1.
Computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
2.
System
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A system is a set of interacting or interdependent component parts forming a complex or intricate whole. Every system is delineated by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Alternatively, and usually in the context of social systems. The term system comes from the Latin word systēma, in turn from Greek σύστημα systēma, whole compounded of several parts or members, system, according to Marshall McLuhan, System means something to look at. You must have a high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no system, in the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a system in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the substance in steam engines. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, in 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term working body when referring to the system. The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the systems theory. Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, in the 1980s John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term complex adaptive system at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute. Environment and boundaries Systems theory views the world as a system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary, this means choosing which entities are inside the system, one can make simplified representations of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system, Natural and human-made systems There are natural and human-made systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposefull by an observer, human-made systems are made to satisfy an identified and stated need with purposes that are achieved by the delivery of wanted outputs. Their parts must be related, they must be designed to work as a coherent entity – otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems, Theoretical framework An open system exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. Most systems are open systems, like a car, a coffeemaker, a closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment, like Earth or the project Biosphere2 or 3. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment, a theoretical example of such system is the Universe. Inputs are consumed, outputs are produced, the concept of input and output here is very broad
3.
Microprocessor
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A microprocessor is a computer processor which incorporates the functions of a computers central processing unit on a single integrated circuit, or at most a few integrated circuits. Microprocessors contain both combinational logic and sequential digital logic, Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system. The integration of a whole CPU onto a chip or on a few chips greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in numbers by highly automated processes resulting in a low per unit cost. Single-chip processors increase reliability as there are many electrical connections to fail. As microprocessor designs get better, the cost of manufacturing a chip generally stays the same, before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of circuit boards with many medium- and small-scale integrated circuits. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few large-scale ICs, the internal arrangement of a microprocessor varies depending on the age of the design and the intended purposes of the microprocessor. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture, a minimal hypothetical microprocessor might only include an arithmetic logic unit and a control logic section. The ALU performs operations such as addition, subtraction, and operations such as AND or OR, each operation of the ALU sets one or more flags in a status register, which indicate the results of the last operation. The control logic retrieves instruction codes from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction, a single operation code might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor. As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip, the size of data objects became larger, allowing more transistors on a chip allowed word sizes to increase from 4- and 8-bit words up to todays 64-bit words. Additional features were added to the architecture, more on-chip registers sped up programs. Floating-point arithmetic, for example, was not available on 8-bit microprocessors. Integration of the point unit first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip. Occasionally, physical limitations of integrated circuits made such practices as a bit slice approach necessary, instead of processing all of a long word on one integrated circuit, multiple circuits in parallel processed subsets of each data word. With the ability to put large numbers of transistors on one chip and this CPU cache has the advantage of faster access than off-chip memory, and increases the processing speed of the system for many applications. Processor clock frequency has increased more rapidly than external memory speed, except in the recent past, a microprocessor is a general purpose system. Several specialized processing devices have followed from the technology, A digital signal processor is specialized for signal processing, graphics processing units are processors designed primarily for realtime rendering of 3D images
4.
Microcontroller
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A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. In modern terminology, it is a system on a chip or SoC, a microcontroller contains one or more CPUs along with memory and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of Ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also included on chip. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the used in personal computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various discrete chips. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems, some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a signal processor, with higher clock speeds. The first microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4004 released in 1971, with the Intel 8008, however, both processors required external chips to implement a working system, raising total system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerize appliances. One book credits TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran with the creation of the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS1000, which became available in 1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory, processor and clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems and it combined RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip would find its way into one billion PC keyboards. At that time Intels President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the microcontroller was one of the most successful in the companys history, most microcontrollers at this time had concurrent variants. One had an erasable EPROM program memory, with a transparent quartz window in the lid of the package to allow it to be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light, often used for prototyping. The PROM was of type of memory as the EPROM. The erasable versions required ceramic packages with quartz windows, making them more expensive than the OTP versions. The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory, other companies rapidly followed suit, with both memory types. Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for under 0.25 USD in quantity in 2009, nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large online communities around certain processors. In the future, MRAM could potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite endurance, in 2002, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were 8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors
5.
