1.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
2.
French Army
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The French Army, officially the Land Army is the land-based and largest component of the French Armed Forces. Along with the French Air Force, the French Navy and the National Gendarmerie, the current Chief of Staff of the French Army is General Jean-Pierre Bosser, a direct subordinate of the Chief of the Defence Staff. All soldiers are considered professionals following the suspension of conscription, voted in parliament in 1997, as of 2014, the French Army employed 111,628 personnel. In addition, the element of the French Army consisted of 15,453 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The Kings of France needed reliable troops during and after the Hundred Years War and these units of troops were raised by issuing ordonnances to govern their length of service, composition and payment. These Compagnies dordonnance formed the core of the Gendarme Cavalry into the sixteenth century, stationed throughout France and summoned into larger armies as needed. There was also made for Francs-archers units of bowmen and foot soldiers raised from the non-noble classes. The bulk of the infantry for warfare was still provided by urban or provincial militias, raised from an area or city to fight locally and named for their recruiting grounds. Gradually these units became more permanent, and in 1480s Swiss instructors were recruited and these men would be paid and contracted and receive training. Henry II further regularised the French army by forming standing Infantry regiments to replace the Militia structure, the first of these the Régiments de Picardie, Piémont, Navarre and Champagne were called the Les Vieux Corps. It was normal policy to disband regiments after a war was over as a cost saving measure with the Vieux Corps and the Kings own Household Troops the Maison du Roi being the only survivors. Regiments could be raised directly by the King and so called after the region in which they were raised, or by the nobility and so called after the noble or his appointed colonel. In 1684 there was a reorganisation of the French infantry and again in 1701 to fit in with Louis XIVs plans. This reshuffle created many of the regiments of the French Army and standardised their equipment. The army of the Sun King tended to wear coats with coloured linings. There were exceptions and the troops, recruited from outside France. In addition to these regiments of the line the Maison du Roi provided several elite units, the Swiss Guards, French Guards, the revolution split the army with the main mass losing most of its officers to aristocratic flight or guillotine and becoming demoralised and ineffective. The French Guard joined the revolt and the Swiss Guards were massacred during the storming of the Tuileries palace, under Napoleon I, the French Army conquered most of Europe during the Napoleonic Wars
3.
Ranks in the French Army
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Rank insignia in the French army depend on whether the soldier belongs to an infantry or cavalry unit. The infantry arms include normal infantry, naval troops, the Foreign Legion and engineers, cavalry arms include armoured cavalry, artillery, maintenance, sleeves are emblazoned with marks denoting either gold insignia for the infantry or silver/white for the cavalry. The title of marshal of France is awarded as a distinction, the marshals wear seven stars and carry a baton. Six marshals of France have been given the more exalted rank of marshal general of France, Biron, Lesdiguières, Turenne, Villars, Saxe. Général de corps darmée, in command of an army corps, général de division, in command of a division. Général de brigade, in command of a brigade, or of a région in the Gendarmerie, a famous général de brigade was Charles de Gaulle, who often wore military uniform whilst being President of the French Republic. There is no distinction between infantry and cavalry generals, since they are all supposed to be able to command any type of unit, in the below descriptions, horse-mounted does not refer to current units but to the traditional affiliation of the units. The word colonel originates in the medieval term capitaine colonel, the head of a column, lieutenant-colonel is the one who can hold the place of a colonel in his absence. The word chef or chief in English comes from the Latin word caput meaning head, a colonel commands a regiment of the army or a groupement of the Gendarmerie. During the French Revolution, they were called chef de brigade, the lieutenant-colonel has the same responsibilities as a colonel. They were called major during the First French Empire, notice that the metal colours alternate silver and gold in each case, as opposed to those of the colonels. This characteristic goes back at least to alternating stripes on the uniforms of that empire in epaulettes, commandant is equivalent to a major in English-speaking countries. A capitaine is in command of a company of infantry, a squadron of cavalry or a battery of artillery, a lieutenant commands a platoon of infantry, a troop of cavalry, or a brigade of the Gendarmerie. A Sous-lieutenant commands at the level as a lieutenant, but is a more junior officer rank. Aspirant An Officer Designate rank, it is used in the Armée de Terre, the Armée de lAir, the Marine Nationale, technically it is not a commissioned rank but it is still treated in all respects as one. Aspirants are either officers in training in military academies or voluntaries, the aspirant must have been previously élève officier. S/He can afterwards be commissioned as a sous-lieutenant or enseigne de vaisseau de deuxième classe, the insignia is a single curl of gold lace, disrupted by flashes of wool. It was widely used during both World Wars for providing young educated people with an officers authority, eleve officier, a rank held during the first years at the officer academies Major, the senior sub-officer rank, is derived from the old abolished rank of maréchal des logis-major
4.
8e RPIMa
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The 8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment is an airborne regiment of the French Army. The 8e RPIMa was created on February 281951 and the men wearing the red beret. This elite regiment is part of the 11th Parachute Brigade, the regiment is garrisoned at Castres, France. Current missions of the 8e RPIMa revolve around peacekeeping and assistance to world populations, in outremer, the regiment is engaged in operations defending French interests, or countries that are in liaison with France in security missions. In Europe, the regiment is engaged in defending the national French territory at the corps of the action force. This regiment can be deployed anywhere in the world. The regiment parts various Commando Parachute Groups, a group of French elite units, Parachute training is conducted at the École des troupes aéroportées in Pau. February 281951, creation of the 8th Colonial Parachute Battalion, September 121952, became the 8th Commando Parachute Groupment, 8e GCP. August 11953, became the 8th Parachute Choc Battalion, 8e BPC, may 311954, dissolution of the 8th Parachute Choc Battalion, 8e BPC. May 11956, creation of the 8th Colonial Parachute Regiment 8e RCP at the corps of the 25th Parachute Division 25e DP, december 11958, became 8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment, 8e RPIMa. The unit was created on 28 February 1951, in Hanoi as the 8th Colonial Parachute Battalion, present since 1951 and to 1954, the 8th Colonial Parachute Battalion fought at Lai-Chau, Hoa Binh, Langson and Dien Bien Phu heavily superiorly outnumbered. The Battalion was cited at the orders of the armed forces, the quasi totality of the battalion disappeared and was subsequently dissolved on 19 May 1954, after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. The unit was recreated as the 8th Colonial Parachute Regiment on 1 May 1956, the regiment participated in operations against the Algerian National Liberation Front, most notably at El Kiffene, Ain El Kesseub and Tarf at the corps of the 25th Parachute Division. The regiment relocated to the town of Nancy, Metropolitan France, in 1961, the regimental headquarters moved to Castres in 1963. The regiment partook in various peacekeeping missions in Lebanon on numerous yearly designated occasions within the UNIFIL first then integrated the corps of the Multinational Force in Lebanon. The regiment has been present around the world in Lebanon, Chad, Central Africa, Gabon and many others while mainly participating in humanitarian, the regiment is currently serving with the NATO ISAF in Afghanistan. In a fierce battle on 18–19 August 2008, ten French soldiers were killed and 21 wounded making it the largest loss of French troops in battle in many years, the Archangel Saint Michael, patron of the French paratroopers is celebrated on 29 September. The prière du Para was written by André Zirnheld in 1938, just like the paratrooper Brevet of the French Army, the Insignia of French Paratroopers was created in 1946
5.
