1.
EMac
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The eMac, short for education Mac, is a Macintosh desktop computer made by Apple Inc. It was originally aimed at the market, but was later made available as a cheaper mass market alternative to Apples second-generation LCD iMac G4. The eMac was pulled from retail on October 12,2005 and was sold exclusively to educational institutions thereafter and it was discontinued by Apple on July 5,2006 and replaced by a cheaper, low-end iMac that, like the eMac, was originally sold exclusively to educational institutions. The eMac design closely resembles the first-generation iMac, unlike the iMac G3, however, the eMac is not meant to be portable as it weighs 50 lb and lacks a carrying handle which was on the iMac G3. The eMac generally offered similar performance and features to the iMac G4 while they were sold side-by-side, the eMac was gradually supplanted by the iMac G5 in 2005 to 2006. Apple introduced the eMac in April 2002, the eMac was originally intended exclusively for education buyers, but the demand for it was high enough that it was made available for general retail one month later. In the retail market, it was positioned as a lower-cost alternative to the recently released second-generation G4-powered iMac, the eMac featured a 17-inch flat-screen CRT monitor, a Freescale PowerPC G4 processor running at 700 or 800 MHz, Nvidia GeForce2 MX graphics, and built-in 18-watt stereo speakers. The retail models were priced at US$1,099 and US$1,499 which filled the gap between the US$799 iMac G3 and the US$1499 iMac G4. Apple discontinued the iMac G3 line in March 2003 but did not fill the cheap price point until May 2003 and that revision brought the processor speed to 800 MHz and 1 GHz and replaced the GeForce2 MX with an ATI Radeon 7500 graphics card. The eMac was further improved in October 2003, when the 800 MHz model was eliminated, the more expensive 1 GHz model that included a SuperDrive was also made cheaper. This model was notable for being one of the least expensive brand-name computers at the time that could burn DVDs and it was both the last revision of the eMac able to run Apples OS9 operating system natively and the last Macintosh model sold that retained this capability. The next revision to the line came in April 2004, with DDR SDRAM, a faster processor running at 1.25 GHz. The most recent revision came in May 2005, with an even faster CPU running at 1.42 GHz, Radeon 9600 graphics, the company re-implemented this restrictive measure for unspecified reasons. Some analysts believe Apple wanted to force the public to purchase the more expensive Mac mini or iMac which had higher profit margins. Also, the eMac was the only CRT display product left in Apples lineup which made it somewhat bulky compared to new offerings which had compact form factors due to LCD screens, the falling cost of LCD displays would also gradually bring down the prices of the iMac G5. However, the eMac was still available for sale to the public through some third-party retailer websites. On July 5,2006, the entire line was discontinued. With the exception of some non-SuperDrive-equipped 1 GHz units, models 1 GHz and faster cannot boot OS9, no model of eMac can run OS X10.6 or higher, because Snow Leopard requires an Intel-based processor
2.
GNU Emacs
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GNU Emacs is the most popular and most ported Emacs text editor. It was created by GNU Project founder Richard Stallman, in common with other varieties of Emacs, GNU Emacs is extensible using a Turing complete programming language. GNU Emacs has been called the most powerful text editor available today, with proper support from the underlying system, GNU Emacs is able to display files in multiple character sets, and has been able to simultaneously display most human languages since at least 1999. Throughout its history, GNU Emacs has been a component of the GNU project. GNU Emacs is sometimes abbreviated as GNUMACS, especially to differentiate it from other EMACS variants, the tag line for GNU Emacs is the extensible self-documenting text editor. In 1976, Stallman wrote the first Emacs, and in 1984, began work on GNU Emacs, GNU Emacs was initially based on Gosling Emacs, but Stallmans replacement of its Mocklisp interpreter with a true Lisp interpreter required that nearly all of its code be rewritten. This became the first program released by the nascent GNU Project, GNU Emacs is written in C and provides Emacs Lisp, also implemented in C, as an extension language. Version 13, the first public release, was made on March 20,1985, the first widely distributed version of GNU Emacs was version 15.34, released later in 1985. Early versions of GNU Emacs were numbered as 1. x. x, the 1 was dropped after version 1.12 as it was thought that the major number would never change, and thus the major version skipped from 1 to 13. A new third version number was added to represent changes made by user sites, in the current numbering scheme, a number with two components signifies a release version, with development versions having three components. GNU Emacs was later ported to Unix and it offered more features than Gosling Emacs, in particular a full-featured Lisp as its extension language, and soon replaced Gosling Emacs as the de facto Unix Emacs editor. Markus Hess exploited a security flaw in GNU Emacs email subsystem in his 1986 cracking spree, the project has since adopted a public development mailing list and anonymous CVS access. Development took place in a single CVS trunk until 2008, Richard Stallman has remained the principal maintainer of GNU Emacs, but he has stepped back from the role at times. Stefan Monnier and Chong Yidong have overseen maintenance since 2008, on September 21,2015 Monnier announced that he would be stepping down as maintainer effective with the feature freeze of Emacs 25. Older versions of the GNU Emacs documentation appeared under a license that required the inclusion of certain text in any modified copy. In the GNU Emacs users manual, for example, this included instructions for obtaining GNU Emacs, the XEmacs manuals, which were inherited from older GNU Emacs manuals when the fork occurred, have the same license. Bug fixes and minor code contributions of fewer than 10 lines are exempt and this policy is in place so that the FSF can defend the software in court if its copyleft license is violated. In 2011 it was noticed that GNU Emacs had been violating the GPL for two years, Richard Stallman described this incident as a very bad mistake, which was promptly fixed and no lawsuit was filed
3.
Dired
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Dired is a computer program for editing file system directories. It typically runs inside the Emacs text editor as a specialized mode, Dired was the first file manager, or visual editor of file system information. The first version of Dired was written as a stand-alone program circa 1974 by Stan Kugell at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and it was incorporated into GNU Emacs from the earliest versions, and re-implemented in C and C++ on other operating systems. When run in Emacs, dired displays an ls-like file listing in an Emacs buffer, the list can be navigated using standard navigation commands. Several Emacs Lisp scripts have been developed to extend Dired in Emacs, there are also functions that make it possible to rename multiple files via Emacs search and replace capabilities or apply regular expressions for marking multiple files. Once marked, files can be operated on in various ways from deleting, to renaming, Dired manual at GNU. org Entry at the Emacs wiki, focuses mostly on the many scripts and tweaks that can modify the default Direds behavior
4.
Software developer
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A software developer is a person concerned with facets of the software development process, including the research, design, programming, and testing of computer software. Other job titles which are used with similar meanings are programmer, software analyst. According to developer Eric Sink, the differences between system design, software development, and programming are more apparent, even more so that developers become systems architects, those who design the multi-leveled architecture or component interactions of a large software system. In a large company, there may be employees whose sole responsibility consists of one of the phases above. In smaller development environments, a few people or even an individual might handle the complete process. The word software was coined as a prank as early as 1953, before this time, computers were programmed either by customers, or the few commercial computer vendors of the time, such as UNIVAC and IBM. The first company founded to provide products and services was Computer Usage Company in 1955. The software industry expanded in the early 1960s, almost immediately after computers were first sold in mass-produced quantities, universities, government, and business customers created a demand for software. Many of these programs were written in-house by full-time staff programmers, some were distributed freely between users of a particular machine for no charge. Others were done on a basis, and other firms such as Computer Sciences Corporation started to grow. The computer/hardware makers started bundling operating systems, systems software and programming environments with their machines, new software was built for microcomputers, so other manufacturers including IBM, followed DECs example quickly, resulting in the IBM AS/400 amongst others. The industry expanded greatly with the rise of the computer in the mid-1970s. In the following years, it created a growing market for games, applications. DOS, Microsofts first operating system product, was the dominant operating system at the time, by 2014 the role of cloud developer had been defined, in this context, one definition of a developer in general was published, Developers make software for the world to use. The job of a developer is to crank out code -- fresh code for new products, code fixes for maintenance, code for business logic, bus factor Software Developer description from the US Department of Labor
5.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
6.