Digital signal processor
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A digital signal processor is a specialized microprocessor, with its architecture optimized for the operational needs of digital signal processing. The goal of DSPs is usually to measure, filter or compress continuous real-world analog signals, DSPs often use special memory architectures that are able to fetch multiple data or instructions at the same time. Digital signal processing algorithms typically require a number of mathematical operations to be performed quickly and repeatedly on a series of data samples. Signals are constantly converted from analog to digital, manipulated digitally, many DSP applications have constraints on latency, that is, for the system to work, the DSP operation must be completed within some fixed time, and deferred processing is not viable. A specialized digital signal processor, however, will tend to provide a lower-cost solution, with performance, lower latency. For example, the SES-12 and SES-14 satellites from operator SES, the architecture of a digital signal processor is optimized specifically for digital signal processing. Most also support some of the features as a processor or microcontroller. Some useful features for optimizing DSP algorithms are outlined below, sometimes various sticky bits operation modes are available. DSPs can sometimes rely on supporting code to know about cache hierarchies and this is a tradeoff that allows for better performance. In addition, extensive use of DMA is employed, DSPs frequently use multi-tasking operating systems, but have no support for virtual memory or memory protection. Operating systems that use virtual memory require more time for context switching among processes, the AMD2901 bit-slice chip with its family of components was a very popular choice. There were reference designs from AMD, but very often the specifics of a design were application specific. These bit slice architectures would sometimes include a peripheral multiplier chip, examples of these multipliers were a series from TRW including the TDC1008 and TDC1010, some of which included an accumulator, providing the requisite multiply–accumulate function. In 1976, Richard Wiggins proposed the Speak & Spell concept to Paul Breedlove, Larry Brantingham, two years later in 1978 they produced the first Speak & Spell, with the technological centerpiece being the TMS5100, the industrys first digital signal processor. It also set other milestones, being the first chip to use Linear predictive coding to perform speech synthesis, in 1978, Intel released the 2920 as an analog signal processor. It had an on-chip ADC/DAC with a signal processor. In 1979, AMI released the S2811 and it was designed as a microprocessor peripheral, and it had to be initialized by the host. The S2811 was likewise not successful in the market, in 1980 the first stand-alone, complete DSPs – the NEC µPD7720 and AT&T DSP1 – were presented at the International Solid-State Circuits Conference 80
6.
Economies of scale
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Often operational efficiency is also greater with increasing scale, leading to lower variable cost as well. Economies of scale apply to a variety of organizational and business situations and at levels, such as a business or manufacturing unit. Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of manufacturing facilities and friction loss of transportation, the economic concept dates back to Adam Smith and the idea of obtaining larger production returns through the use of division of labor. Diseconomies of scale are the opposite, Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit begin to increase. Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the lumber, pulp, a common limit for low cost per unit weight commodities is saturating the regional market, thus having to ship product uneconomical distances. Other limits include using energy less efficiently or having a defect rate. Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade and they will therefore avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins. Often smaller manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from commodity grade production to specialty products, the simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size or speed of operation. Economies of scale often originate with fixed capital, which is lowered per unit of production as design capacity increases, in wholesale and retail distribution, increasing the speed of operations, such as order fulfillment, lowers the cost of both fixed and working capital. Other common sources of economies of scale are purchasing, managerial, financial, marketing, each of these factors reduces the long run average costs of production by shifting the short-run average total cost curve down and to the right. Economies of the scale is a concept that may explain real world phenomena such as patterns of international trade or the number of firms in a market. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries, a lone car maker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market. Economies of scale play a role in a natural monopoly. There is a distinction between two types of economies of scale, internal and external, conversely, an industry exhibits an external economy of scale when costs drop due to the introduction of more firms, thus allowing for more efficient use of specialized services and machinery. Instead, he believes that economies will come from improving the flow of a service, in trying to manage and reduce unit costs, firms often raise total costs by creating failure demand. This law has an effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships. In structural engineering, the strength of beams increases with the cube of the thickness, drag loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated. Therefore, making them larger usually results in fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed
7.
Watch
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A watch is a small timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. It is designed to keep working despite the motions caused by the persons activities, a wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, watches evolved in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. During most of its history the watch was a device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery, by the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. Today most inexpensive and medium-priced watches, used mainly for timekeeping, have quartz movements, various extra features, called complications, such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. Modern watches often display the day, date, month and year, time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions are common. Some modern designs incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, some watches use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time. Developments in the 2010s include smartwatches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist and they generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only small fractions of what the smartwatch can do. The study of timekeeping is known as horology, watches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in 15th century Europe. Watches werent widely worn in pockets until the 17th century, one account says that the word watch came from the Old English word woecce which meant watchman, because it was used by town watchmen to keep track of their shifts at work. Another says that the term came from 17th century sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches, the increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was the escapement, the verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s. The British had predominated in watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 it was running a successful enterprise incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company. The concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of the very earliest watches in the 16th century, elizabeth I of England received a wristwatch from Robert Dudley in 1571, described as an arm watch. The oldest surviving wristwatch is one made in 1806 and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais, from the beginning, wrist watches were almost exclusively worn by women, while men used pocket-watches up until the early 20th century. The Garstin Company of London patented a Watch Wristlet design in 1893, officers in the British Army began using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s, such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885. In continental Europe Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watch makers began supplying German naval officers with wrist watches in about 1880 and these early models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap but, by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches
8.