United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
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The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia was a United Nations peacekeeping operation in Cambodia in 1992–93. UNTAC was the product of intense diplomatic activity over many years, during the electoral period, more than 50,000 Cambodians served as electoral staff and some 900 international polling station officers were seconded from Governments. The whole operation cost over $1.6 billion, mostly in salaries for expatriates, another important goal was the trial of senior Khmer Rouge leaders. Donor countries pledged the $43 million international share of the three-year tribunal budget, the first trials of senior Khmer Rouge leaders took place only in 2007, when many of them were already dead or in ill-health. Despite UNTACs boasting of its effectiveness and being feted by the community as a success, UNTAC failed to disarm the Khmer Rouge. This bias allowed the Khmer Rouge to make gains and gave rise to political violence. Prince Ranariddhs FUNCINPEC Party was the top vote recipient with a 45. 5% vote, followed by Hun Sens Cambodian Peoples Party, FUNCINPEC then entered into a coalition with the other parties that had participated in the election. The parties represented in the 120-member assembly proceeded to draft and approve a new constitution and it established a multiparty liberal democracy in the framework of a constitutional monarchy, with the former Prince Sihanouk elevated to King. Prince Ranariddh and Hun Sen became First and Second Prime Ministers, respectively, the constitution provides for a wide range of internationally recognised human rights. The number of sex workers in the State of Cambodia rose from about 6,000 in 1991, by 1995 there were between 50,000 and 90,000 Cambodians affected by AIDS according to a WHO estimate. Duration, March 1992 – September 1993 Strength, Approximately 22,000 military, expenditures, US$1.62 billion UN protectorate State of Cambodia UN. org, United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia−UNTAC website Untac. com, UNTAC website
6.
Legion of Honour
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The Legion of Honour, full name National Order of the Legion of Honour, is the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits, established 1802 by Napoléon Bonaparte. The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction, Chevalier, Officier, Commandeur, Grand Officier and Grand-Croix. The orders motto is Honneur et Patrie and its seat is the Palais de la Légion dHonneur next to the Musée dOrsay, in the French Revolution, all French orders of chivalry were abolished, and replaced with Weapons of Honour. The Légion however did use the organization of old French orders of chivalry, the badges of the legion also bear a resemblance to the Ordre de Saint-Louis, which also used a red ribbon. Napoleon originally created this to ensure political loyalty, the organization would be used as a facade to give political favours, gifts, and concessions. The Légion was loosely patterned after a Roman legion, with legionaries, officers, commanders, regional cohorts, the highest rank was not a grand cross but a Grand Aigle, a rank that wore all the insignia common to grand crosses. The members were paid, the highest of them extremely generously,5,000 francs to an officier,2,000 francs to a commandeur,1,000 francs to an officier,250 francs to a légionnaire. Napoleon famously declared, You call these baubles, well, it is with baubles that men are led, do you think that you would be able to make men fight by reasoning. That is good only for the scholar in his study, the soldier needs glory, distinctions, rewards. This has been quoted as It is with such baubles that men are led. The order was the first modern order of merit, under the monarchy, such orders were often limited to Roman Catholics, and all knights had to be noblemen. The military decorations were the perks of the officers, the Légion, however, was open to men of all ranks and professions—only merit or bravery counted. The new legionnaire had to be sworn in the Légion and it is noteworthy that all previous orders were crosses or shared a clear Christian background, whereas the Légion is a secular institution. The jewel of the Légion has five arms, in a decree issued on the 10 Pluviôse XIII, a grand decoration was instituted. This decoration, a cross on a sash and a silver star with an eagle, symbol of the Napoleonic Empire, became known as the Grand Aigle. After Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804 and established the Napoleonic nobility in 1808, the title was made hereditary after three generations of grantees. Napoleon had dispensed 15 golden collars of the legion among his family and this collar was abolished in 1815. The Légion dhonneur was prominent and visible in the French Empire, the Emperor always wore it and the fashion of the time allowed for decorations to be worn most of the time
7.
National Order of Merit (France)
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The National Order of Merit is a French order of merit with membership awarded by the President of the French Republic, founded on 3 December 1963 by President Charles de Gaulle. It comprises about 187,000 members worldwide, the President of the French Republic is the Grand Master of the order and appoints all its members by convention on the advice of the Government of France. The order has a common Chancellor and Chancery with the Legion of Honour, every Prime Minister of France is made a Grand cross of the order after 24 months of service. The medal of the order is a six-armed Maltese asterisk in gilt enamelled blue, the obverse central disc features the head of Marianne, surrounded by the legend République française. The reverse central disc has a set of crossed tricolores, surrounded by the name of the order, the badge is suspended by a laurel wreath. The star is worn by Grand-Croix and Grand Officier respectively, it is a twelve-armed sunburst, the central disc features the head of Marianne, surrounded by the legend République française and the name of the Order, and in turn surrounded by a wreath of laurel. The ribbon for the medal is a blue field. For the grade of Officier and above, a rosette is centered in the field, for the grades of Commandeur, Grand Officier, and Grand-Croix, the rosette is centered bar of silver, silver and gold, and a solid gold respectively
8.