Lisp (programming language)
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Lisp is a family of computer programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully parenthesized prefix notation. Originally specified in 1958, Lisp is the second-oldest high-level programming language in use today. Only Fortran is older, by one year, Lisp has changed since its early days, and many dialects have existed over its history. Today, the best known general-purpose Lisp dialects are Common Lisp, Lisp was originally created as a practical mathematical notation for computer programs, influenced by the notation of Alonzo Churchs lambda calculus. It quickly became the programming language for artificial intelligence research. The name LISP derives from LISt Processor, linked lists are one of Lisps major data structures, and Lisp source code is made of lists. Thus, Lisp programs can manipulate source code as a data structure, the interchangeability of code and data gives Lisp its instantly recognizable syntax. All program code is written as s-expressions, or parenthesized lists, Lisp was invented by John McCarthy in 1958 while he was at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. McCarthy published its design in a paper in Communications of the ACM in 1960, entitled Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine and he showed that with a few simple operators and a notation for functions, one can build a Turing-complete language for algorithms. Information Processing Language was the first AI language, from 1955 or 1956, and already included many of the concepts, such as list-processing and recursion, McCarthys original notation used bracketed M-expressions that would be translated into S-expressions. As an example, the M-expression car is equivalent to the S-expression, once Lisp was implemented, programmers rapidly chose to use S-expressions, and M-expressions were abandoned. M-expressions surfaced again with short-lived attempts of MLISP by Horace Enea, Lisp was first implemented by Steve Russell on an IBM704 computer. Russell had read McCarthys paper and realized that the Lisp eval function could be implemented in machine code, the result was a working Lisp interpreter which could be used to run Lisp programs, or more properly, evaluate Lisp expressions. Two assembly language macros for the IBM704 became the operations for decomposing lists, car. From the context, it is clear that the register is used here to mean memory register. Lisp dialects still use car and cdr for the operations that return the first item in a list, the first complete Lisp compiler, written in Lisp, was implemented in 1962 by Tim Hart and Mike Levin at MIT. This compiler introduced the Lisp model of incremental compilation, in which compiled and interpreted functions can intermix freely, the language used in Hart and Levins memo is much closer to modern Lisp style than McCarthys earlier code. Lisp was a system to implement with the compiler techniques
7.
C (programming language)
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C was originally developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at Bell Labs, and used to re-implement the Unix operating system. C has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute since 1989, C is an imperative procedural language. Therefore, C was useful for applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming, a standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language has become available on a wide range of platforms. In C, all code is contained within subroutines, which are called functions. Function parameters are passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values, C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements. The C language also exhibits the characteristics, There is a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of flow of control primitives, for, if/else, while, switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil, There are a large number of arithmetical and logical operators, such as +, +=, ++, &, ~, etc. More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement, function return values can be ignored when not needed. Typing is static, but weakly enforced, all data has a type, C has no define keyword, instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no function keyword, instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list, user-defined and compound types are possible. Heterogeneous aggregate data types allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit, array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects, they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators, There is no array keyword, in use or definition, instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month. Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword and they are not tagged, and are freely interconvertible with integers. Strings are not a data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated arrays of characters. Low-level access to memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers
8.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
9.
Text editor
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A text editor is a type of program used for editing plain text files. Such programs are known as notepad software, following the Microsoft Notepad. Text editors are provided with operating systems and software development packages, there are important differences between plain text files created by a text editor and document files created by word processors such as Microsoft Word or WordPerfect. A plain text file uses a character encoding such as UTF-8 or ASCII to represent numbers, letters, the only non-printing characters in the file that can be used to format the text are newline, tab, and formfeed. Plain text files are displayed using a monospace font so horizontal alignment. Although they are viewed with formatting, documents using markup languages are stored in plain text files that contain a combination of human-readable text. For example, web pages are plain text with HTML tags to achieve formatting when rendered by a web browser, many web pages also contain embedded JavaScript that is interpreted by the browser. When both formats are available, the user must select with care, saving a plain text file in a word-processor format adds formatting information that can make the text unreadable by a program that expects plain text. Conversely, saving a document as plain text removes any formatting information. Before text editors existed, computer text was punched into cards with keypunch machines, physical boxes of these thin cardboard cards were then inserted into a card-reader. Magnetic tape and disk card-image files created from such card decks often had no characters at all. An alternative to cards was punched paper tape and it could be created by some teleprinters, which used special characters to indicate ends of records. The first text editors were line editors oriented to teleprinter- or typewriter-style terminals without displays, commands effected edits to a file at an imaginary insertion point called the cursor. Edits were verified by typing a command to print a small section of the file, in some line editors, the cursor could be moved by commands that specified the line number in the file, text strings for which to search, and eventually regular expressions. Line editors were major improvements over keypunching, some line editors could be used by keypunch, editing commands could be taken from a deck of cards and applied to a specified file. Some common line editors supported a mode in which change commands displayed the altered lines. When computer terminals with video screens became available, screen-based text editors became common, one of the earliest full-screen editors was O26, which was written for the operator console of the CDC6000 series computers in 1967. Another early full-screen editor was vi, written in the 1970s, it is still a standard editor on Unix and Linux operating systems
10.
User interface
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The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. Examples of this concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. Generally, the goal of user interface design is to produce a user interface makes it easy, efficient. This generally means that the needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output. Other terms for user interface are man–machine interface and when the machine in question is a computer human–computer interface, the user interface or human–machine interface is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touchscreens are examples of the part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see. In complex systems, the interface is typically computerized. The term human–computer interface refers to this kind of system, in the context of computing the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for human-computer interaction. The engineering of the interfaces is enhanced by considering ergonomics. The corresponding disciplines are human factors engineering and usability engineering, which is part of systems engineering, tools used for incorporating human factors in the interface design are developed based on knowledge of computer science, such as computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages. Nowadays, we use the graphical user interface for human–machine interface on computers. There is a difference between a user interface and an interface or a human–machine interface. A human-machine interface is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, an operator interface is the interface method by which multiple equipment that are linked by a host control system is accessed or controlled. The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users, for example, a computerized library database might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons and the other for library personnel. The user interface of a system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface. HMI is a modification of the original term MMI, in practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is commonly used for human–computer interaction
11.
Macro (computer science)
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A macro in computer science is a rule or pattern that specifies how a certain input sequence should be mapped to a replacement output sequence according to a defined procedure. The mapping process that instantiates a macro use into a sequence is known as macro expansion. A facility for writing macros may be provided as part of an application or as a part of a programming language. In the former case, macros are used to make using the application less repetitive. In the latter case, they are a tool allows a programmer to enable code reuse or even to design domain-specific languages. Macros are used to make a sequence of computing instructions available to the programmer as a single statement, making the programming task less tedious. The term derives from macro instruction, and such expansions were originally used in generating assembly language code, keyboard macros and mouse macros allow short sequences of keystrokes and mouse actions to transform into other, usually more time-consuming, sequences of keystrokes and mouse actions. In this way, frequently used or repetitive sequences of keystrokes, separate programs for creating these macros are called macro recorders. These programs were based on the TSR mode of operation and applied to all keyboard input, keyboard macros have in more recent times come to life as a method of exploiting the economy of massively multiplayer online role-playing games. By tirelessly performing a boring, repetitive, but low risk action and this effect is even larger when a macro-using player operates multiple accounts simultaneously, or operates the accounts for a large amount of time each day. As this money is generated without human intervention, it can upset the economy of the game. For this reason, use of macros is a violation of the TOS or EULA of most MMORPGs, keyboard and mouse macros that are created using an applications built-in macro features are sometimes called application macros. They are created by carrying out the once and letting the application record the actions. An underlying macro programming language, most commonly a scripting language, the programmers text editor, Emacs, follows this idea to a conclusion. In effect, most of the editor is made of macros, Emacs was originally devised as a set of macros in the editing language TECO, it was later ported to dialects of Lisp. Another programmers text editor, Vim, also has full implementation of macros and it can record into a register what a person types on the keyboard and it can be replayed or edited just like VBA macros for Microsoft Office. Vim also has a language called Vimscript to create macros. Visual Basic for Applications is a programming language included in Microsoft Office up to Office 2013, however, its function has evolved from and replaced the macro languages that were originally included in some of these applications
12.
