha helped to support members by providing scholarship funds for school and foreign studies. Alpha Kappa Alpha began to members at the annual Boulé. The sororitys pledge was written by Grace Edwards and was adopted by the 1920 Boulé, in addition, the sororitys crest was designed by Phyllis Wheatley Waters and accepted in the same Boulé
7.
Emerson College
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Emerson College is located in downtown Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Offering more than three dozen degree programs in the area of Arts and Communication, the college is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges. Located in Bostons Washington Street Theatre District on the edge of the Boston Common, the school also maintains buildings in Los Angeles, Emerson College has been named the winner of the Environmental Protection Agency’s College and University Green Power Challenge for the Great Northeast Athletic Conference for 2012–2013. Charles Wesley Emerson founded the Boston Conservatory of Elocution, Oratory, and Dramatic Art in 1880, classes were held at Pemberton Square in Boston. Ten students enrolled in the conservatorys first class, the following year, the conservatory changed its name to the Monroe Conservatory of Oratory, in honor of Charles Emersons teacher at Boston Universitys School of Oratory, Professor Lewis B. Monroe. In 1890, the name changed again to Emerson College of Oratory and was shortened to Emerson College in 1939. The college expanded and rented space at 36 Bromfield Street, and moved to Odd Fellows Hall on Berkeley, with the new location, the colleges first library was established in 1892. Henry Southwick, a faculty member and graduate, became a partner for the college with Emerson. This financial partnership led to the purchase of the Boston School of Oratory from Moses T. Brown in 1894, at the turn of the century, faculty members Henry and Jessie Southwick and William H. Kenney purchased the college from Dr. Emerson. Soon after, the college rented a new location in Chickering Hall, Dr. Emerson retired in 1903 and William J. Rolfe, a Shakespearean scholar and actor, was named the second President of Emerson College of Oratory. His service as president lasted until his retirement in 1908, as the Student Government Association of the college held its first meeting in 1908, the third president of the college, Henry Lawrence Southwick, was inaugurated. He introduced the study of acting and stagecraft into the college curriculum, during his tenure, the college rented a new building at 30 Huntington Avenue. The college was granted the right to award Bachelor of Literary Interpretation degrees. In addition, Emerson became the first school with a program in childrens theater in 1919. The school offered its first course in Journalism in 1924, the college purchased its first piece of real estate with a new womens dormitory building at 373 Commonwealth Ave. and started intramural sports in 1931 with the organization of volleyball games. In 1930, full charge and control of the college was transferred to the Board of Trustees by William H. Kenney, Henry Lawrence Southwick, and Jessie Southwick. When Harry Seymour Ross was appointed the president of Emerson College in 1931, the first course in radio broadcasting was taught by the program director of WEEI. The purchase of buildings at 130 Beacon Street and 128 Beacon Street a year began the presence of Emerson College in Bostons Back Bay
8.
Boston University School of Education
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Boston University School of Education is the school of education within Boston University. It is located on the Universitys Charles River Campus in Boston, the Dean of SED is Hardin L. K. SED has more than 31,000 alumni,29 full-time faculty, Boston University School of Education was ranked 45th in the nation in 2016 by U. S. News & World Report in their rankings of graduate schools of education. The School of Education is an institution of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. Boston University School of Education was founded in 1918, SED houses the oldest continuously published journal in the field of education in the country, the Journal of Education. Originally called the New England Journal of Education and later renamed the Journal of Education, in 1976 the School of Education celebrated the 100th-year publication with a special issue of the Journal, including excerpts from the first issue. In 2009, the Journal of Education became a peer-reviewed publication, programs in the Department of Educational Leadership prepare students for a variety of responsibilities in administration, training, and policy-centered development work. Programs in the Department of Curriculum and Teaching prepare professionals for teaching, students prepare for educational work in schools, media centers, school libraries, community agencies, and educational research projects, as well as state and national educational organizations. Most programs include courses leading to classroom teaching certification, Boston Universitys special education program offers a dual-degree program with the School of Social Work that enables qualified students to earn either the M. S. W. /Ed. M. Leading-edge areas of study in education include education of the deaf, teaching English to speakers of other languages. Programs usually require the equivalent of one year of full-time study, doctoral programs generally require the equivalent of two or more years of full-time study. The Pickering Educational Resources Library houses materials on curriculum and instruction, including textbooks, tests, students in the School have access to all libraries within the University system, as well as the Boston Library Consortium. University media services include video services and photographic facilities, school-based clinics and learning laboratories offer opportunities for research and firsthand learning experiences. The Early Childhood Learning Laboratory is an affiliated with and located at the School of Education. It is a laboratory and demonstration school available to Boston University students, parents of children in the program, children whose families live in the local neighborhood primarily attend this open-enrollment school. There are 20 children, ages 2. 9-5, in an age group with two licensed early childhood teachers. The preschool program employs an innovative, inquiry-based approach to curriculum design, teachers determine a topic of study that relates to the childrens interest. The concepts or big ideas of this topic are decided upon, teachers continually monitor the childrens engagement in the activities, documenting their comments, questions, and interactions in order to make on-going adjustments to the plan and the environment
9.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
10.