MP3 player
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An MP3 player or Digital Audio Player is an electronic device that can play digital audio files. It is a type of Portable Media Player, the term MP3 player is a misnomer, as most players play more than the MP3 file format. Since the MP3 format is used, almost all players can play that format. In addition, there are many digital audio formats. Some formats are proprietary, such as MP3, Windows Media Audio, some of these formats also may incorporate digital rights management, such as WMA DRM, which are often part of paid download sites. Other formats are patent-free or otherwise open, such as Vorbis, FLAC, in 1981, Kane Kramer filed for a UK patent for the IXI, the first Digital Audio Player. UK patent 2115996 was issued in 1985, and U. S, patent 4,667,088 was issued in 1987. Plans were made for a 10-minute stereo memory card and the system was at one time fitted with a drive which would have enabled over an hour of recorded digital music. However, in 1988 Kramers failure to raise the £60,000 required to renew the patent meant it entering the public domain, but he still owns the designs. In the year 1987 a German Company by the name of Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft started the program for coding music with the high quality. The project was controlled by an expert in mathematics and electronics, the first MP3 player was developed by SaeHan Information Systems in 1997. Nevertheless, the first one on the American market was the Eiger Labs F10, a 32MB portable that appeared in the summer of 1998. It was a basic unit and wasnt user expandable, though owners could upgrade the memory to 64MB by sending the player back to Eiger Labs with a check for $69.00 + $7.95 shipping. The second MP3 player needed was the Rio PMP300 from Diamond Multimedia, the Rio was a big success during the Christmas 1998 season as sales significantly exceeded expectations, spurring interest and investment in digital music. Eiger Labs and Diamond and went on to establish a new segment in the audio player market. Other early MP3 portables include Sensory Sciences Rave MP2100, the I-Jam IJ-100 and these portables were small and light, but only held enough memory to hold around 7 to 20 songs at normal 128kbit/s compression rates. As more users migrated to Win 98 by 2000, all players went USB, at the end of 1999, a company called Remote Solutions significantly broke that barrier by utilizing a laptop drive for song storage rather than low capacity flash memory. The Personal Jukebox had 4. 8GB, which held about 1200 songs and this segment eventually became the dominant type of digital music player
9.
Traffic light
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The worlds first, manually operated gas-lit traffic signal was short lived. Installed in London in December 1868, it exploded less than a month later, Traffic control started to seem necessary in the late 1890s and Earnest Sirrine from Chicago patented the first automated traffic control system in 1910. It used the words STOP and PROCEED, although neither word lit up, Traffic lights alternate the right of way accorded to users by displaying lights of a standard colour following a universal colour code. In the typical sequence of phases, The green light allows traffic to proceed in the direction denoted, if it is safe to do so. The amber light warns that the signal is about to change to red, in a number of countries – among them the United Kingdom – a phase during which red and yellow are displayed together indicates that the signal is about to change to green. A flashing amber indication is a warning signal, in the United Kingdom, a flashing amber light is used only at pelican crossings, in place of the combined red–amber signal, and indicates that drivers may pass if no pedestrians are on the crossing. The red signal prohibits any traffic from proceeding, a flashing red indication is treated as a stop sign. In some countries traffic signals will go into a flashing mode if the Conflict Monitor detects a problem, the signal may display flashing yellow to the main road and flashing red to the side road, or flashing red in all directions. Flashing operation can also be used during times of day when traffic is light, before traffic lights traffic police controlled the flow of traffic, a well-documented example being that on London Bridge in 1722. Three men were given the task of directing traffic coming in, each officer would help direct traffic coming out of Southwark into London and he made sure all traffic stayed on the west end of the bridge. A second officer would direct traffic on the east end of the bridge to control the flow of people leaving London and going into Southwark. The main reason for the light was that there was an overflow of horse-drawn traffic over Westminster Bridge which forced thousands of pedestrians to walk next to the Houses of Parliament. The design combined three semaphore arms with red and green gas lamps for use, on a pillar. The gas lantern was manually turned by a police officer. The signal was 22 feet high, at night a red light would command Stop and a green light would mean use Caution. Although it was said to be successful at controlling traffic, its life was brief. It exploded on 2 January 1869, as a result of a leak in one of the gas lines underneath the pavement, injuring or killing the policeman who was operating it. In the first two decades of the 20th century semaphore traffic signals, like the one in London, were in use all over the United States with each state having its own design of the device, One good example was from Toledo, Ohio in 1908
10.