Gnus
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Gnus /ɡəˈnuːz, ˈɡnuːz/, or Gnus Network User Services, is a message reader which is part of GNU Emacs. It supports reading and composing both e-mail and news and can act as an RSS reader, web processor. Gnus blurs the distinction between news and e-mail, treating both as articles that come from different sources. News articles are separate by group, and e-mail can be split into arbitrary groups. In addition, Gnus is able to use a number of web-based sources as inputs for its groups, note that, as with GNU, the g in Gnus is always pronounced. g. Integration with other Emacs packages, such as the W3 web browser, LDAP lookup code, as part of Emacs, Gnus features can be extended indefinitely through Emacs lisp. To quote the Gnus Manual, You know that Gnus gives you all the opportunity youd ever want for shooting yourself in the foot, Gnus is also customizable to a great extent, which means that the user has a say on how Gnus behaves. Other newsreaders might unconditionally shoot you in your foot, but with Gnus, note that the composition of HTML email messages is not included by default, the lack of this ability is counted as a feature by Gnus traditional user base. Gnus is a rewrite of GNUS by Masanobu Umeda, which ceased to be developed in 1992, the new version proved to be popular and has undergone constant expansion and enhancement. Ingebrigtsen is also programmer of eww,5. 10/5.11 development from the Oort development branch wrapped up around 2008. Some 5.11 versions, such as that packaged by Ubuntu Linux as 5. 11+v0.10, are based on the later No Gnus development branch. Gnus 5.13 - bundled with GNU Emacs 23.1 The No Gnus development branch began January 4,2004, Gnus 5.14, Ma Gnus, is the current development version, v0.7 first released in May 2013. The odd minor version numbers, like 5.3 and 5.5 are for the Gnus versions bundled with GNU Emacs, the even version numbers are the unbundled releases. So for example, Gnus 5.5 is similar to Gnus 5.4, development is done using named versions, whose first letters run backwards in the alphabet, No Gnus v0.19 was released in early 2012, and development transitioned to Ma Gnus. No named version ever reaches 1.0, instead when it is considered enough for general release, it sheds its name. After being developed separately for 22 years, the developer of Gnus announced that development would take place inside Gnu Emacs git tree. A side effect of change is that support for XEmacs. Comparison of e-mail clients Comparison of feed aggregators List of Usenet newsreaders Comparison of Usenet newsreaders Official website
13.
Org-mode
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Org-mode is an editing and organizing mode for notes, planning, and authoring in the free software text editor Emacs. The name is used to encompass plain text files that include simple marks to indicate levels of a hierarchy, Bastien Guerry is the current maintainer, in cooperation with an active development community. Since its success in Emacs, some systems have also begun providing functions to work with org files. The Org system is based on text files with a simple markup. The Linux Information Project explains that Plain text is supported by nearly every application program on every operating system, the system includes a lightweight markup language for plain text files, allowing lines or sections of plain text to be hierarchically divided, tagged, linked, and so on. This section gives some sample uses for the display and editing of plain text. To-do lists often have subtasks, and so lend themselves to a hierarchical system, Org-mode facilitates this by allowing items to be subdivided into simple steps, and given tags and properties such as priorities and deadlines. An agenda for the items to be done this week or day can then be generated from date tags. Org files as interconnected pages of a wiki, using the markup for links. Tracking bugs in a project, by storing. org files in a revision control system such as Git. Org-mode has some features to export to other formats, and other systems have features to handle org-mode formats. From org-mode, add-on packages export to other markup format such as MediaWiki, outside of org-mode editors, org markup is supported by the GitHub code repository, the JIRA issue tracker, Pandoc, and others. Some of the systems that handle org files include, Emacs Mobile apps, the Vim text editor, via plugins, VimOrganizer - An Emacs Org-mode clone for Vim. vim-orgmode - Text outlining and task management for Vim based on Emacs Org-mode. VOoM - Outliner including an Org markup mode, vxfold. vim - Fold cycling similar to Emacs Org-mode. Sublime Text editor, with Org syntax and features using its orgmode plugin, the Org Mode 7 Reference Manual, Organize your life with GNU Emacs. With contributions by David OToole, Bastien Guerry, Philip Rooke, Dan Davison, Eric Schulte, Schulte, Eric, Davison, Dan, Dye, Thomas, Dominik, Carsten. A Multi-Language Computing Environment for Literate Programming and Reproducible Research, american Institute of Physics, and IEEE Computer Society
14.
RSS
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RSS uses a family of standard web feed formats to publish frequently updated information, blog entries, news headlines, audio, video. An RSS document includes full or summarized text, and metadata, like publishing date, RSS feeds enable publishers to syndicate data automatically. A standard XML file format ensures compatibility with many different machines/programs, RSS feeds also benefit users who want to receive timely updates from favourite websites or to aggregate data from many sites. Subscribing to a website RSS removes the need for the user to check the website for new content. Instead, their browser constantly monitors the site and informs the user of any updates, the browser can also be commanded to automatically download the new data for the user. Software termed RSS reader, aggregator, or feed reader, which can be web-based, desktop-based, or mobile-device-based, users subscribe to feeds either by entering a feeds URI into the reader or by clicking on the browsers feed icon. The RSS reader checks the users feeds regularly for new information and can download it. The reader also provides a user interface, the RSS formats were preceded by several attempts at web syndication that did not achieve widespread popularity. RDF Site Summary, the first version of RSS, was created by Dan Libby and it was released in March 1999 for use on the My. Netscape. Com portal. This version became known as RSS0.9, in July 1999, Dan Libby of Netscape produced a new version, RSS0.91, which simplified the format by removing RDF elements and incorporating elements from Dave Winers news syndication format. Libby also renamed the format from RDF to RSS Rich Site Summary and this would be Netscapes last participation in RSS development for eight years. Winer published a version of the RSS0.91 specification on the UserLand website, covering how it was being used in his companys products. A few months later, UserLand filed a U. S. trademark registration for RSS, but failed to respond to a USPTO trademark examiners request and the request was rejected in December 2001. The RSS-DEV Working Group, a project whose members included Guha and representatives of OReilly Media and Moreover and he also released drafts of RSS0.93 and RSS0.94 that were subsequently withdrawn. In September 2002, Winer released a new version of the format, RSS2.0. RSS2.0 removed the type attribute added in the RSS0.94 draft, to preserve backward compatibility with RSS0.92, namespace support applies only to other content included within an RSS2.0 feed, not the RSS2.0 elements themselves. Because neither Winer nor the RSS-DEV Working Group had Netscapes involvement and this has fueled ongoing controversy in the syndication development community as to which entity was the proper publisher of RSS. One product of that debate was the creation of an alternative syndication format, Atom
15.
ELIZA
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ELIZA is an early natural language processing computer program created from 1964 to 1966 at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory by Joseph Weizenbaum. The most famous script, DOCTOR, simulated a Rogerian psychotherapist and used rules, dictated in the script, as such, ELIZA was one of the first chatterbots, but was also regarded as one of the first programs capable of passing the Turing Test. While ELIZA was capable of engaging in discourse, ELIZA could not converse with true understanding, however, many early users were convinced of ELIZA’s intelligence and understanding, despite Weizenbaum’s insistence to the contrary. While ELIZA is most well known for acting in the manner of a psychotherapist, the algorithms of DOCTOR allowed for a deceptively intelligent response, that deceived many individuals when first using the program. Weizenbaum named his program ELIZA after Eliza Doolittle, a character in George Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion. However, unlike in Shaw’s play, ELIZA is incapable of learning new patterns of speech or new words through interaction alone, edits must be made directly to ELIZA’s active script in order to change the manner by which the program operates. Weizenbaum’s own secretary reportedly asked Weizenbaum to leave the room so that she and ELIZA could have a real conversation. ”In 1966, at the ICCC1972 ELIZA met another early artificial intelligence program named PARRY and had the first computer only conversation. While ELIZA was built to be a Doctor PARRY was intended to simulate a patient with schizophrenia, Weizenbaum originally wrote ELIZA in MAD-Slip for the IBM7094, as a program to make natural language conversation possible with a computer. Weizenbaum solved these problems in his ELIZA program and made ELIZA such that it had no built in contextual framework or universe of discourse, however, this required ELIZA to have a script of instructions on how to respond to inputs from users. ELIZA starts its process of responding to an input by a user by first examining the input for a ‘keyword’. A ‘keyword’ is a designated as important by the acting ELIZA script. If such words are found, they are put into a ‘keystack’, the input sentence is then manipulated and transformed as the rule associated with the keyword of the highest RANK directs. Such words with high numbers are deemed superior to conversational patterns. Following the first examination, the step of the process is to apply an appropriate transformation rule. First, the input is reviewed for syntactical patterns in order to establish the context necessary to respond. Using the keywords and other words from the input, different disassembly rules are tested until an appropriate pattern is found. Using the script’s rules, the sentence is then ‘dismantled’ and arranged sections of the component parts as the “decomposition rule for the highest ranking keyword” dictates. The example that Weizenbaum gives is the input “I are very helpful”, the decomposition rule has broken the phrase into four small segments, that contain both the keywords and the information in the sentence
16.