Congressional Black Caucus
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The Congressional Black Caucus is a race-based political organization representing the African-American members of the United States Congress. While race and party affiliation are not officially explicit prerequisites for membership, all of its members have been African-American and its chair is Representative Cedric Richmond of Louisiana. Whether the issue is popular or unpopular, simple or complex and its impact is recognized throughout the world. The Congressional Black Caucus is probably the closest group of legislators on the Hill and we work together almost incessantly, we are friends and, more importantly, a family of freedom fighters. Our diversity makes us stronger, and the expertise of all of our members has helped us be effective beyond our numbers, the caucus has grown steadily as more black members have been elected. At its formal founding in 1971, the caucus had thirteen members, as of 2017, it had 45 members, including two who are non-voting members of the House, representing the District of Columbia and the U. S. Virgin Islands. As of 2017, there have been eight African-American senators since the caucuss founding, burris was appointed by Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich in December 2008 to fill Obamas seat for the remaining two years of his senate term. Cowan was appointed to serve until a special election after the seat was vacated by John Kerry following his appointment as Secretary of State. Edward Brooke, a Republican senator from Massachusetts in the 60s and 70s, was not a member of the CBC, in 2013, Tim Scott, Republican of South Carolina, also chose not to join the CBC after being appointed to fill the senate seat of Jim DeMint. The caucus is officially non-partisan, but, in practice, the vast majority of African Americans elected to Congress have been members of the Democratic Party, of these eight, only half have joined the CBC, Evans, Franks, West, and Love. Edward Brooke was the only serving African-American U. S, senator when the CBC was founded in 1971, but he never joined the group and often clashed with its leaders. In 1979 Melvin H. Evans, a delegate from the Virgin Islands. Gary Franks was the first Republican voting congressman to join in 1991, though he was at times excluded from CBC strategy sessions, skipped meetings, after West was defeated for re-election, the CBC became a Democrat-only caucus once again in 2013. After Democrat Mo Cowan stepped down in July 2013, the political situation bore a resemblance to four decades earlier. Senator who refused to join the CBC, in 2014, two African-American Republicans were elected to the House. All past and present members of the caucus have been African-American, in 2006, while running for Congress in a Tennessee district which is 60% black, white candidate Steve Cohen pledged to apply for membership in order to represent his constituents. However, after his election, his application was refused, although the bylaws of the caucus do not make race a prerequisite for membership, former and current members of the caucus agreed that the group should remain exclusively black. In response to the decision, Rep. Cohen referred to his promise as a social faux pas because Its their caucus
11.
NAACP
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Du Bois, Mary White Ovington and Moorfield Storey. Its mission in the 21st century is to ensure the political, educational, social and their national initiatives included political lobbying, publicity efforts, and litigation strategies developed by their legal team. The group enlarged its mission in the late 20th century by considering issues such as police misconduct, the status of foreign refugees. Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, uses the common term colored people. The NAACP bestows annual awards to people of color in two categories, Image Awards are for achievement in the arts and entertainment, and Spingarn Medals are for outstanding achievement of any kind and its headquarters is in Baltimore, Maryland. The NAACP is headquartered in Baltimore, with regional offices in New York, Michigan, Georgia, Maryland, Texas, Colorado. Each regional office is responsible for coordinating the efforts of state conferences in that region, local, youth, and college chapters organize activities for individual members. In the U. S. the NAACP is administered by a 64-member board, julian Bond, Civil Rights Movement activist and former Georgia State Senator, was chairman until replaced in February 2010 by health-care administrator Roslyn Brock. For decades in the first half of the 20th century, the organization was led by its executive secretary. James Weldon Johnson and Walter F. White, who served in that role successively from 1920 to 1958, were more widely known as NAACP leaders than were presidents during those years. Departments within the NAACP govern areas of action, local chapters are supported by the Branch and Field Services department and the Youth and College department. The Legal department focuses on cases of broad application to minorities, such as systematic discrimination in employment, government. The Washington, D. C. bureau is responsible for lobbying the U. S. government, the goal of the Health Division is to advance health care for minorities through public policy initiatives and education. As of 2007, the NAACP had approximately 425,000 paying and non-paying members, the NAACPs non-current records are housed at the Library of Congress, which has served as the organizations official repository since 1964. The records held there comprise approximately five million items spanning the NAACPs history from the time of its founding until 2003, in 1905, a group of thirty-two prominent African-American leaders met to discuss the challenges facing people of color and possible strategies and solutions. They were particularly concerned by the Southern states disenfranchisement of blacks starting with Mississippis passage of a new constitution in 1890, through 1908, southern legislatures dominated by white Democrats ratified new constitutions and laws creating barriers to voter registration and more complex election rules. In practice, this caused the exclusion of most blacks and many whites from the political system in southern states. Black voter registration and turnout dropped markedly in the South as a result of such legislation, men who had been voting for thirty years in the South were told they did not qualify to register
12.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
