1.
Elmira, New York
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Elmira /ˌɛlˈmaɪrə/ is a city in Chemung County, New York, US. It is the city of the Elmira, New York Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 29,200 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Chemung County. The City of Elmira is in the part of the county. It is in the Southern Tier of New York, a distance north of the Pennsylvania state line. This was long an area inhabited by indigenous people, in historic times, it was occupied by the Cayuga nation of the Iroquois Confederacy, also called the Kanawaholla. They had some relations with Europeans and English over fur trading, during the American Revolutionary War, the Sullivan Expedition of 1779 was mounted against the four Iroquois nations who had allied with the British and Loyalist forces. It fought a combined British-Iroquois force at the Battle of Newtown, south of the current city, in which Sullivan, after the conclusion of the war, the Iroquois and the new United States made a treaty at Elmira in 1791 to settle territorial disputes in the region. Most of the Seneca emigrated under pressure with the other Iroquois to Canada, the first European-American settler in Elmira was captain Abraham Miller of the Continental Army. He built a cabin after resigning just before the Revolutionary War, millers Pond and Miller Street are named after him and are near the location of his house. The New York legislature established the Township of Chemung, now Chemung County, the settlement of Newtown was soon established at the intersection of Newtown Creek and the Chemung River. In 1792, the settlement at Newtown joined with the Wisnerburg and DeWittsburg settlements to form the village of Newtown, in 1808, the village officially changed its name to the Town of Elmira, at a town meeting held at Teals Tavern. It is said the town was named after tavern owner Nathan Teals young daughter, in any case, the City of Elmira, also called The Queen City, was incorporated in 1864 from part of the town of Elmira and the village of Elmira. The remaining part of the town of Elmira exists still, surrounding the city on the west, north, the city and town share an intricately entwined history. Carpenters Family History book printed in 1898, Elmira is named after Major General Matthew Carpenters daughter and this occurred according to the book in 1821 at the constitutional convention which Matthew was a delegate to. In 1849, the New York and Erie Railroad was built through Elmira, in 1850, the Elmira and Jefferson Railroad gave the area a route north and the Elmira and Williamsport Railroad a route south in 1854. This made the city a prime location for an Army training, in 1872 the Utica Ithaca and Elmira Railroad was begun, eventually creating a route to Cortland and Syracuse via Horseheads, Breesport and VanEtten. The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad was completed in 1884, the camp, in use from June 6,1864 until autumn 1865, was dubbed Hellmira by its inmates
2.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
3.
Incarceration in the United States
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Incarceration in the United States is one of the main forms of punishment, rehabilitation, or both for the commission of felony and other offenses. The United States has the largest prison population in the world, in 2013 in the US, there were 698 people incarcerated per 100,000 population. This is the U. S. incarceration rate for adults or people tried as adults. According to the US Bureau of Justice Statistics,2,220,300 adults were incarcerated in US federal and state prisons, additionally,4,751,400 adults in 2013 were on probation or on parole. In total,6,899,000 adults were under supervision in 2013 – about 2. 8% of adults in the U. S. resident population. In 2014, the number of persons in the adult correctional systems had fallen to 6,851,000 persons. About 1 in 36 adults was under some form of correctional supervision – the lowest rate since 1996, on average the correctional population has declined by 1. 0% since 2007, while this continued to stay true in 2014 the number of incarcerated adults slightly increased in 2014. In addition, there were 54,148 juveniles in juvenile detention in 2013, although debtors prisons no longer exist in the United States, residents of some U. S. states can still be incarcerated for debt as of 2016. According to a 2014 Human Rights Watch report, tough-on-crime laws adopted since the 1980s, have filled U. S. prisons with mostly nonviolent offenders and this policy failed to rehabilitate prisoners and many were worse on release than before incarceration. Rehabilitation programs for offenders can be more cost effective than prison, according to the Brennan Center for Justice, falling crime rates cannot be ascribed to mass incarceration. According to a 2016 analysis of data by the U. S. Education Department, state and local spending on incarceration has grown three times as much as spending on education since 1980. In 1841, Dorothea Dix discovered that prison conditions were, in her opinion, prisoners were chained naked, whipped with rods. Others, criminally insane, were caged, or placed in cellars and she insisted on changes throughout the rest of her life. While focusing on the insane, her comments also resulted in changes for other inmates, the BOP also houses adult felons convicted of violating District of Columbia laws due to the National Capital Revitalization and Self-Government Improvement Act of 1997. As of 2004, state prisons proportionately house more violent felons, in 2016, almost 90% of prisoners were in state prisons, 10% were in federal prisons. At the beginning of 2008, more than 1 in 100 adults in the United States were in prison or jail, total US incarceration peaked in 2008. Total correctional population peaked in 2007, if all prisoners are counted, then in 2008 the US had around 24. 7% of the worlds 9.8 million prisoners
4.