Pong
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Pong is one of the earliest arcade video games and the first sports arcade video game. It is a tennis sports game featuring simple two-dimensional graphics. While other arcade games such as Computer Space came before it. The game was manufactured by Atari, which released it in 1972. Allan Alcorn created Pong as a training exercise assigned to him by Atari co-founder Nolan Bushnell, Bushnell based the idea on an electronic ping-pong game included in the Magnavox Odyssey, which later resulted in a lawsuit against Atari. Surprised by the quality of Alcorns work, Bushnell and Atari co-founder Ted Dabney decided to manufacture the game, soon after its release, several companies began producing games that copied Pongs gameplay, and eventually released new types of games. As a result, Atari encouraged its staff to more innovative games. The company released several sequels that built upon the gameplay by adding new features. During the 1975 Christmas season, Atari released a version of Pong exclusively through Sears retail stores. It was also a success and led to numerous copies. The game has been remade on numerous home and portable platforms following its release, Pong has been referenced and parodied in multiple television shows and video games, and has been a part of several video game and cultural exhibitions. Pong is a sports game that simulates table tennis. Players use the paddles to hit a back and forth. The aim is for player to reach eleven points before the opponent. Pong was the first game developed by Atari, after producing Computer Space, Bushnell decided to form a company to produce more games by licensing ideas to other companies. The first contract was with Bally Manufacturing Corporation for a driving game, soon after the founding, Bushnell hired Allan Alcorn because of his experience with electrical engineering and computer science, Bushnell and Dabney also had previously worked with him at Ampex. Prior to working at Atari, Alcorn had no experience with video games, to acclimate Alcorn to creating games, Bushnell gave him a project secretly meant to be a warm-up exercise. Bushnell told Alcorn that he had a contract with General Electric for a product, in 2011, Bushnell stated that the game was inspired by previous versions of electronic tennis he had played before, Bushnell played a version on a PDP-1 computer in 1964 while attending college
17.
Conway's Game of Life
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The Game of Life, also known simply as Life, is a cellular automaton devised by the British mathematician John Horton Conway in 1970. The game is a game, meaning that its evolution is determined by its initial state. One interacts with the Game of Life by creating an initial configuration and observing how it evolves, or, for advanced players, by creating patterns with particular properties. The universe of the Game of Life is an infinite two-dimensional orthogonal grid of square cells, every cell interacts with its eight neighbours, which are the cells that are horizontally, vertically, or diagonally adjacent. At each step in time, the transitions occur, Any live cell with fewer than two live neighbours dies, as if caused by underpopulation. Any live cell with two or three live neighbours lives on to the next generation, Any live cell with more than three live neighbours dies, as if by overpopulation. Any dead cell with three live neighbours becomes a live cell, as if by reproduction. The initial pattern constitutes the seed of the system, the rules continue to be applied repeatedly to create further generations. The Game of Life emerged as Conways successful attempt to drastically simplify von Neumanns ideas, the game made its first public appearance in the October 1970 issue of Scientific American, in Martin Gardners Mathematical Games column. Gardner wrote, The game made Conway instantly famous, but it opened up a whole new field of mathematical research. Because of Lifes analogies with the rise, fall and alterations of a society of living organisms, ever since its publication, Conways Game of Life has attracted much interest, because of the surprising ways in which the patterns can evolve. Life provides an example of emergence and self-organization, the game can also serve as a didactic analogy, used to convey the somewhat counterintuitive notion that design and organization can spontaneously emerge in the absence of a designer. The popularity of Conways Game of Life was helped by its coming into being just in time for a new generation of inexpensive computer access which were being released into the market. The game could be run for hours on these machines, which would otherwise have remained unused at night, in this respect, it foreshadowed the later popularity of computer-generated fractals. For many, Life was simply a challenge, a fun way to use otherwise wasted CPU cycles. For some, however, Life had more philosophical connotations and it developed a cult following through the 1970s and beyond, current developments have gone so far as to create theoretic emulations of computer systems within the confines of a Life board. Conway chose his rules carefully, after experimentation, to meet these criteria. There should exist small initial patterns with chaotic, unpredictable outcomes, There should be potential for von Neumann universal constructors
18.
Tetris
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Tetris is a tile-matching puzzle video game, originally designed and programmed by Russian game designer Alexey Pajitnov. It was released on June 6,1984, while he was working for the Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre of the Academy of Science of the USSR in Moscow and he derived its name from the Greek numerical prefix tetra- and tennis, Pajitnovs favorite sport. Tetris was the first entertainment software to be exported from the USSR to the US, the Tetris game is a popular use of tetrominoes, the four-element special case of polyominoes. Polyominoes have been used in popular puzzles since at least 1907, however, even the enumeration of pentominoes is dated to antiquity. It has even inspired Tetris serving dishes and been played on the sides of various buildings, electronic Gaming Monthlys 100th issue had Tetris in first place as Greatest Game of All Time. In 2007, Tetris came in place in IGNs 100 Greatest Video Games of All Time. Tetriminos are game pieces shaped like tetrominoes, geometric shapes composed of four blocks each. A random sequence of Tetriminos fall down the playing field, the objective of the game is to manipulate these Tetriminos, by moving each one sideways and rotating it by 90 degree units, with the aim of creating a horizontal line of ten units without gaps. When such a line is created, it disappears, and any block above the line will fall. When a certain number of lines are cleared, the game enters a new level. As the game progresses, each level causes the Tetriminos to fall faster, some games also end after a finite number of levels or lines. All of the Tetriminos are capable of single and double clears, I, J, and L are able to clear triples. Only the I Tetrimino has the capacity to four lines simultaneously. Pajitnovs original version for the Electronika 60 computer used green brackets to represent blocks, prior to The Tetris Companys standardization in the early 2000s, those colors varied widely from implementation to implementation. The scoring formula for the majority of Tetris products is built on the idea that more difficult line clears should be awarded more points. For example, a line clear in Tetris Zone is worth 100 points, clearing four lines at once is worth 800. Nearly all Tetris games allow the player to press a button to increase the speed of the current pieces descent, rather than waiting for it to fall. The player can stop the pieces increased speed before the piece reaches the floor by letting go of the button
19.
Richard Stallman
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Richard Matthew Stallman, often known by his initials, rms, is an American software freedom activist and programmer. He campaigns for software to be distributed in a such that its users receive the freedoms to use, study, distribute. Software that ensures these freedoms is termed free software, Stallman launched the GNU Project, founded the Free Software Foundation, developed the GNU Compiler Collection and GNU Emacs, and wrote the GNU General Public License. Stallman launched the GNU Project in September 1983 to create a Unix-like computer operating system composed entirely of free software, with this, he also launched the free software movement. In October 1985 he founded the Free Software Foundation, in 1989 he co-founded the League for Programming Freedom. This has included software license agreements, non-disclosure agreements, activation keys, dongles, copy restriction, proprietary formats, as of 2016, he has received fifteen honorary doctorates and professorships. Stallman was born to Alice Lippman, a teacher, and Daniel Stallman. He was interested in computers at an age, when Stallman was a pre-teen at a summer camp. From 1967 to 1969, Stallman attended a Columbia University Saturday program for school students. Stallman was also a laboratory assistant in the biology department at Rockefeller University. Although he was interested in mathematics and physics, his professor at Rockefeller thought he showed promise as a biologist. His first experience with computers was at the IBM New York Scientific Center when he was in high school. He was hired for the summer in 1970, following his year of high school. He completed the task after a couple of weeks and spent the rest of the writing a text editor in APL. As a first-year student at Harvard University in fall 1970, Stallman was known for his performance in Math 55. He was happy, For the first time in my life, Stallman graduated from Harvard magna cum laude earning a bachelors degree in Physics in 1974. Stallman considered staying on at Harvard, but instead he decided to enroll as a student at MIT. He pursued a doctorate in physics for one year, but left that program to focus on his programming at the MIT AI Laboratory
20.