Cross for Military Valour
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The Cross for Military Valour is a military decoration of France. The Cross for Military Valour is usually awarded for security or peacekeeping operations and it was established in 1956 to reward soldiers, sailors, and airmen serving in Algeria who had committed acts of valour or gallantry in combat. Algeria was a department of France at the time, so it was not considered a declared war, therefore, the War Cross for foreign operational theatres, which had been awarded for valiant service in Indochina, was not considered appropriate. Médaille de la Valeur Militaire was created on 11 April 1956 with a system of distinctions. To put it on the level as the Croix de guerre. Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Tchad, cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Congo | Zaïre | Democratic Republic of the Congo Haiti Irag and Syria Ivory Coast Lebanon Liberia Libya. Sénégal, Burkina Faso, Mauritanie, Mali and Niger, tunisia The grades of the Cross are insignia of a mention in dispatches, which can be of one of five levels matching the valour displayed by the recipient while in presence of an enemy. They are named after historical formation of the French military, the 1956 Cross was meant principally for soldiers, but a provision was made for civilians participating in a peacekeeping operation. On 2 December 2005 this provision was amended in order to reward only civllian employees of the Ministry of Defence on official missions overseas, originally, the cross was not awarded to members of foreign militaries or governments. This restriction was lifted on 9 November 2011 for acts of valour or performed valiant service while on joint operations with French forces, collective awards can be made to military units, both French and foreign, since 2011. When a unit has decorated twice with the Cross at its highest level, the four first grades of the Cross can be awarded by Chef détat-major des Armées, but the Cross with Palm decoration is only awarded by the Minister of Defence. Medal, suspended from a ribbon is a 36 mm bronze cross, with an effigy of the Republic crowned with a wreath, with the edge embossed, on the reverse is the inscription, Croix de la Valeur militaire. Ribbon, a red bar with three white bands, a centered 7 mm band, with a smaller 2 mm band on each end. La marque du courage, croix de guerre, valeur militaire, site traitant des décorations militaires et civiles françaises Les décorations françaises
9.
Overseas Medal
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The Overseas Medal is a commemorative or campaign medal issued to members of the French Armed Forces for participating in operations outside national territory. It replaced the French Colonial Medal by decree on 6 June 1962, ribbon, sky blue with three vertical white bands, the two side ones of 2mm and the central one of 7mm Medal, the work of engraver Georges Lemaire, in silver. A helmeted allegorical effigy of a woman as the personification of the French Republic, the reverse shows a terrestrial globe on top of trophies of military conquest with the words MEDAILLE DOUTRE-MER Link, Silver laurel branches. Bars, Gilt, showing the territory where the campaign occurred, as of January 28,2008, the campaign clasp is awarded for fifteen days of consecutive service or a cumulative equivalent of non-consecutive days. Mauritanie, awarded to all French personnel, military or otherwise, who served in Mauritania from November 1977 to July 1990, regardless of length of service. france-phaleristique. com/accueil. htm
10.
National Defence Medal
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The National Defence Medal is a French military decoration. It was created by Charles Hernu, Minister of Defence and established by decree on April 21,1982 and it rewards particularly honourable service rendered by military personnel for their participation in operational activities. The medal has three levels, Gold, Silver and Bronze, points are earned through participation in exercises, operations, proficiency, initiative, awards received, etc. People who had awarded the ordre de la Légion dhonneur or the ordre du mérite can not receive the Médaille for military service. He or she is awarded the Médaille de la Défense Nationale at the Gold level, adorned with a ribbon device depending on the level of the mention, in the same manner as for the Croix de Guerre. The National Defence Medal is a 36 mm in diameter circular medal struck from bronze, the level is gilt. The obverse bears the image of Rudes Marseillaise with the relief inscription along the upper circumference FRENCH REPUBLIC
11.
Medal of the Nation's Gratitude
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The medal was primarily established to replace the North Africa medal with broader and more inclusive prerequisites following years of pressure on the French government by veterans organizations. The Medal of the Nations Gratitude is awarded to persons who have previously been awarded the Title of the Nations Gratitude, the Title of the Nations Gratitude is automatically bestowed to personnel prematurely evacuated due to injuries suffered or diseases caught while in theatre. The complete list is contained in the order of 12 January 1994. The Medal of the Nations Gratitude is a 34mm in diameter circular medal struck from bronze and its obverse bears the effigy of the Republic on surrounded by the relief inscription RÉPUBLIQUE FRANÇAISE. The reverse bears the inscription on four lines MÉDAILLE DE RECONNAISSANCE DE LA NATION over the relief image of a sprig of three oak leaves. The medal hangs from a passing through a ring through the medals ball shaped suspension loop. The 34mm wide sand coloured silk moiré ribbon bears inverted 34mm wide, the undress ribbon bears three such chevrons. The medal is awarded with a clasp and may be awarded with multiple clasps
12.
Combatant's Cross
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The Combatants Cross is a French decoration that recognizes, as its name implies, those who fought in combat for France. The Poilus of World War I worked toward recognition by the government, the law of 19 December 1926 created la carte du combatant, or combatants card, for veterans of 1914-1918, as well as for the veterans of 1870-1871 and colonial wars before the First World War. The decoration was created three years later by the law of 28 June 1930. The law of 18 July 1952 extended the benefit of the award of the Croix du combattant for Indochina, the law of December 9,1974 extended the award of the Combatants Cross to operations in North Africa between 1 January 1952 and July 2,1962. There is a set of requirements for each conflict or military operation in regards to the granting of the combatant card. On the obverse at center, the effigy of the Republic wearing an Adrians helmet crowned with laurel leaves surrounded by the relief inscription REPUBLIQUE FRANCAISE. On the reverse the relief inscription CROIX DU COMBATTANT along the lower circumference framing a vertical sword pointing down, rays protruding horizomtally and up from the hilt in a 180° arc
13.