Prison
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Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents. Prisons often have facilities that are designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in prisons or prisoner of war camps. The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization, corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines, eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion, the Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as cages, basements of public buildings. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, the Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula, during the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. Another common punishment was sentencing people to slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships. However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century, Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation, branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London and these houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living, by the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution, rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, the prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies
5.
Supermax prison
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Supermax is the name used to describe control-unit prisons, or units within prisons, which represent the most secure levels of custody in the prison systems of certain countries. It typically involves up to 23-hour-per-day, single-cell confinement for a period of time. Inmates in supermax housing have minimal contact with staff and other inmates, leena Kurki and Norval Morris have argued there is no absolute definition of a supermax, and that different jurisdictions classify prisons as supermax inconsistently. They identify four general features that tend to characterize supermax prisons, Long-term – Once transferred to a supermax prison, powerful administration – Supermax administrators and Correctional Officers have ample authority to punish and manage inmates, without outside review or prisoner grievance systems. Solitary confinement – Supermax prisons rely heavily on intensive solitary confinement, no activities – Few opportunities are provided for recreation, education, substance abuse programs, or other activities generally considered healthy and rehabilitative at other prisons. In supermax, prisoners are allowed out of their cells for only one hour a day. They receive their meals through ports in the doors of their cells, when supermax inmates are allowed to exercise, this may take place in a small, enclosed area where the prisoner will exercise alone. Prisoners are under constant surveillance, usually with closed-circuit television cameras, cell doors are usually opaque, while the cells may be windowless. Conditions are plain, with poured concrete or metal furniture common, cell walls, and sometimes plumbing, may be soundproofed to prevent communication between the inmates. The United States Penitentiary Alcatraz Island, opened in 1934, has considered a prototype. An early form of supermax-style prison unit appeared in Australia in 1975, dubbed the electronic zoo by inmates, Katingal was a super-maximum security prison block with 40 prison cells having electronically operated doors, surveillance cameras, and no windows. It was closed two years later over human rights concerns. Since then, some maximum-security prisons have gone to full lockdown as well, while others have been built, Supermax prisons began to proliferate within the United States after 1984. Prior to 1984 only one prison in the U. S. met supermax standards, by 1999, the United States contained at least 57 supermax facilities, spread across 30–34 states. This prompted Norman Carlson, director of the Federal Bureau of Prisons, in Carlsons view, such a prison was the only way to deal with inmates who show absolutely no concern for human life. The Federal Bureau of Prisons solitary confinement units are known as Special Housing Units. In recent years a number of U. S. states have downgraded their supermax prisons, as has been done with Wallens Ridge State Prison, There is only one supermax prison in the United States federal system, ADX Florence in Florence, Colorado. However, it is best known for housing inmates who have been deemed either too dangerous
6.