Programmable logic controller
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They were first developed in the automobile industry to provide flexible, ruggedised and easily programmable controllers to replace hard-wired relays and timers. Since then they have widely adopted as high-reliability automation controllers suitable for harsh environments. A PLC is an example of a hard real-time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended operation will result. They can be designed for multiple arrangements of digital and analog inputs and outputs, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. It was from the industry in the USA that the PLC was born. Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles was mainly composed of relays, cam timers, drum sequencers, when digital computers became available, being general-purpose programmable devices, they were soon applied to control sequential and combinatorial logic in industrial processes. However these early computers required specialist programmers and stringent operating environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, to meet these challenges the PLC was developed with several key attributes. In 1968 GM Hydra-Matic issued a request for proposals for a replacement for hard-wired relay systems based on a white paper written by engineer Edward R. Clark. The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts, the first PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford Associates eighty-fourth project, was the result. Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product, Modicon, one of the people who worked on that project was Dick Morley, who is considered to be the father of the PLC. The Modicon brand was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics, later acquired by German Company AEG, and then by French Schneider Electric, one of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Schneider Electrics facility in North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to Modicon by GM, when the unit was retired after twenty years of uninterrupted service. Modicon used the 84 moniker at the end of its product range until the 984 made its appearance, the automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs. Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems and these PLCs were programmed in ladder logic, which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. This program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians, other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on a stack-based logic solver. Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from the ladder logic to programming languages such as specially adapted dialects of BASIC. Another method is state logic, a very high-level programming language designed to program PLCs based on state transition diagrams. As programming terminals evolved, it more common for ladder logic to be used, for the aforementioned reasons
11.
Hybrid vehicle
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Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids. Early prototype motorcycles in the late 19th century used the same principle, most motorized bicycles, mopeds are of this type. In a series hybrid bicycle the user pedals a generator, charging a battery or feeding the motor and they are commercially available, being simple in theory and manufacturing. The first published prototype of an SHB is by Augustus Kinzel in 1975, in 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite SHB with power electronics allowing regenerative braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed and built a Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb for his 1995 diploma thesis, in 1996 Jürg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an SHB and in 1998 modified a Leitra tricycle. Until 2005 they built several prototype SH tricycles and quadricycles, in 1999 Harald Kutzke described an active bicycle, the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation. A series hybrid bicycle is powered by pedals, batteries. Active cooling keeps plastic parts from softening, the prototype uses a regular electric bicycle charge port. Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway locomotives, buses, heavy vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery. A diesel/turbine engine drives a generator or hydraulic pump, which powers electric/hydraulic motor - strictly an electric/hydraulic transmission. Both series and parallel setups were used in WW2 submarines, europe The new Autorail à grande capacité built by the Canadian company Bombardier for service in France is diesel/electric motors, using 1500 or 25000 V on different rail systems. It was tested in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with Railfeeding, a Genesse, China The First Hybrid Evaluating locomotive was designed by rail research center MATRAI in 1999 and built in 2000. It was a G12 locomotive upgraded with batteries, a 200 kW diesel generator and 4 AC motors, Japan Japans first hybrid train with significant energy storage is the KiHa E200, with roof-mounted lithium ion batteries. India Indian railway launched one of its kind CNG-Diesel hybrid trains in January 2015, the train has a 1400 hp engine which uses fumigation technology. The first of these train is set to run on the 81 km long Rewari-Rohtak route, CNG is less-polluting alternative for diesel and petrol and is popular as an alternative fuel in India. North America In the US, General Electric made a locomotive with sodium - nickel chloride battery storage, no fuel is wasted for idling — ~60–85% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if regenerative braking is used, but in principle it is easily utilized, since these engines typically need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery packs weight is a negligible penalty. The diesel generator and batteries are normally built on an existing retired yard locomotives frame, the existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused
12.