Troupes de marine
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The Troupe de marine are a corps of the French Army which regroups several specialties, infantry, artillery, armoured and airborne. Despite their designation, they are a part of the Army. The troupe de marine have been professionalized progressively since 1970, the Troupe de marine were formerly known as the Troupes Coloniales, with origin dating back to the Troupes de la marine. The French colonies were under the control of the Ministère de la Marine, accordingly and these companies were destined to embark on royal naval ships to service the naval artillery and participate to the boarding of naval ships engaged in combats at sea. Simultaneously, these companies were also in charge in guarding the sea ports. In the 18th century, they constituted the Compagnies Franches de la Marine who mainly swarmed essentially in Nouvelle France, an evolution was followed and which deemed more and more pronouncing vis-à-vis the ship boarding marines and their officers. A tentative close-up merger was attempted by two naval ship corps including their troops in 1786 with the companies of sailors, however the experience came to little conclusions. The Régiment Royal–La Marine and Régiment de lAmiral de France founded by Colbert dispersed their companies between Dunkerque, Le Havre, Brest, Rochefort and Toulon and they adorned for a first time the white and grey uniform with the blue vest. The four regiments of la marine were transferred from the secretariat of La Marine to that of the secretariat of La Guerre, such was put in effect to meet the successive military war demands of the reign of Louis XIV, wanting to control all French units. The regiments have left the French Navy conserved then, only that of a naval designation, the Marine Royale had proud allure in 1671, France was able to align 196 naval vessels. Colbert decided accordingly to create 100 companies of guardian-soldiers destined to defend the naval vessels, however, these men were redirected again towards the French Army by Louvois in 1673. Starting this date, the naval and marine officers were obliged to recruit themselves their crew, owing to the presence of « levées » on the war or commercial sea ports, similar to the « marine press », the officers garrisoned their naval ships with defenders. However, the system found its limits quickly, the recruits were often lacking discipline and experience. A vicious circle and a pride for the performing French naval, Compagnies franches de la Marine created in 1690. Each company was tasked to guard a military harbor and its immediate coastline, beginning in 1695, the Companies were organized in battalions around the major harbors. The Marine Companies and Battalions were suppressed in 1761, Corps dartillerie de Marine, created in 1692 to oversee the training and use of coastal artillery. The Corps was suppressed in 1761, the Infantry and Artillery Marine units were re-organized into a single marine corps by a short-lived merger in 1769. Some colonial units were created at the time, organized along the same lines of artillery and infantry units
14.
Autun
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Autun is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in eastern France. It was founded during the Principate era of the early Roman Empire by Emperor Augustus as Augustodunum to give a Roman capital to the Gallic people Aedui, in Roman times the city may have been home to 30,000 to 100,000 people, according to different estimates. Augustodunum was founded during the reign of the first Roman emperor, Augustus and it was the civitas tribal capital of the Aedui, Continental Celts who had been allies and brothers of Rome since before Julius Caesars Gallic Wars. Augustodunum was a planned foundation replacing the original oppidum Bibracte, located some 25 km away, several elements of Roman architecture such as walls, gates, and a Roman theater are still visible in the town. In AD356, a force of Alemanni brought the siege of Autun, the disrepair of the walls left the city in danger of falling. Autun was saved by the arrival of the Emperor Julian in one of his military successes. In Late Antiquity, Autun became famous for its schools of rhetoric, a world map based on the Geography of Ptolemy was famous for its size and was displayed in the portico of one of the schools. It may have survived until modern times. In 725, the Umayyad general Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi marched up the Saône valley to Autun, on 22 August 725 he captured the town after defeating forces led by the local bishop, Émilien of Nantes, who was slain during the course of the battle. Autun marks the easternmost extent of the Umayyad campaign in Europe, however, the position was never retained, and Anbasa died soon after. The Umayyads are known to have raided the lower Rhone during the next decade, in 880, Count Richard of Autun was made the first duke of Burgundy. In 1788, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord became bishop of Autun and he was elected member of the clergy for the Estates-General of 1789. The High School plays an important role in the history of the city and even France since Napoleon and this school continues to operate today. The decorated wrought iron gates were erected in 1772, the subjects taught in the school are indicated by various representations of objects along the top of these grids. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the leader of the Army of the Vosges, Giuseppe Garibaldi, the city boasts two ancient Roman gates and other ruins dating to the time of Augustus. One of the most impressive remains is that of the ancient theatre, to the northwest of the city is the so-called Temple of Janus, only two walls of which remain. To the southeast is the mysterious Pierre de Couhard, a pyramid of uncertain function which may date to Roman times. Autun Cathedral, also known as St. Lazares cathedral, dates from the twelfth century and is a major example of Romanesque architecture
15.
Aix-en-Provence
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Aix-en-Provence, or simply Aix, is a city-commune in the south of France, about 30 km north of Marseille. It is in the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, the population of Aix numbers approximately 143,000. Its inhabitants are called Aixois or, less commonly, Aquisextains, Aix was founded in 123 BC by the Roman consul Sextius Calvinus, who gave his name to its springs, following the destruction of the nearby Gallic oppidum at Entremont. In the 4th century AD it became the metropolis of Narbonensis Secunda and it was occupied by the Visigoths in 477. In the succeeding century, the town was plundered by the Franks and Lombards. Aix passed to the crown of France with the rest of Provence in 1487, and in 1501 Louis XII established there the parliament of Provence, in the 17th and 18th centuries, the town was the seat of the Intendance of Provence. Current archeological excavations in the Ville des Tours, a suburb of Aix, have unearthed the remains of a Roman amphitheatre. The city slopes gently north to south and the Montagne Sainte-Victoire can easily be seen to the east. Aixs position in the south of France gives it a warm climate and it has an average January temperature of 5 °C and a July average of 23 °C. It has an average of 300 days of sunshine and only 91 days of rain, while it is partially protected from the Mistral, Aix still occasionally experiences the cooler and gusty conditions it brings. Unlike most of France which has a climate, Aix-en-Provence has a Mediterranean climate. The Cours Mirabeau is a thoroughfare, planted with double rows of plane-trees, bordered by fine houses. It follows the line of the old city wall and divides the town into two sections. The new town extends to the south and west, the old town, with its narrow, along this avenue, which is lined on one side with banks and on the other with cafés, is the Deux Garçons, the most famous brasserie in Aix. Built in 1792, it has been frequented by the likes of Paul Cézanne, Émile Zola, the Cathedral of the Holy Saviour is situated to the north in the medieval part of Aix. The archbishops palace and a Romanesque cloister adjoin the cathedral on its south side, the Archbishopric of Aix is now shared with Arles. Among its other public institutions, Aix also has the second most important Appeal Court outside of Paris, the Hôtel de Ville, a building in the classical style of the middle of the 17th century, looks onto a picturesque square. It contains some fine woodwork and tapestries, at its side rises a handsome clock-tower erected in 1510