GNU Project
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The GNU Project /ɡnuː/ is a free-software, mass-collaboration project, first announced on September 27,1983 by Richard Stallman at MIT. GNU software guarantees these freedom-rights legally, and is free software. In order to ensure that the software of a computer grants its users all freedom rights, even the most fundamental and important part. Stallman decided to call this operating system GNU, basing its design on that of Unix, development was initiated in January 1984. In 1991, the kernel Linux appeared, developed outside of the GNU project by Linus Torvalds, combined with the operating system utilities already developed by the GNU project, it allowed for the first operating system that was free software, known as Linux or GNU/Linux. The projects current work includes development, awareness building, political campaigning and sharing of the new material. Richard Stallman announced his intent to start coding the GNU Project in a Usenet message in September 1983, when the GNU project first started they had an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands, a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, and a linker. The GNU system required its own C compiler and tools to be free software, by June 1987, the project had accumulated and developed free software for an assembler, an almost finished portable optimizing C compiler, an editor, and various Unix utilities. They had a kernel that needed more updates. Once the kernel and the compiler were finished, GNU was able to be used for program development, the main goal was to create many other applications to be like the Unix system. GNU was able to run Unix programs but was not identical to it, GNU incorporated longer file names, file version numbers, and a crashproof file system. The GNU Manifesto was written to support and participation from others for the project. Programmers were encouraged to take part in any aspect of the project that interested them, people could donate funds, computer parts, or even their own time to write code and programs for the project. The origins and development of most aspects of the GNU Project are shared in a narrative in the Emacs help system. It is the detailed history as at their web site. The GNU Manifesto was written by Richard Stallman to gain support, to implement these freedoms, users needed full access to code. Although most of the GNU Projects output is technical in nature, it was launched as a social, ethical, as well as producing software and licenses, the GNU Project has published a number of writings, the majority of which were authored by Richard Stallman. The GNU project uses software that is free for users to copy, edit and it is free in the sense that users can change the software to fit individual needs
21.
XEmacs
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XEmacs is a graphical- and console-based text editor which runs on almost any Unix-like operating system as well as Microsoft Windows. XEmacs is a fork, based on a version of GNU Emacs from the late 1980s, any user can download, use, and modify XEmacs as free software available under the GNU General Public License version 2 or any later version. Between 1987 and 1993 significant delays occurred in bringing out a new version of GNU Emacs, in the late 1980s, Richard P. Gabriels Lucid Inc. faced a requirement to ship Emacs to support the Energize C++ IDE. So Lucid recruited a team to improve and extend the code, with the intention that their new version, released in 1991, however, they did not have time to wait for their changes to be accepted by the Free Software Foundation. Lucid continued developing and maintaining their version of Emacs, while the FSF released version 19 of GNU Emacs a year later, while merging some of the code, when Lucid went out of business in 1994, other developers picked up the code. Accordingly, the X in XEmacs represents a compromise among the involved in developing XEmacs. The X in XEmacs is thus not related to the X Window System, XEmacs has always supported text-based terminals and windowing systems other than X11. Installers can compile both XEmacs and GNU Emacs with and without X support, for a period of time XEmacs even had some terminal-specific features, such as coloring, that GNU Emacs lacked. The software community generally refers to GNU Emacs, XEmacs collectively or individually as emacsen or as emacs, XEmacs has comprehensive online help, as well as five manuals available from the XEmacs website. XEmacs supports many languages as well as editing-modes for many programming. XEmacs runs on many operating systems including Unix/Linux, BSDs and Mac OS X, running on Mac OS requires X11, while development has started on a native Carbon version. Two versions of XEmacs for the Microsoft Windows environment exist, a native installer, users can reconfigure almost all of the functionality in the editor by using the Emacs Lisp language. Changes to the Lisp code do not require the user to restart or recompile the editor, programmers have made available many pre-written Lisp extensions. Many packages exist to extend and supplement the capabilities of XEmacs, users can either download them piecemeal through XEmacs package manager or apply them in bulk using the xemacs-sumo package or sumo tarballs. Since XEmacs 21.1 functionality has been moved out of XEmacs core and this allows users to exclude packages they have no need for. XEmacs had a manager for over a decade before GNU Emacs developed one. From the projects beginnings, the developers of XEmacs aimed to have a frequent release-cycle, currently 2 to 3 releases appear per year and they also aimed for more openness to experimentation, and XEmacs often offers new features before other emacsen—pioneering inline images, variable fonts and terminal coloring. Over the years, the developers have extensively rewritten the code in order to improve consistency, XEmacs has a packaging system for independently maintained Lisp packages
22.
Fork (software development)
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The term often implies not merely a development branch, but also a split in the developer community, a form of schism. Free and open-source software is that which, by definition, may be forked from the development team without prior permission without violating copyright law. However, licensed forks of proprietary software also happen, the word fork stems from the Latin word furca, meaning a fork or similarly shaped instrument. Fork in the meaning of to divide in branches, go separate ways has been used as early as the 14th century. In the software environment, the word evokes the fork system call, however, fork was in use in the present sense by 1995 to describe the XEmacs split, and was an understood usage in the GNU Project by 1996. Thus, there is a penalty associated with forking. The relationship between the different teams can be cordial or very bitter and he notes in the Jargon File, David A. Wheeler notes four possible outcomes of a fork, with examples, The death of the fork. This is by far the most common case and it is easy to declare a fork, but considerable effort to continue independent development and support. With a DVCS such as Mercurial or Git, the way to contribute to a project is to first branch the repository. Forks often restart version numbering from 0.1 or 1.0 even if the software was at version 3.0,4.0. An exception is when the software is designed to be a drop-in replacement for the original project. In proprietary software, the copyright is held by the employing entity. This is almost always an economic decision to generate a greater market share, a notable proprietary fork not of this kind is the many varieties of proprietary Unix—almost all derived from AT&T Unix under license and all called Unix, but increasingly mutually incompatible. The BSD licenses permit forks to become proprietary software, and some say that commercial incentives thus make proprietisation almost inevitable, examples include macOS, Cedega and CrossOver, EnterpriseDB, Supported PostgreSQL with their proprietary ESM storage system, and Netezzas proprietary highly scalable derivative of PostgreSQL. Some of these vendors contribute back changes to the community project, while some keep their changes as their own competitive advantages
23.
Vi
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Vi /ˈviːˈaɪ/ is a screen-oriented text editor originally created for the Unix operating system. The portable subset of the behavior of vi and programs based on it, the original code for vi was written by Bill Joy in 1976, as the visual mode for a line editor called ex that Joy had written with Chuck Haley. Bill Joys ex 1.1 was released as part of the first BSD Unix release in March,1978. It was not until version 2.0 of ex, released as part of Second Berkeley Software Distribution in May,1979 that the editor was installed under the name vi, and the name by which it is known today. Some current implementations of vi can trace their source code ancestry to Bill Joy, others are completely new, the name vi is derived from the shortest unambiguous abbreviation for the ex command visual, which switches the ex line editor to visual mode. The name vi is pronounced /ˈviːˈaɪ/, a 2009 survey of Linux Journal readers found that vi was the most widely used text editor among respondents, beating gedit, the second most widely used editor, by nearly a factor of two. Vi was derived from a sequence of UNIX command line editors, starting with ed, which was a line editor designed to work well on teletypes, rather than display terminals. Within AT&T Corporation, where ed originated, people seemed to be happy with an editor as basic and unfriendly as ed, George Coulouris recalls, for many years, they had no suitable terminals. They carried on with TTYs and other printing terminals for a time. These were large storage tube displays and you cant run a screen editor on a storage-tube display as the picture cant be updated. Thus it had to fall to someone else to pioneer screen editing for Unix, and that was us initially, and we continued to do so for many years. Coulouris considered the cryptic commands of ed to be suitable for immortals. The em editor was designed for display terminals and was a visual editor. It was one of the first programs on Unix to make use of raw terminal input mode, in which the running program, rather than the terminal device driver. When Coulouris visited UC Berkeley in the summer of 1976, he brought a DECtape containing em, some people considered this new kind of editor to be a potential resource hog, but others, including Bill Joy were impressed. Inspired by em, and by their own tweaks to ed, Bill Joy and Chuck Haley, after Haleys departure, Bruce Englar encouraged Joy to redesign the editor, which he did June through October 1977 adding a full-screen visual mode to ex. Many of the ideas in exs visual mode were taken from software that existed at the time. According to Bill Joy, inspiration for vis visual mode came from the Bravo editor, in an interview about vis origins, Joy said, A lot of the ideas for the screen editing mode were stolen from a Bravo manual I surreptitiously looked at and copied
24.