Avionics
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Avionics are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites, and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of systems. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform. The term avionics is a portmanteau of the aviation and electronics. The term avionics was coined by the journalist Philip J. Klass as a portmanteau of aviation electronics, many modern avionics have their origins in World War II wartime developments. For example, autopilot systems that are today were started to help bomber planes fly steadily enough to hit precision targets from high altitudes. Famously, radar was developed in the UK, Germany, modern avionics is a substantial portion of military aircraft spending. Aircraft like the F‑15E and the now retired F‑14 have roughly 20 percent of their budget spent on avionics, most modern helicopters now have budget splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics. The civilian market has seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up development costs, the major change has been the recent boom in consumer flying. As more people begin to use planes as their method of transportation. The majority of power their avionics using 14- or 28‑volt DC electrical systems, however, larger. One source of international standards for equipment are prepared by the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee. Communications connect the deck to the ground and the flight deck to the passengers. On‑board communications are provided by systems and aircraft intercoms. The VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000 MHz to 136.975 MHz, each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33 kHz in Europe,25 kHz elsewhere. VHF is also used for line of communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft. Amplitude modulation is used, and the conversation is performed in simplex mode, aircraft communication can also take place using HF or satellite communication
13.
Peripheral
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A peripheral is an ancillary device used to put information into and get information out of the computer. Touchscreens are an example that combines different devices into a hardware component that can be used both as an input and output device. A peripheral device is defined as any auxiliary device such as a computer mouse or keyboard that connects to. Other examples of peripherals are image scanners, tape drives, microphones, loudspeakers, webcams, common input peripherals include keyboards, computer mice, graphic tablets, touchscreens, barcode readers, image scanners, microphones, webcams, game controllers, light pens, and digital cameras. Common output peripherals include computer displays, printers, projectors, computer hardware Controller Display device Expansion card Punched card input/output Punched tape Video game accessory
14.
Chassis
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A chassis consists of an internal vehicle frame that supports an artificial object in its construction and use, can also provide protection for some internal parts. An example of a chassis is the underpart of a motor vehicle, if the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the drivers seat, are included, then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis. In the case of vehicles, the rolling chassis means the frame plus the running gear like engine, transmission, drive shaft, differential. An under body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. For commercial vehicles, a rolling chassis consists of an assembly of all the parts of a truck to be ready for operation on the road. The design of a car chassis will be different than one for commercial vehicles because of the heavier loads. Commercial vehicle manufacturers sell chassis only, cowl and chassis, as well as chassis cab versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies and these include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc. In particular applications, such as buses, a government agency like National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in the U. S. defines the design standards of chassis. An armoured fighting vehicles hull serves as the chassis and comprises the part of the AFV that includes the tracks, engine, drivers seat. This describes the hull, although common usage might include the upper hull to mean the AFV without the turret. The hull serves as a basis for platforms on tanks, armoured carriers, combat engineering vehicles. In an electronic device, the chassis consists of a frame or other supporting structure on which the circuit boards. In the absence of a frame, the chassis refers to the circuit boards and components themselves. The combination of chassis and outer covering is called an enclosure. Vietnam Studies, Department of the Army, Washington, D. C.1978
15.