History of United States prison systems
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Prison building efforts in the United States came in three major waves. Finally, since the early 1970s, the United States has engaged in an unprecedented expansion of its imprisonment systems at both the federal and state level. Incarceration as a form of punishment is a comparatively recent episode in Anglo-American jurisprudence. Before the nineteenth century, sentences of confinement were rare in the criminal courts of British North America. But penal incarceration had been utilized in England as early as the reign of the Tudors, when post-revolutionary prisons emerged in United States, they were, in Hirschs words, not a fundamental departure from the former American colonies intellectual past. Early American prisons systems like Massachusetts Castle Island Penitentiary, built in 1780, the English workhouse, an intellectual forerunner of early United States penitentiaries, was first developed as a cure for the idleness of the poor. Over time English officials and reformers came to see the workhouse as a general system for rehabilitating criminals of all kinds. Common wisdom in the England of the 1500s attributed property crime to idleness, idleness had been a status crime since Parliament enacted the Statute of Laborers in the mid-fourteenth century. By 1530, English subjects convicted of leading a Rogishe or Vagabonds Trade or Lyfe were subject to whipping and mutilation, in 1557, many in England perceived that vagrancy was on the rise. That same year, the City of London reopened the Bridewell as a warehouse for vagrants arrested within the city limits. By order of any two of the Bridewells governors, a person could be committed to the prison for a term of custody ranging from weeks to several years. The workhouse was not just a custodial institution, at least some of its proponents hoped that the experience of incarceration would rehabilitate workhouse residents through hard labor. Supporters expressed the belief that forced abstinence from idleness would make vagrants into productive citizens, other supporters argued that the threat of the workhouse would deter vagrancy, and that inmate labor could provide a means of support for the workhouse itself. Governance of these institutions was controlled by written regulations promulgated by local authorities, although vagrants were the first inhabitants of the workhouse—not felons or other criminals—expansion of its use to criminals was discussed. Sir Thomas More described in Utopia how a government should punish citizens with slavery, not death. Thomas Starkey, chaplain to Henry VIII, suggested that convicted felons be put in some commyn work, so by theyr life yet the commyn welth schold take some profit. Edward Hext, justice of the peace in Somersetshire in the 1500s, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, several programs experimented with sentencing various petty criminals to the workhouse. Many petty criminals were sentenced to the workhouse by way of the laws even before these efforts
7.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
8.
New International Encyclopedia
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The New International Encyclopedia was an American encyclopedia first published in 1902 by Dodd, Mead and Company. It descended from the International Cyclopaedia and was updated in 1906,1914 and 1926, the New International Encyclopedia was the successor of the International Cyclopaedia. Initially, the International Cyclopaedia was largely a reprint of Aldens Library of Universal Knowledge, the local Cyclopaedia was much improved by editors Harry Thurston Peck and Selim Peabody. The title was changed to New International Encyclopedia in 1902, with editors Harry Thurston Peck, Daniel Coit Gilman, in 1906 the New International Encyclopedia was expanded from 17 volumes to 20. The 2nd edition appeared in 1914 in 24 volumes, set up from new type and it was very strong in biography. The 1926 material was printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by The University Press, boston Bookbinding Company of Cambridge produced the covers. Thirteen books enclosing twenty-three volumes comprise the encyclopedia, which includes a supplement after Volume 23, each book contains about 1600 pages. A great deal of material is recorded in the New International Encyclopedia. An early description of Adolf Hitler and his activities from 1920 to 1924 is in the supplement to the 1926 edition, many of the names used to describe the scientific identities of plants and animals are now obsolete. Numerous colorful maps which display the nations, states, colonies, the maps are valuable for their depictions of national and colonial borders in Europe, Asia, and Africa at the time of World War I. Drawings, illustrations, and photographs are plentiful, more than 500 men, and some women, submitted and composed the information contained in the New International Encyclopedia. Editors of the First Edition Daniel Coit Gilman, LL. D, President of Johns Hopkins University, President of Carnegie Institution. Frank Moore Colby, M. A. formerly Professor in New York University, editors of the Second Edition Frank Moore Colby, M. A. Talcott Williams, LL. D. Director of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, media related to New International Encyclopedia at Wikimedia Commons 1914 second ed
9.