Editor war
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Editor war is the common name for the rivalry between users of the Emacs and vi text editors. The rivalry has become a part of hacker culture and the free software community. Related battles have been fought over operating systems, programming languages, version control systems, notably, unlike other wars, the editor war has yet to be resolved with a clear winner, and the hacker community remains split roughly 50/50. The most important differences between vi and Emacs are presented in the table, Emacs has a non-modal interface One of the most ported computer programs. It runs in text mode and under graphical user interfaces on a variety of operating systems, including most Unix-like systems, MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, AmigaOS. Unix systems, both free and proprietary, frequently provide Emacs bundled with the operating system, Emacs server architecture allows multiple clients to attach to the same Emacs instance and share the buffer list, kill ring, undo history and other state. Pervasive online help system with keybindings, functions and commands documented on the fly, extensible and customizable Lisp programming language variant, with features that include, Ability to emulate vi and vim. A powerful and extensible file manager, integrated debugger, and a set of development. Having every command be an Emacs Lisp function enables commands to DWIM by programmatically responding to past actions, for example, a switch-or-split-window command could switch to another window if one exists, or create one if needed. This cuts down on the number of keystrokes and commands a user must remember, Emacs Lisp enables Emacs to be programmed far beyond editing features. Even a base install contains several applications, including two web browsers, news readers, several mail agents, four IRC clients, a version of ELIZA. All of these applications are available anywhere Emacs runs, with the user interface. Starting with version 24, Emacs includes a package manager, making it easy to install additional applications including alternate web browsers, EMMS, also available are numerous packages for programming, including some targeted at specific language/library combinations or coding styles. Edit commands are composable Vi has a modal interface Historically, vi loads faster than Emacs, extensible and customizable through Vim script or APIs for interpreted languages such as Python, Ruby, Perl, and Lua Ubiquitous. Essentially all Unix and Unix-like systems come with vi built-in, Vi is specified in the POSIX standard. System rescue environments, embedded systems and other constrained environments often include vi, frequently, at some point in the discussion, someone will point out that ed is the standard text editor. The Church of Emacs, formed by Emacs and the GNU Projects creator Richard Stallman, is a parody religion, while it refers to vi as the editor of the beast, it does not oppose the use of vi, rather, it calls proprietary software anathema. The Church of Emacs has its own newsgroup, alt. religion. emacs, Stallman has referred to himself as St IGNU−cius, a saint in the Church of Emacs
25.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
26.
C programming language
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C was originally developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at Bell Labs, and used to re-implement the Unix operating system. C has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute since 1989, C is an imperative procedural language. Therefore, C was useful for applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming, a standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language has become available on a wide range of platforms. In C, all code is contained within subroutines, which are called functions. Function parameters are passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values, C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements. The C language also exhibits the characteristics, There is a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of flow of control primitives, for, if/else, while, switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil, There are a large number of arithmetical and logical operators, such as +, +=, ++, &, ~, etc. More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement, function return values can be ignored when not needed. Typing is static, but weakly enforced, all data has a type, C has no define keyword, instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no function keyword, instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list, user-defined and compound types are possible. Heterogeneous aggregate data types allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit, array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects, they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators, There is no array keyword, in use or definition, instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month. Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword and they are not tagged, and are freely interconvertible with integers. Strings are not a data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated arrays of characters. Low-level access to memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers
27.
Source code
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In computing, source code is any collection of computer instructions, possibly with comments, written using a human-readable programming language, usually as ordinary text. The source code of a program is designed to facilitate the work of computer programmers. The source code is often transformed by an assembler or compiler into binary machine code understood by the computer, the machine code might then be stored for execution at a later time. Alternatively, source code may be interpreted and thus immediately executed, most application software is distributed in a form that includes only executable files. If the source code were included it would be useful to a user, programmer or a system administrator, the Linux Information Project defines source code as, Source code is the version of software as it is originally written by a human in plain text. The notion of source code may also be more broadly, to include machine code and notations in graphical languages. It is therefore so construed as to include code, very high level languages. Often there are several steps of program translation or minification between the source code typed by a human and an executable program. The earliest programs for stored-program computers were entered in binary through the front panel switches of the computer and this first-generation programming language had no distinction between source code and machine code. When IBM first offered software to work with its machine, the code was provided at no additional charge. At that time, the cost of developing and supporting software was included in the price of the hardware, for decades, IBM distributed source code with its software product licenses, until 1983. Most early computer magazines published source code as type-in programs, Source code can also be stored in a database or elsewhere. The source code for a piece of software may be contained in a single file or many files. Though the practice is uncommon, a source code can be written in different programming languages. For example, a program written primarily in the C programming language, in some languages, such as Java, this can be done at run time. The code base of a programming project is the larger collection of all the source code of all the computer programs which make up the project. It has become practice to maintain code bases in version control systems. Moderately complex software customarily requires the compilation or assembly of several, sometimes dozens or even hundreds, in these cases, instructions for compilations, such as a Makefile, are included with the source code
28.
C++
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C++ is a general-purpose programming language. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features, while also providing facilities for low-level memory manipulation and it was designed with a bias toward system programming and embedded, resource-constrained and large systems, with performance, efficiency and flexibility of use as its design highlights. C++ is a language, with implementations of it available on many platforms and provided by various organizations, including the Free Software Foundation, LLVM, Microsoft, Intel. C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization, with the latest standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2014 as ISO/IEC14882,2014. The C++ programming language was standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC14882,1998. The current C++14 standard supersedes these and C++11, with new features, the C++17 standard is due in 2017, with the draft largely implemented by some compilers already, and C++20 is the next planned standard thereafter. Many other programming languages have influenced by C++, including C#, D, Java. In 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, began work on C with Classes, the motivation for creating a new language originated from Stroustrups experience in programming for his Ph. D. thesis. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing, remembering his Ph. D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable, as well as C and Simulas influences, other languages also influenced C++, including ALGOL68, Ada, CLU and ML. Initially, Stroustrups C with Classes added features to the C compiler, Cpre, including classes, derived classes, strong typing, inlining, furthermore, it included the development of a standalone compiler for C++, Cfront. In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, the first commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year. In 1989, C++2.0 was released, followed by the second edition of The C++ Programming Language in 1991. New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static functions, const member functions. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published and this work became the basis for the future standard. Later feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, after a minor C++14 update released in December 2014, various new additions are planned for 2017 and 2020. According to Stroustrup, the name signifies the nature of the changes from C. This name is credited to Rick Mascitti and was first used in December 1983, when Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit
29.