Apollo Guidance Computer
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The Apollo Guidance Computer was a digital computer produced for the Apollo program that was installed on board each Apollo Command Module and Lunar Module. The AGC provided computation and electronic interfaces for guidance, navigation, the AGC had a 16-bit word length, with 15 data bits and one parity bit. Astronauts communicated with the AGC using a display and keyboard called the DSKY. The AGC and its DSKY user interface were developed in the early 1960s for the Apollo program by the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory, the AGC is notable for being one of the first integrated circuit-based computers. Each flight to the Moon had two AGCs, one each in the Command Module and the Lunar Module, the AGC in the Command Module was at the center of that spacecrafts guidance, navigation and control system. The AGC in the Lunar Module ran its Apollo PGNCS, with the acronym pronounced as pings, the AGS could be used to take off from the Moon, and to rendezvous with the Command Module, but not to land. The AGC was designed at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory under Charles Stark Draper, early architectural work came from J. H. Laning Jr. Albert Hopkins, Richard Battin, Ramon Alonso, and Hugh Blair-Smith. The flight hardware was fabricated by Raytheon, whose Herb Thaler was also on the architectural team, the Apollo flight computer was the first computer to use integrated circuits. While the Block I version used 4,100 ICs, each containing a single three-input NOR gate, the ICs, from Fairchild Semiconductor, were implemented using resistor-transistor logic in a flat-pack. They were connected via wire wrap, and the wiring was then embedded in cast epoxy plastic, the computer had 2048 words of erasable magnetic core memory and 36 kilowords of read-only core rope memory. Both had cycle times of 11.72 micro-seconds, the memory word length was 16 bits,15 bits of data and one odd-parity bit. The CPU-internal 16-bit word format was 14 bits of data, one overflow bit, the user interface to the AGC was the DSKY, standing for display and keyboard and usually pronounced dis-key. It had an array of lights, numeric displays and a calculator-style keyboard. Commands were entered numerically, as numbers, Verb. Verb described the type of action to be performed and Noun specified which data was affected by the action specified by the Verb command, the numerals were displayed via green high-voltage electroluminescent seven-segment displays. The segments were driven by electromechanical relays, which limited the display update rate, three five-digit signed numbers could also be displayed in octal or decimal, and were typically used to display vectors such as space craft attitude or a required velocity change. Although data was stored internally in metric units, they were displayed as United States customary units and this calculator-style interface was the first of its kind, the prototype for all similar digital control panel interfaces. The Lunar Module had a single DSKY for its AGC, a flight director attitude indicator, controlled by the AGC, was located above the DSKY on the commanders console and on the LM
16.
D-17B
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The D-17B computer was used in the Minuteman I NS-1OQ missile guidance system. The complete guidance system contained a D-17B computer, the stable platform. The D-17B weighed approximately 62 pounds, contained 1,521 transistors,6,282 diodes,1,116 capacitors and these components were mounted on double copper-clad, engraved, gold-plated, glass fiber laminate circuit boards. There were 75 of these boards and each one was coated with a flexible polyurethane compound for moisture. The high degree of reliability and ruggedness of the computer were driven by the requirements of the weapons system. High reliability was required of the D-17B and it controlled a key weapon that would have just one chance to execute its mission. Reliability of the D-17B was achieved through the use of solid-state electronics, simpler DRL logic was used extensively, but less-reliable DTL logic was used only where needed. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when the D-17B was designed, DTL provided, however, either gain or inversion. Reliability was also enhanced by the disk memory with non-destructive readout. In actual real-time situations, Minuteman missiles achieved a time between failure of over 5.5 years. The Soviets had much larger rockets and could use vacuum tubes in their guidance systems, the US planners had to choose either to develop solid state guidance systems or consider the additional cost and time delay of developing larger rockets. Minuteman I D-17B Computer Specifications Year,1962 The D17B is a synchronous serial general-purpose digital computer, manufacturer, Autonetics Division of North American Aviation Applications, Guidance and control of the Minuteman I ICBM. The word length for this computer Is 27 bits, of which 24 are used In computation, the remaining 3 bits are spare and synchronizing bits. The memory storage capability consists of a 6000 rpm magnetic disk with a capacity of 2985 words of which 2728 are addressable. The outputs that can be realized from the D-17B computer are binary, discrete, single character, phase register status, telemetry, binary outputs are computer generated levels of +1 or −1 available on the binary output lines. Flag store provides the capability of storing the present contents of the accumulator while executing the next Instruction, split-word arithmetic is used in performing arithmetic operations on both halves of a split word at the same time. A split word on the D-17B consists of 11 bits, minimized access timing is the placing of instructions and data in memory so that they are available with minimum delay from the disk memory. Autonetics was the contractor for the Minuteman guidance system, which included the flight
17.