Elmira Prison
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Elmira Prison was a prisoner-of-war camp constructed by the Union Army in Elmira, New York, during the American Civil War to house captive Confederate soldiers. The prison camp, in use from July 6,1864, the camps dead were prepared for burial and laid to rest at what is now Woodlawn National Cemetery. The cemetery, which is about 1.5 miles north of the camp site, was designated a National Cemetery in 1877. At the end of the war, each prisoner was required to take a loyalty oath, the last prisoner left the camp on September 27,1865. The camp was closed, demolished and converted to farm land. The area where the prison once stood is today. One of the conspirators of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, John Surratt, upon hearing the news, he fled to Montreal, Quebec. On April 15,1861, President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteer troops in order to suppress the rebellion. Elmira was one of three locations chosen as training centers in New York due to its location and railway hub. At first, troops were housed in rented out buildings, four military installations were constructed through out the city, Arnott Barracks, Camp Rathbun, Camp Robinson, and Post Barracks. Camp Rathbun was built in between the Chemung River and Water Street, the campgrounds were enclosed in a 300yd by 500yd fence on the West, North, And east with Fosters Pond forming the southern boundary. The camp consisted of 20 housing buildings, an officers quarters, Fosters pond was used for bathing and washing. The amount of troops stationed in the city fluctuated for the first few months and this led to the closing of both Camp Robinson and Post Barracks, and they would never be used again. A month later, in July, conscription was enacted by US Congress, during this time, the city was named draft rendezvous headquarters for the western part of New York. In the first years of the war, there had been an exchange system. Complications in 1863 led to the breakdown of this system, by April 1864 it had been completely suspended, space had recently opened up in Elmira after the departure of six companies of the 179th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment. Commissary General of Prisoners William Hoffman was informed of this, and he was also informed that the prison might be needed within ten days and that it might have to welcome 8,000 or up to 10,000 prisoners. According to Eastmans calculations, the camp could only hold half that properly, in addition to that, Eastman reported that the kitchens could only feed 5,000 a day and the mess room could only seat 1,500 men at once
10.
Gowanda Correctional Facility
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The Gowanda Correctional Facility is a medium security prison for males located in Gowanda, New York, United States. The prison is located in the part of Erie County in the Town of Collins. It is co-located with the Collins Correctional Facility, another medium security prison, both prisons are located north of Village of Gowanda at the southern end of Erie County. In 1894, the Erie County Legislature passed an Act that gave rise to the Homeopathic State Hospital in Gowanda and Collins, land purchased for the State Hospital by Erie County included 500 acres and was known as the Taylor tract. When the State Care Act was effected in 1894, the land was transferred to the State of New York, which then conveyed it to the State Hospital. The correctional facility is situated along Taylor Hollow Road in Gowanda, with such road named for the farmer who owned the land that was purchased and used, originally, for the State Hospital. The grounds and buildings of both the Gowanda Correctional Facility and the Collins Correctional Facility, therefore, were formerly the Gowanda Psychiatric Center, in 1982, 40% of the original 500 acres of the Gowanda Psychiatric Center was utilized for the Collins Correctional Facility. The Gowanda Correctional Facility was built using the remaining acreage and opened its doors in 1994, the two prisons are separated by a fence, and are administered independently. Gowanda Correctional Facility houses more than 2,300 inmates, and is the second-largest prison in New York State, another source reported that the prison houses 1,750 inmates. It also features one of the largest sex offender counseling programs of the New York State prison systems, on February 5,2014, nine inmates in a housing unit at the Gowanda Correctional facility attacked three corrections officers there. One officer was beaten unconscious by the inmates and he and another officer had concussions and additional injuries. The third officer was slightly injured, box 350 South Road Gowanda, New York 14070-0350 List of New York state prisons Gowanda Correctional Facility history Additional information
"Elmira Reformatory". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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