Symbolics
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The symbolics. com domain was originally registered on March 15,1985, making it the first. com-domain in the world. In August 2009, it was sold to XF. com Investments, Symbolics, Inc. was a computer manufacturer headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and later in Concord, Massachusetts, with manufacturing facilities in Chatsworth, California. Its first CEO, chairman, and founder was Russell Noftsker, Symbolics designed and manufactured a line of Lisp machines, single-user computers optimized to run the Lisp programming language. The Lisp Machine was the first commercially available workstation, Symbolics was a spinoff from the MIT AI Lab, one of two companies to be founded by AI Lab staffers and associated hackers for the purpose of manufacturing Lisp machines. The other was Lisp Machines, Inc. although Symbolics attracted most of the hackers, Symbolics initial product, the LM-2, was a repackaged version of the MIT CADR Lisp machine design. The operating system and software development environment, over 500,000 lines, was written in Lisp from the microcode up, the software bundle was later renamed ZetaLisp, to distinguish the Symbolics product from other vendors who had also licensed the MIT software. Symbolics Zmacs text editor, a variant of Emacs, was implemented in a package named ZWEI. Both are recursive acronyms and puns on the German words for One, the Lisp Machine system software was then copyrighted by MIT, and was licensed to Symbolics. Until 1981, they shared all the code with MIT. Symbolics felt that no longer had sufficient control over their product. From that base, Symbolics made extensive improvements to every part of the software, however, the policy prohibited MIT staff from distributing the Symbolics version of the software to others. With the end of collaboration came the end of the MIT hacker community. As a reaction to this, Stallman initiated the GNU project to make a new community, eventually, Copyleft and the GNU General Public License would ensure that a hackers software could remain free software. In this way Symbolics played a key, albeit adversarial, role in instigating the free software movement, in 1983, a year later than planned, Symbolics introduced the 3600 family of Lisp machines. Code-named the L-machine internally, the 3600 family was a new design, inspired by the CADR architecture. The main processor had a 36 bit word, memory words were 44 bits, the additional 8 bits being used for error-correcting code. The instruction set was that of a stack machine, Hardware support was provided for virtual memory, which was common for machines in its class, and for garbage collection, which was unique. CPU clock speed varied depending on the instruction being executed
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Space-cadet keyboard
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It was inspired by the Knight keyboard, which was developed for the Knight TV system, used with MITs Incompatible Timesharing System. The Symbolics-labeled version shown here was used with the LM-2. The space-cadet keyboard was equipped with seven modifier keys, four keys for bucky bits, meta had been introduced on the earlier Knight keyboard, while Hyper and Super were introduced by this keyboard. Many keys had three symbols on them, accessible via the keys, a letter and a symbol on the top. For example, the L key had an L and an arrow on the top. On this keyboard, it is possible to type over 8,000 different characters and this allowed the user to type very complicated mathematical text, and also to have thousands of single-character commands at their disposal. Many users were willing to memorise the command meanings of many characters if it reduced typing time. This attitude shaped the interface of Emacs, compare the use of the Esc key in vi, due to the convenient position of the key on the ADM-3A terminal. Other users, however, thought that so many bucky bits was overkill and this keyboard included a Macro key which had limited application support. It also included four Roman Numeral keys which allowed for interaction with lists of four or fewer choices. Space-cadet Keyboard and Lisp Machine Keyboards
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PDP-6
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The PDP-6 was a computer model developed by Digital Equipment Corporation in 1963. It was influential primarily as the prototype for the later PDP-10, the PDP-6 was DECs first big machine. It used 36-bit words, in common with other computers at the time from companies like IBM, Honeywell. Addressing remained 18-bit, as in earlier DEC machines, allowing for a 256 kword main memory, Memory was implemented using magnetic cores, a typical system included 32,768 words. Another four-bit field in the allowed for any AC other than AC0 to be used as an index register. Most, if not all, PDP-6 systems were equipped with the optional Type 162 Fast Memory, the Fast Memory substituted for the first 16 words of core memory and operated four times faster. The PDP-6 was infamous because of the 6205 board, a board which contained 1 bit of arithmetic register, memory buffer. It had 88 transistors, a two-sided PC etch, two 18-pin and two 22-pin connectors, because of all these connectors, swapping this module was a major undertaking, and the mechanical coupling made it highly likely that fixing one fault would cause another. There was also a fear of powering off a PDP-6. The experience with the 6205 led the designers of the first models of PDP-10 and it was not until the KL10 that large boards were used again. The main operating system used on the machine was a version of what later became TOPS-10, and several sites made custom versions of the system. MITs ITS operating system began on the PDP-6. Although it was possible to Time Share a PDP-6 without a disk drive, the same system, with a single disk drive, resulted in real time-sharing could easily handle 20-30 users. Worldwide, only 23 PDP-6s were sold, the smallest number of any DEC machine and it was complex and expensive to build, as well as difficult to install and get operational at the customers site. Additionally the sales force found the PDP-6 to be a hard sell, after a short period in the market, DEC let it be known that they were exiting the 36-bit market to concentrate on their smaller machines again. Not long after this, rumors started to spread that they were, in fact, working on a new 36-bit design, DEC management still considered the system useful because those sales were to technical leaders such as universities. Stanfords PDP-6 was shown at DECUS in 1984, the machine was transferred to a DEC warehouse after that event. There are no records of this machine being given to the Computer Museum, in the late 1990s Compaq donated the contents of the DEC internal archives to The Computer Museum History Center
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PDP-10
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The PDP-10 is a discontinued mainframe computer family manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation from 1966 into the 1980s. The PDP-10 architecture is almost identical to the earlier PDP-6 architecture, sharing the same 36-bit word length and its main operating systems, TOPS-10 and TENEX, were used to build out the early ARPANET. For these reasons, the PDP-10 looms large in early hacker folklore, projects to extend the PDP-10 line were eclipsed by the success of the unrelated VAX superminicomputer, and the cancellation of the PDP-10 line was announced in 1983. The original PDP-10 processor is the KA10, introduced in 1968 and it uses discrete transistors packaged in DECs Flip-Chip technology, with backplanes wire wrapped via a semi-automated manufacturing process. Its cycle time is 1 μs and its add time 2.1 μs, in 1973, the KA10 was replaced by the KI10, which uses TTL SSI. This was joined in 1975 by the higher-performance KL10, which is built from ECL, microprogrammed, a smaller, less expensive model, the KS10, was introduced in 1978, using TTL and Am2901 bit-slice components and including the PDP-11 Unibus to connect peripherals. The KA10 has a main memory capacity of 256 kilowords. As supplied by DEC, it did not include paging hardware and this allows each half of a users address space to be limited to a set section of main memory, designated by the base physical address and size. This allows the model of separate read-only shareable code segment and read-write data/stack segment used by TOPS-10 and later adopted by Unix. Some KA10 machines, first at MIT, and later at Bolt, Beranek and Newman, were modified to add memory and support for demand paging. The KI10 and later processors offer paged memory management, and also support a physical address space of 4 megawords. KI10 models include 1060,1070 and 1077, the latter incorporating two CPUs, the original KL10 PDP-10 models use the original PDP-10 memory bus, with external memory modules. Module in this meant a cabinet, dimensions roughly 30 x 75 x 30 in. with a capacity of 32 to 256 kWords of magnetic core memory. The processors used in the DECSYSTEM-20, commonly but incorrectly called KL20, use internal memory, the 10xx models also have different packaging, they come in the original tall PDP-10 cabinets, rather than the short ones used later on for the DECSYSTEM-20. In particular, all ARPAnet TOPS-20 systems had an I/O bus because the AN20 IMP interface was an I/O bus device, both could run either TOPS-10 or TOPS-20 microcode and thus the corresponding operating system. The I/O architecture of the 20xx series KL machines is based on a DEC bus design called the MASSbus, CompuServe for one, designed its own alternative disk controller that could operate on the MASSbus, but connect to IBM style 3330 disk subsystems. Model A and Model B KL10 processors can be thought of as being different CPUs, the first operating system that took advantage of the Model Bs capabilities was TOPS-20 release 3, and user mode extended addressing was offered in TOPS-20 release 4. TOPS-20 versions after release 4.1 would only run on a Model B, TOPS-10 versions 7.02 and 7.03 also use extended addressing when run on a 1090 Model B processor running TOPS-20 microcode
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Stanford University centers and institutes
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Stanford University has many centers and institutes dedicated to the study of various specific topics. These report directly to the Vice-Provost and Dean of Research and are outside of any school though any faculty involved in them must belong to a department in one of the schools, the Center for the Study of Language and Information is an independent research center at Stanford University. This funding supported operations for the first few years as well as the construction of Cordura Hall, subsequent funding has come from research grants and from an industrial affiliates program. CSLIs publications branch, founded and still headed by Dikran Karagueuzian, has grown into an important publisher of work in linguistics, CSLI houses the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. It also housed the Reuters Digital Vision Program, jon Barwise 1983–1985 John Perry 1985–1986, 1993–1999 Thomas Wasow 1986–1987, 2006–2007 John Etchemendy 1990–1993 David Israel c. FSIs core and affiliated faculty represent a range of backgrounds and perspectives, including medicine, law, engineering, history, political science, economics. The facultys research and teaching focus on a variety of issues, including governance, domestic and international policy, migration, development. Their work often examines regional dynamics in areas such as Asia, Europe, Africa and it was first called the institute for International Studies, and was created under the direction of former Stanford President Richard Wall Lyman. The institute was renamed the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies in 2005 following a $50 million gift made by Stanford alumni Bradford M. Freeman and Ronald P. Spogli. The institute is home to 40 billeted faculty members – most with joint appointments – and 115 affiliated faculty members with a range of academic perspectives. Founded in 1980, the Stanford Humanities Center is a research institute dedicated to advancing knowledge about culture, philosophy, history. The humanities support democratic culture by nurturing an informed citizenry and seeking solutions to society’s most formidable challenges, each year, Stanford faculty and graduate students create fifteen diverse research workshops to ask new intellectual questions that often challenge disciplinary boundaries. In addition to providing a space for incubating new ideas in a collegial setting, speakers have included Isabel Allende, Roger Chartier, Stephen Jay Gould, Douglas Hofstadter, Gayatri Spivak, Marilynne Robinson, David Adjaye, David Eggers, and other well-known scholars. Humanities Center scholars are on the forefront of innovation with access to new tools to interpret the human experience. The Centers short-term visitorships draw distinguished international scholars to Stanford to share their research in lectures and seminars with Stanford faculty, the Humanities Center awards Hume Humanities Honors Fellowships to Stanford seniors writing an honors thesis in a humanities department. In residence for an year, Hume fellows contribute to the collegial life of the Center and receive intellectual guidance and mentoring from staff. The Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory is the artificial intelligence research laboratory of Stanford University, the current director is Associate Professor Fei-Fei Li. SAIL was started in 1963 by John McCarthy, after he moved from Massachusetts Institute of Technology to Stanford, lester D. Les Earnest, also previously of MIT, served as executive officer at SAIL from 1965 to 1980