LGM-30 Minuteman
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The LGM-30 Minuteman is a U. S. land-based intercontinental ballistic missile, in service with the Air Force Global Strike Command. As of 2016, the LGM-30G Minuteman III version is the only land-based ICBM in service in the United States, development of the Minuteman began in the mid-1950s as the outgrowth of basic research into solid fuel rocket motors which indicated an ICBM based on solids was possible. Such a missile could stand ready for extended periods of time with little maintenance, in comparison, existing U. S. missile designs using liquid fuels required a lengthy fueling process immediately before launch, which left them open to the possibility of surprise attack. This potential for immediate launch gave the missile its name, like the Revolutionary Wars Minutemen, Minuteman entered service in 1962 as a weapon tasked primarily with the deterrence role, threatening Soviet cities with a counterattack if the U. S. was attacked. However, with the development of the U. S, the Minuteman-II entered service in 1965 with a host of upgrades to improve its accuracy and survivability in the face of an anti-ballistic missile system the Soviets were known to be developing. Minuteman-III was the first multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle ICBM to be deployed, each missile can carry up to three nuclear warheads, which have a yield in the range of 300 to 500 kilotons. By February 2018 this will be reduced to 400 armed missiles, with 50 unarmed missiles in reserve, the Air Force plans to keep the missile in service until at least 2030. It is one component of the U. S. nuclear triad—the other two parts of the triad being the Trident submarine-launched ballistic missile, and nuclear weapons carried by long-range strategic bombers, Minuteman owes its existence largely to the efforts of then Air Force Colonel Edward N. Hall. Solid fuels were already used in rockets, but strictly for short-range uses. But Hall was convinced that they could be used for a true ICBM with 5,500 nautical miles range, to achieve the required energy, that year Hall began funding research at Boeing and Thiokol into the use of ammonium perchlorate composite propellant. Adapting a concept developed in the UK, they cast the fuel into large cylinders with a hole running along the inner axis. This allowed the fuel to burn along the length of the cylinder, rather than just the end as in earlier designs. The increased burn rate meant increased thrust, in comparison, older designs burned primarily from one end to the other, meaning that at any instant one small section of the fuselage was being subject to extreme loads and temperatures. Guidance of an ICBM is based not only on the direction the missile is travelling, too much thrust and the warhead will overshoot its target, too little and it will fall short. This appeared at first to be a problem, but in the end was solved in almost trivial fashion. A series of ports were added inside the nozzle that were opened when the guidance systems called for engine cut-off. The reduction in pressure was so abrupt that the last burning fuel ejected itself, the first to make use of these developments was not the Air Force, but the Navy. They had been involved in a joint program with the US Army to develop the liquid-fueled Jupiter missile and they felt that liquid fuels were too dangerous to use onboard ships, and especially submarines
18.
Intel 4004
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The Intel 4004 is a 4-bit central processing unit released by Intel Corporation in 1971. It was the first commercially available microprocessor by Intel, the chip design started in April 1970, when Federico Faggin joined Intel, and it was completed under his leadership in January 1971. The first commercial sale of the fully operational 4004 occurred in March 1971 to Busicom Corp. of Japan for which it was originally designed and built as a custom chip. In mid-November of the year, with the prophetic ad Announcing a new era in integrated electronics. The 4004 is history’s first monolithic CPU, fully integrated in one small chip, the 4004 microprocessor is one of 4 chips constituting the MCS-4 chip-set, which includes the 4001 ROM,4002 RAM, and 4003 Shift Register. With these components, small computers with varying amounts of memory, both the AL1 and the MP944 use several chips for the implementation of the CPU function. The TMS0100 chip was presented as a “calculator on a chip” with the original designation TMS1802NC and this chip contains a very primitive CPU and can only be used to implement various simple 4-function calculators. It is the precursor of the TMS1000, introduced in 1974, which is considered the first microcontroller i. e. a computer on a chip containing not only the CPU, but also ROM, RAM, and I/O functions. The MCS-4 was eventually superseded by powerful microcontrollers like the Intel 8048, the architecture of this processor formed the basis for later models of microprocessors. The first public mention of 4004 was an advertisement in the November 15,1971 edition of Electronic News, Faggin, the sole chip designer among the engineers on the MCS-4 project, was the only one with experience in metal-oxide semiconductor random logic and circuit design. He also had the knowledge of the new silicon gate process technology with self-aligned gates. At Fairchild in 1968, Faggin also designed and manufactured the worlds first commercial IC using SGT and his methodology set the design style for all the early Intel microprocessors and later for the Zilog Z80. He also led the MCS-4 project and was responsible for its successful outcome, Marcian Ted Hoff, head of the Application Research Department, contributed the architectural proposal for Busicom working with Stanley Mazor in 1969, then he moved on to other projects. Shima designed the Busicom calculator firmware and assisted Faggin during the first six months of the implementation, the manager of Intels MOS Design Department was Leslie L. Vadász. using Intel’s newly developed dynamic RAM memory. This resulted in the 4004 architecture, which is part of a family of chips, including ROM, DRAM and it was not until the development of the 40-pin 8080 in 1974 that the address and data buses would be separated, giving faster and simpler access to memory. The original clock rate design goal was 1 MHz, the same as the IBM1620 Model I. The Intel 4004 was designed by cutting sheets of Rubylith into thin strips to lay out the circuits to be printed. For the purpose of testing the produced chips, Faggin developed a tester for silicon waffers of MCS-4 family that was driven by 4004 chip
19.