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Platoon
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A platoon is a military unit typically composed of two or more squads/sections/patrols. Platoon organization varies depending on the country and the branch, a platoon leader or commander is the officer in command of a platoon. This person is usually a junior officer—a second or first lieutenant or an equivalent rank, the officer is usually assisted by a platoon sergeant. A platoon is typically the smallest military unit led by a commissioned officer, Platoons normally consist of three or four sections or squads. In some armies, platoon is used throughout the branches of the army, in others, such as the British Army and other Commonwealth armies, platoons are associated with the infantry. In a few armies, such as the French Army, a platoon is specifically a cavalry unit, a unit consisting of several platoons is called a company/battery/troop. According to Merriam-Webster, The term was first used in the 17th century to refer to a body of musketeers who fired together in a volley alternately with another platoon. The word came from the 17th-century French peloton, from pelote meaning a small ball, nonetheless it is documented that it took the meaning of a group of soldiers firing a volley together, while a different platoon reloaded. This implies an augmentative intention in the etymology, the modern French word peloton, when not meaning platoon, can refer to the main body of riders in a bicycle race. Pelote itself originally comes from the low Latin pilotta from Latin pila, meaning ball, the platoon was originally a firing unit rather than an organization. The system was said to have been invented by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1618, in the French Army in the 1670s, a battalion was divided into 18 platoons who were grouped into three firings, each platoon in the firing either actually firing or reloading. The system was used in the British, Austrian, Russian. Each platoon was divided into four sections, each commanded by a corporal, due to a shortage of officers, a non commissioned officer rank of Platoon Sergeant Major was introduced from 1938 to 1940 for experienced non-commissioned officers who were given command of platoons. In the Australian Army, an infantry platoon has thirty-six soldiers organized into three sections and a twelve-man maneuver support section. A lieutenant as platoon commander and a sergeant as platoon sergeant, accompanied by a platoon sig, a section comprises eight soldiers led by a corporal with a lance corporal as second in command. Each section has two fireteams of four men, one led by the corporal and the other by the lance corporal, each fireteam has one soldier with a 7. 62mm Maximi GSMG and the other three armed with Steyr F88 assault rifles. One rifle is equipped with an attached 40mm grenade launcher attachment for the lance corporal, more recently, the designated marksman of an Australian fireteam has been issued the HK417 in Afghanistan and possibly afterwards. The platoon may also have three MAG58 general-purpose machine guns, one M2 Browning heavy machine gun or a Mk 19 grenade launcher at its disposal and this may not be the case for all British Infantry units, since the 51mm mortars are not part of the TOE post-Afghanistan
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3rd Marine Infantry Regiment
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The 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment is a unit of the French Army in the French Forces. The 3e RIMa is one of the oldest of the troupes de marine, the « Grand Trois » has participated actively to the various far expeditions of the 19th century in Africa, the Americas, Oceania and the Orient. Surnamed also the 3rd Marine, the unit was part of the « Blue Division » which illustrated capability at the Battle of Bazeilles on August 31, the regiment was subordinated to the 9th Marine Infantry Brigade. 1854, the 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment was stationed at Rochefort,1869, the 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment was spread between Rochefort, Cochinchine, Réunion, New Caledonia and Tahiti. 1870, the 3rd Marching Marine Infantry Regiment,1890, the 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment was doubled and formed the 7th Colonial Infantry Regiment. 1900, the 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment was designated 3rd Colonial Infantry Regiment,1914, the 3rd Colonial Infantry Regiment was garrisoned at Rochefort. The regiment was part of the 3rd Colonial Brigade, 3rd Colonial Infantry Division 3e DIC,1946, 3rd Colonial Infantry Battalion 3e BIC. 1958, Instruction Center of the 3e RIC,1958, Instruction Center of the 3e RIMa. 1963, 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment 3e RIMa, each regiment counted 30 active companies, out of which 4 grenadier,4 de voltigeurs and 22 du centre, a headquarter staff and a company hors rang. The 1st regiment garrisoned at Brest, Cherbourg and Guadeloupe, the 2nd regiment at Brest, Rochefort and Martinique, the 3rd at Toulon, Cayenne, Senegal, accordingly, the origin of the 3e RIMa dates back to 1831. With the actual 2nd Marine Infantry Regiment 2e RIMa, the regiment is the oldest of the quatre vieux, the regiment garrisoned in Rochefort from 1838 to 1946. Campaign in Senegal from 1833 to 1835, operations of Oceania from 1843 to 1846. First expeditions in Morocco in 1844, napoleon III expressed a plentiful of solicitude for the troupes coloniales, a decree of 1854 reorganized the marine infantry by creating four regiments with four attaching ports of birth. Crimean War and during the expedition of the Baltic, campaign of Annam, Cochinchine and Cambodia. 1869, dispersed between Rochefort, Cochinchine, the Reunion, New Caledonia and Tahiti, for a first time, the 3rd Marine engaged in combat on metropolitan soil. On August 31 and September 1,1870, engaged at the corps of the Blue Division, on August 17,1870, the 3rd Marching Marine Infantry Regiment was part of the Armée de Châlons of Marshal de MacMahon. With the 2nd Marching Marine Infantry Regiment of colonel Alleyron, the 3e under the orders of the colonel Lecamus and this infantry division evolved at the corps of the 12th Army Corps, commanded by division general Lebrun. – August 23 to 261870 – March towards the east, – August 31,1870 – Battle of Bazeilles
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2nd Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment
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The 2nd Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment is an airborne regiment of the French Army created in 1947. The regiment is heir to the traditions of the 2nd Colonial Commando Parachute Battalion 2eB. C. C. P, as of 2008, the regiment is stationed at Saint-Pierre, Réunion. In 1947, the 2nd Colonial Commando Parachute Battalion 2eB. C. C. P was posted to Indochina, in 1954, the 2nd Colonial Parachute Battalion 2e BPC made way to Morocco and was then subsequently dissolved on July 31,1955. The unit served from 1955 until 1962 in North Africa at the corps 10th Parachute Division, on 5 November 1956, the unit jumped in the second wave of the French/British attack on the Suez Canal over Port Said and was cited at the orders of the armed forces. In July 1961, the regiment jumped over Bizerte and broke the Tunisian siege of the French airport installations, the regiment thennwas dissolved on 5 July 1962 and recreated 1 January 1965 in Ivato, Madagascar from the 5th Marine Infantry Parachute Battalion 5e BPIM. The regiment was transferred to Reunion in 1973. Since then, the regiment has participated in operations, Djibouti, Comoros, Rwanda. The Archangel Saint Michael, patron of the French paratroopers is celebrated on September 29, the prière du Para was written by André Zirnheld in 1938. Just like the paratrooper Brevet of the French Army, the Insignia of French Paratroopers was created in 1946, the French Army Insignia of metropolitan Paratroopers represents a closed <<winged armed dextrochere>>, meaning a right winged arm armed with a sword pointing upwards. The Insignia makes reference to the Patron of Paratroopers, in fact, the Insignia represents <<the right Arm of Saint Michael>>, the Archangel which according to Liturgy is the <<Armed Arm of God>>. This Insignia is the symbol of righteous combat and fidelity to superior missions, the French Army Insignia of Marine Infantry Paratroopers is backgrounded by a Marine Anchor. The regiment bears wearing the Fourragère, Fourragère bearing the colors of the Croix de guerre des théâtres dopérations extérieures, indochine 1947-1954 Port Saïd 1956 AFN 1952-1962 Raymond Duc Elrick Irastorza List of French paratrooper units Collective, History of French paratroopers, Literary Production Company,1975. Colonel Roger Fleming, Paras Free France, Editions Presses de la Cité,1976, henry Corta, The Red Berets, Association of Former SAS paratrooper,1952. Friends of the 2e RPIMa Le 2e RPIMA en action Bizerte, Large maneuvers du 2e RPIMA, Le Quotidien de la Réunion,7 octobre 2009
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Chad
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Chad, officially the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east and it is the fifth largest country in Africa in terms of area. Chad has several regions, a zone in the north, an arid Sahelian belt in the centre. Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the largest wetland in Chad, the capital NDjamena is the largest city. Chads official languages are Arabic and French, Chad is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. The religions of Chad are Islam, followed by Christianity, beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa, in 1960, Chad obtained independence under the leadership of François Tombalbaye. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a civil war in 1965. In 1979 the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the souths hegemony, however, the rebel commanders fought amongst themselves until Hissène Habré defeated his rivals. He was overthrown in 1990 by his general Idriss Déby, since 2003 the Darfur crisis in Sudan has spilt over the border and destabilised the nation, with hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees living in and around camps in eastern Chad. Unsustainable high birth rates and a lack of agriculture let the country persist in poverty, while many political parties are active, power lies firmly in the hands of President Déby and his political party, the Patriotic Salvation Movement. Chad remains plagued by violence and recurrent attempted coups détat. Chad is one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world, since 2003 crude oil has become the countrys primary source of export earnings, superseding the traditional cotton industry. In the 7th millennium BC, ecological conditions in the half of Chadian territory favored human settlement. Some of the most important African archaeological sites are found in Chad, mainly in the Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region, for more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people. The region became a crossroads of civilizations, the earliest of these were the legendary Sao, known from artifacts and oral histories. The Sao fell to the Kanem Empire, the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chads Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD, two other states in the region, Baguirmi and Wadai Empire emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trade routes that passed through the region
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Company (military unit)
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A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–250 soldiers and usually commanded by a major or a captain. Most companies are formed of three to six platoons, although the number may vary by country, unit type. Usually several companies are grouped as a battalion or regiment, the latter of which is formed by several battalions. Occasionally, independent or separate companies are organized for special purposes and these companies are not organic to a battalion or regiment, but rather report directly to a higher level organization such as a Marine Expeditionary Force headquarters. The modern military company became popularized during the reorganization of the Swedish Army in 1631 under King Gustav II Adolph, for administrative purposes, the infantry was divided into companies consisting of 150 men, grouped into regiments of eight companies. Tactically, the companies were organized into battalions and grouped with cavalry troops. From ancient times, some armies have used a base administrative. Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that humans are best able to maintain stable relationships in a group numbering between 100-250 members, with 150 members being the common number. The advent of accurate, long-range rifle fire, repeating rifles and this, coupled with the advent of radio communication, permitted relatively small numbers of men to have much greater firepower and combat effectiveness than previously possible. Companies, however, continue to remain within the range of 100-250 members, perhaps validating the premise that men fight best in organizations of around 150 members. These companies were not organic to any intermediate headquarters, but rather reported directly to the division headquarters, rifle companies consist of three platoons and a company headquarters. Until after the Second World War, the Royal Engineers and Royal Signals had both squadrons and companies depending on whether the units were supporting mounted or foot formations. The British Army infantry normally identifies its rifle companies by letter within a battalion, usually with the addition of a headquarters company and a support/heavy weapons company. Some units name their companies after regimental battle honours, this is commonly the case for composite units, for example the London Regiment with its Somme, Messines and Cambrai companies. The foot guards regiments use traditional names for some of their companies, for example Queens Company, Left Flank, Royal Marines companies are designated by a letter that is unique across the corps, not just within their command. The Intelligence Corps, Royal Army Medical Corps, Royal Military Police, the defunct Royal Army Service Corps, Royal Pioneer Corps and Royal Army Ordnance Corps had companies, the Royal Corps of Transport had squadrons. British companies are commanded by a major, the officer commanding. The Honourable Artillery Company is in fact a regiment, not a company, in terms of organisation, canadian Army organisation is modelled after the British
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8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment
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The 8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment is an airborne regiment of the French Army. The 8e RPIMa was created on February 281951 and the men wearing the red beret. This elite regiment is part of the 11th Parachute Brigade, the regiment is garrisoned at Castres, France. Current missions of the 8e RPIMa revolve around peacekeeping and assistance to world populations, in outremer, the regiment is engaged in operations defending French interests, or countries that are in liaison with France in security missions. In Europe, the regiment is engaged in defending the national French territory at the corps of the action force. This regiment can be deployed anywhere in the world. The regiment parts various Commando Parachute Groups, a group of French elite units, Parachute training is conducted at the École des troupes aéroportées in Pau. February 281951, creation of the 8th Colonial Parachute Battalion, September 121952, became the 8th Commando Parachute Groupment, 8e GCP. August 11953, became the 8th Parachute Choc Battalion, 8e BPC, may 311954, dissolution of the 8th Parachute Choc Battalion, 8e BPC. May 11956, creation of the 8th Colonial Parachute Regiment 8e RCP at the corps of the 25th Parachute Division 25e DP, december 11958, became 8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment, 8e RPIMa. The unit was created on 28 February 1951, in Hanoi as the 8th Colonial Parachute Battalion, present since 1951 and to 1954, the 8th Colonial Parachute Battalion fought at Lai-Chau, Hoa Binh, Langson and Dien Bien Phu heavily superiorly outnumbered. The Battalion was cited at the orders of the armed forces, the quasi totality of the battalion disappeared and was subsequently dissolved on 19 May 1954, after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. The unit was recreated as the 8th Colonial Parachute Regiment on 1 May 1956, the regiment participated in operations against the Algerian National Liberation Front, most notably at El Kiffene, Ain El Kesseub and Tarf at the corps of the 25th Parachute Division. The regiment relocated to the town of Nancy, Metropolitan France, in 1961, the regimental headquarters moved to Castres in 1963. The regiment partook in various peacekeeping missions in Lebanon on numerous yearly designated occasions within the UNIFIL first then integrated the corps of the Multinational Force in Lebanon. The regiment has been present around the world in Lebanon, Chad, Central Africa, Gabon and many others while mainly participating in humanitarian, the regiment is currently serving with the NATO ISAF in Afghanistan. In a fierce battle on 18–19 August 2008, ten French soldiers were killed and 21 wounded making it the largest loss of French troops in battle in many years, the Archangel Saint Michael, patron of the French paratroopers is celebrated on 29 September. The prière du Para was written by André Zirnheld in 1938, just like the paratrooper Brevet of the French Army, the Insignia of French Paratroopers was created in 1946
22.
Montpellier
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Montpellier is a city in southern France. It is the capital of the Hérault department, Montpellier is the 8th largest city of France, and is also the fastest growing city in the country over the past 25 years. Nearly one third of the population are students from three universities and from three higher education institutions that are outside the university framework in the city. Located on the south coast of France on the Mediterranean Sea, it is the third-largest French city on the Mediterranean coast after Marseille and Nice. Montpellier is one of the few cities in France without any Roman heritage. In the Early Middle Ages, the episcopal town of Maguelone was the major settlement in the area. Montpellier, first mentioned in a document of 985, was founded under a feudal dynasty, the Guilhem. The two surviving towers of the city walls, the Tour des Pins and the Tour de la Babotte, were built later, william VIII of Montpellier gave freedom for all to teach medicine in Montpellier in 1180. This era marked the point of Montpelliers prominence. The city became a possession of the Kings of Aragon in 1204 by the marriage of Peter II of Aragon with Marie of Montpellier, who was given the city and its dependencies as part of her dowry. Montpellier gained a charter in 1204 when Peter and Marie confirmed the traditional freedoms. Under the Kings of Aragon, Montpellier became an important city, a major economic centre. It was the second or third most important city of France at that time, with its importance steadily increasing, the city finally gained a bishop, who moved from Maguelone in 1536, and the huge monastery chapel became a cathedral. In 1432, Jacques Cœur established himself in the city and it became an important economic centre, at the time of the Reformation in the 16th century, many of the inhabitants of Montpellier became Protestants and the city became a stronghold of Protestant resistance to the Catholic French crown. In 1622, King Louis XIII besieged the city surrendered after a two months siege, afterwards building the Citadel of Montpellier to secure it. Louis XIV made Montpellier capital of Bas Languedoc, and the town started to embellish itself, by building the Promenade du Peyrou, the Esplanade, after the French Revolution, the city became the capital of the much smaller Hérault. During the 19th century the city developed into an industrial centre, in the 1960s, its population grew dramatically after French settlers in Algeria were resettled in the city following Algerias independence from France. In the 1980s and 1990s, the city drew attention with a number of redevelopment projects, such as the Corum
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Rennes
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Rennes is a city in the east of Brittany in northwestern France at the confluence of the Ille and the Vilaine. Rennes is the capital of the region of Brittany, as well as the Ille-et-Vilaine department, renness history goes back more than 2,000 years, at a time when it was a small Gallic village named Condate. Together with Vannes and Nantes, it was one of the cities of the historic province of Brittany. After the French Revolution, Rennes remained for most of its history a parliamentary, administrative, since the 1950s, Rennes has grown in importance through rural flight and its modern industrial development, partly automotive. The city developed extensive building plans to accommodate upwards of 200,000 inhabitants, during the 1980s, Rennes became one of the main centres in telecommunication and high technology industry. It is now a significant digital innovation centre in France, in 2015, the city is the tenth largest in France, with a metropolitan area of about 700,000 inhabitants. With more than 63,000 students in 2013, is also the eighth-largest university campus of France, the inhabitants of Rennes are called Rennais in French. In 2012, lExpress named Rennes as the most liveable city in France, Rennes is the administrative capital of the French department of Ille-et-Vilaine. It has a long history due to its location at the confluence of two rivers and its proximity to the regions from which arose various challenges to the borders of Brittany. Without inscriptions, as the Celtic practice was, the Redones coinage features a charioteer whose pony has a human head, large hoards of their coins were unearthed in the treasure of Amanlis found in June 1835 and that of Saint-Jacques-de-la-Lande, discovered in February 1941. The museum at Rennes contains a representative collection. In 57 BC the Redones joined the Gaulish coalition against Rome which was suppressed by Crassus, in 52 BC, the Redones responded to the call of Vercingetorix to furnish a large contingent of warriors. The oldest known Rennais is Titus Flavius Postuminus, known to us from his steles found in Rennes in 1969. As indicated by his name, he would have been born under the Flavian dynasty, under the reign of Titus, one of the steles tells us, in Latin, that he took charge over all the public affairs in the Civitas Riedonum. He was twice duumvir and flamen for life for Mars Mullo, during the Roman era, the strategic position of the town contributed to its importance. To the west the principal Roman route, via Osismii, stretched from Condate Riedonum to Vorgium, in 275, the threat of barbarians led to the erection of a robust brick wall around Rennes. The Holy See of Rennes had been established by 453, with a church having occupied the site of the current Rennes Cathedral since the start of the 6th century. One of the earliest bishops of Rennes, Melaine - who would become the patron saint - played an important role in the peace treaty between the Franks and the Armoricans in 497
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Master of Advanced Studies