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WYSIWYG
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WYSIWYG is an acronym for what you see is what you get. WYSIWYG implies a user interface allows the user to view something very similar to the end result while the document is being created. In general, WYSIWYG implies the ability to manipulate the layout of a document without having to type or remember names of layout commands. The actual meaning depends on the perspective, e. g. WYSIWYG also describes ways to manipulate 3D models in stereo-chemistry, computer-aided design. Modern software does a job of optimizing the screen display for a particular type of output. For example, a processor is optimized for output to a typical printer. The software often emulates the resolution of the printer in order to get as close as possible to WYSIWYG, however, that is not the main attraction of WYSIWYG, which is the ability of the user to be able to visualize what they are producing. In many situations, the differences between what the user sees and what the user gets are unimportant. A preview mode, in which the attempts to present a representation that is as close to the final result as possible. Before the adoption of WYSIWYG techniques, text appeared in editors using the standard typeface. Users were required to enter special non-printing control codes to indicate that text should be in boldface, italics. In this environment there was little distinction between text editors and word processors. These applications typically used an arbitrary markup language to define the codes/tags, each program had its own special way to format a document, and it was a difficult and time-consuming process to change from one word processor to another. The use of tags and codes remains popular today in some applications due to their ability to store complex formatting information. When the tags are made visible in the editor, however, they occupy space in the text and so disrupt the desired layout. The Alto monitor was designed so that one page of text could be seen and then printed on the first laser printers. Bravo was released commercially and the software included in the Xerox Star can be seen as a direct descendant of it. The first release, named BRUNO, ran on the HP1000 minicomputer taking advantage of HPs first bitmapped computer terminal the HP2640, BRUNO was then ported to the HP-3000 and re-released as HP Draw
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Hacker culture
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The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming limitations of software systems to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities in a spirit of playfulness, however, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves, but the manner in which it is done and whether it is something exciting and meaningful. Therefore, the hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology s Tech Model Railroad Club, Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program, What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could and they also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in an exciting way than anyone believed possible. I bet you didnt believe this could be done, as documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general publics usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them crackers instead. The word hacker derives from the word of a lusty laborer who harvested fields by dogged. Although the idea of hacking has existed long before the term hacker—with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth, in fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word hacker, some common nicknames among this culture include crackers who are unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck. Others include phreak—which refers to a type of skilled crackers and warez d00dz—which is a kind of cracker that acquires reproductions of copyrighted software, within all hackers are tiers of hackers such as the samurai who are hackers that hire themselves out for legal electronic locksmith work. Furthermore, there are other hackers who are hired to test security, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. Over time, the hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive. The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology. Many of the values and tenets of the free and open software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race and you can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better, Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative. Hack value is the used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that often feel intuitively about a problem or solution
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Paper tape
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Punched tape or perforated paper tape is a form of data storage, consisting of a long strip of paper in which holes are punched to store data. Paper tapes constructed from punched cards were used throughout the 19th century for controlling looms. Perforated paper tapes were first used by Basile Bouchon in 1725 to control looms, however, the paper tapes were expensive to create, fragile, and difficult to repair. By 1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard had developed machines to paper tapes by tying punched cards in a sequence. The resulting paper tape, also called a chain of cards, was stronger and simpler both to create and to repair and this led to the concept of communicating data not as a stream of individual cards, but one continuous card, or a tape. In 1846, Alexander Bain used punched tape to send telegrams, in 1880s, Tolbert Lanston invented a Monotype System, which consisted of a keyboard and a composition caster. The tape, punched with the keyboard, was read by the caster. The tape reader used compressed air, which passed through the holes and was directed into certain mechanisms of the caster, the system went into commercial use in 1897 and was in production well into 1970s, undergoing several changes along the way. Data were represented by the presence or absence of a hole at a particular location, tapes originally had five rows of holes for data. Later tapes had 6,7 and 8 rows, an early electro-mechanical calculating machine, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator or Harvard Mark I, used paper tape with 24 rows. A row of smaller sprocket holes that were always punched served to feed the tape, later optical readers used the sprocket holes to generate timing pulses. The sprocket holes are a bit to one side, making it clear which way to orient the tape in the reader, text was encoded in several ways. The earliest standard character encoding was Baudot, which dates back to the century and had 5 holes. The Baudot code was never used in teleprinters, instead, modifications such as the Murray code, Western Union code, International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2, and American Teletypewriter code, were used, other standards, such as Teletypesetter, FIELDATA and Flexowriter, had 6 holes. In the early 1960s, the American Standards Association led a project to develop a code for data processing. This 7-level code was adopted by some users, including AT&T. Others, such as Telex. Tape for punching was 0.00394 inches thick, the two most common widths were 11/16 inch for five bit codes, and 1 inch for tapes with six or more bits
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PDP-1
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The PDP-1 was the first computer in Digital Equipment Corporations PDP series and was first produced in 1959. It is famous for being the computer most important in the creation of culture at MIT, BBN. The PDP-1 was also the hardware for playing historys first game on a minicomputer. The PDP-1 used an 18-bit word size and had 4096 words as standard main memory, signed numbers were represented in ones complement. The PDP-1 had computing power roughly equivalent to a 1996 pocket organizer, the PDP-1 used 2,700 transistors and 3,000 diodes. It was built mostly of DEC 1000-series System Building Blocks, using micro-alloy and micro-alloy diffused transistors with a rated switching speed of 5 MHz, the System Building Blocks were packaged into several 19-inch racks. The racks were themselves packaged into a large mainframe case, with a hexagonal control panel containing switches. Above the control panel was the systems standard input/output solution, a tape reader and writer. The design of the PDP-1 was based on the pioneering TX-0 computer, designed, benjamin Gurley was the lead engineer on the project. After building prototype models in December 1959, DEC delivered the first PDP-1 to Bolt, Beranek and Newman in November 1960, and it was formally accepted the next April. In 1961, DEC donated the engineering prototype PDP-1 to MIT, where it was placed in the next to its ancestor, the TX-0 computer. In this setting, the PDP-1 quickly replaced the TX-0 as the favorite machine among the hacker culture. Perhaps best known among these is one of the first computerized video games, but among the list are the first text editor, word processor, interactive debugger, the first credible computer chess program, and some of the earliest computerized music. The PDP-1 sold in form for US$120,000. BBNs system was followed by orders from Lawrence Livermore and Atomic Energy of Canada. All of these machines were still being used in 1970. MITs example was donated to The Computer Museum, Boston, on paper tape was still tucked into the case. AECLs computer was sent to Science North, but was later scrapped, the PDP-1 used punched paper tape as its primary storage medium
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Emack & Bolio's
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Emack & Bolios is a chain of ice cream stores based in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Emack and Bolios was founded in 1975, three years before Ben and Jerrys used the concept of an ice cream store. There are now a few stores in other states, including New York, Florida, and Illinois New Jersey, the first international locations opened in Bangkok, Thailand in 2014 and also in Abu Dhabi. A shop in Xian, China and Hong Kong opened in 2015, the mascot is now a red-eyed moose whose name is Stoney. The store was named after two men for whom Robert Rook did pro bono work, who asked that the ice cream shop be named after them. Emack and Bolio were mascots of a sort for the first store, the Bolios were a non-fraternal group of raggedy, long-haired hippy-type college students that attended Murray State University in Western Kentucky during the 1970-75 period. They played sports together, entered greek parades together, and partied together and they took there name from an old movie with a line in it where the police yelled into a building, Come on out, you bolios, you. This account aligns with Robert Rooks reference to two men in 1975, one of which was referred to as Bolio. It has been noted that Emacs, text editing software popular with computer programmers, and BOLIO, the explanation by the GNU Emacs Project does not indicate a connection