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A master of advanced studies or master of advanced study is a postgraduate degree awarded in various countries. With the exception of the UK, advanced studies programs tend to be interdisciplinary, the University of Cambridge began offering the master of advanced study in 2010 as a one-year masters degree in Mathematics as a replacement for the Part III exam in Mathematics. Cambridge currently offers master of advanced degrees in four fields of study. The University of Warwick has approved the introduction of a master of advanced degree in Mathematics for the 2013/2014 year. The Diplôme détudes approfondies or DEA was a degree in France from 1964 to 2005 and it was a postgraduate degree, aimed to prepare for advanced doctoral studies. In addition to the research, thesis, and its defense, higher-ranking institutions often required one-year of classroom study, an internship, an exam. Although only credited with one-year, it took these students two to three years to receive the diploma. Entrance in DEA programs was permitted only to holders of the maîtrise universitaire, the Bologna Process was implemented in France in 2002. In 2005, the DEA and the maîtrise were fused into a degree called Master. At first, the first year of the Master was in fact a one-year stand-alone research program and this was gradually overturned by more Bologna-compliant programs, where the M1 introduces to research methods and M2 culminates in actual research. One can say that the old DEA idea is now extinct in France and it generally consisted of a number of courses, with examinations and grades, followed by research in a scientific laboratory. The students would write a substantial thesis about the scientific work they did. The master of advanced studies remains a common post-graduate degree in Switzerland, in Europe, the DEA degrees are progressively subsumed into the Bologna process masters degrees and research-oriented master of advanced studies degrees. The degree of master of advanced studies is awarded in Switzerland, Austria, in Switzerland, the degree is recognized by federal law. Generally, a university degree is required for admission, but also work experience, a MAS requires 60-120 ECTS. and usually consists of course work, independent study and a masters thesis. This degree also exists in Spain under the name Diploma de Estudios Avanzados or DEA and it confers a higher qualification credential than a master of philosophy or master of studies but lower than doctorate. The so-called DEA was achieved in two years, one year of coursework, which included research methods and theoretical approaches of the discipline at stake, all the work of the first and second years was defended before a panel. The DEA was a prerequisite for the preparation of the PhD proposal and the commencement of PhD research in Spain
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International relations
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International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative, because it analyzes and formulates the foreign policy of a given State. As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides, in practice International Relations and International Affairs forms a separate academic program or field from Political Science, and the courses taught therein are highly interdisciplinary. The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order. Contrary to popular belief, Westphalia still embodied layered systems of sovereignty, the centuries of roughly 1500 to 1789 saw the rise of the independent, sovereign states, the institutionalization of diplomacy and armies. The French Revolution added to this the new idea that not princes or an oligarchy, such a state in which the nation is sovereign would thence be termed a nation-state. The term republic increasingly became its synonym, the same claim to sovereignty was made for both forms of nation-state. The particular European system supposing the sovereign equality of states was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonialism, the contemporary international system was finally established through decolonization during the Cold War. While the nation-state system is considered modern, many states have not incorporated the system and are termed pre-modern, further, a handful of states have moved beyond insistence on full sovereignty, and can be considered post-modern. The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of different types of states is disputed. What is explicitly recognized as international relations theory was not developed until after World War I, IR theory, however, has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other social sciences. The use of capitalizations of the I and R in international relations aims to distinguish the academic discipline of international relations from the phenomena of international relations. Similarly, liberalism draws upon the work of Kant and Rousseau, in the 20th century, in addition to contemporary theories of liberal internationalism, Marxism has been a foundation of international relations. International relations as a field of study began in Britain. IR emerged as an academic discipline in 1919 with the founding of the first IR professorship. Georgetown Universitys Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest international relations faculty in the United States and this was rapidly followed by establishment of IR at universities in the US and in Geneva, Switzerland. The creation of the posts of Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at LSE, furthermore, the International History department at LSE developed a focus on the history of IR in the early modern, colonial and Cold War periods. The first university dedicated to the study of IR was the Graduate Institute of International Studies. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 2012, Ramon Llull University initiated the first International Relations degree in Barcelona, fully in English
26.
Brigadier general
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Brigadier general is a senior rank in the armed forces. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general, when appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000 troops. In some countries a brigadier general is designated as a one-star general. The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a general, or simply a brigadier. An alternative rank of general was first used in the French revolutionary armies. Some countries, such as Brazil, Taiwan, and Japan, some of these countries then use the rank of colonel general to make four general-officer ranks. The naval equivalent is usually commodore and this gallery displays Air Force brigadier general insignia if they are different from the Army brigadier general insignia. Note that in many Commonwealth countries, the equivalent air force rank is Air Commodore, the rank of brigadier general is used in the Argentine Air Force. Unlike other armed forces of the World, the rank of general is actually the highest rank in the Air Force. This is due to the use of the rank of brigadier and its derivatives to designate all general officers in the Air Force, brigadier, brigadier-major, and brigadier-general. The rank of general is reserved for the Chief General Staff of the Air Force. The Argentine Army does not use the rank of brigadier-general, instead using brigade general which in turn is the lowest general officer before Divisional General, see also Argentine Army officer rank insignia. When posted elsewhere, the rank would be relinquished and the former rank resumed and this policy prevented an accumulation of high-ranking general officers brought about by the relatively high turnover of brigade commanders. Brigadier general was used as an honorary rank on retirement. The rank insignia was like that of the current major general, as in the United Kingdom, the rank was later replaced by brigadier. Prior to 2001, the Bangladesh Army rank was known as brigadier, in 2001 the Bangladesh Army introduced the rank of brigadier general, however the grade stayed equivalent to brigadier. It is the lowest ranking general officer, between the ranks of Colonel and Major General, Brigadier General is equivalent to commodore of the Bangladesh Navy and air commodore of the Bangladesh Air Force. It is still popularly called brigadier
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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French Army
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