Calculator
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An electronic calculator is a small, portable electronic device used to perform operations ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics. The first solid state electronic calculator was created in the 1960s, building on the history of tools such as the abacus. It was developed in parallel with the computers of the day. The pocket sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the first microprocessor and they later became used commonly within the petroleum industry. Modern electronic calculators vary, from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers and they became popular in the mid-1970s. By the end of decade, calculator prices had reduced to a point where a basic calculator was affordable to most. In addition to general purpose calculators, there are designed for specific markets. For example, there are scientific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculations, some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, as of 2016, basic calculators cost little, but the scientific and graphing models tend to cost more. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the worlds general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information, by 2007, this diminished to less than 0. 05%. Modern 2016 electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations, most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button, however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with key combinations. Large-sized figures and comma separators are used to improve readability. Various symbols for function commands may also be shown on the display, fractions such as 1⁄3 are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to 0.33333333. Also, some fractions can be difficult to recognize in decimal form, as a result, Calculators also have the ability to store numbers into computer memory. Basic types of these only one number at a time. The variables can also be used for constructing formulas, some models have the ability to extend memory capacity to store more numbers, the extended memory address is termed an array index. Power sources of calculators are, batteries, solar cells or mains electricity, some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off. Crank-powered calculators were also common in the computer era
20.
Potentiometer
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A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a resistor or rheostat. The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric potential, potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as transducers, for example. Potentiometers are rarely used to control significant power, since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load. The resistive element can be flat or angled, each end of the resistive element is connected to a terminal on the case. The wiper is connected to a terminal, usually between the other two. On panel potentiometers, the wiper is usually the terminal of three. For single-turn potentiometers, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution around the contact, the only point of ingress for contamination is the narrow space between the shaft and the housing it rotates in. Another type is the slider potentiometer, which has a wiper which slides along a linear element instead of rotating. Contamination can potentially enter anywhere along the slot the slider moves in, making effective sealing more difficult, an advantage of the slider potentiometer is that the slider position gives a visual indication of its setting. The resistive element of inexpensive potentiometers is often made of graphite, other materials used include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet. Others are enclosed within the equipment and are intended to be adjusted to calibrate equipment during manufacture or repair and they are usually physically much smaller than user-accessible potentiometers, and may need to be operated by a screwdriver rather than having a knob. They are usually called preset potentiometers or trim pots, some presets are accessible by a small screwdriver poked through a hole in the case to allow servicing without dismantling. Multiturn potentiometers are also operated by rotating a shaft, but by several turns rather than less than a full turn, a string potentiometer is a multi-turn potentiometer operated by an attached reel of wire turning against a spring, enabling it to convert linear position to a variable resistance. User-accessible rotary potentiometers can be fitted with a switch which operates usually at the extreme of rotation. Multiple resistance elements can be ganged together with their contacts on the same shaft, for example. The relationship between position and resistance, known as the taper or law, is controlled by the manufacturer
21.
Variable capacitor
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A variable capacitor is a capacitor whose capacitance may be intentionally and repeatedly changed mechanically or electronically. Variable capacitors are used in L/C circuits to set the resonance frequency, e. g. to tune a radio, or as a variable reactance. In mechanically controlled variable capacitors, the distance between the plates, or the amount of surface area which overlaps, can be changed. Air or plastic foils can be used as dielectric material, by choosing the shape of the rotary plates, various functions of capacitance vs. angle can be created, e. g. to obtain a linear frequency scale. Various forms of reduction gear mechanisms are used to achieve finer tuning control, i. e. to spread the variation of capacity over a larger angle. Measurement of the capacitance of a rotary capacitor A vacuum variable capacitor uses a set of made from concentric cylinders that can be slid in or out of an opposing set of cylinders. These plates are sealed inside of a non-conductive envelope such as glass or ceramic. The movable part is mounted on a flexible membrane that seals. A screw shaft is attached to the plunger, when the shaft is turned the plunger moves in or out of the sleeve, the vacuum not only increases the working voltage and current handling capacity of the capacitor it also greatly reduces the chance of arcing across the plates. The most common usage for vacuum variables are in high powered transmitters such as used for broadcasting, military. Very cheap variable capacitors are constructed from layered aluminium and plastic foils that are pressed together using a screw. These so-called squeezers can’t provide a stable and reproducible capacitance, however, a variant of this structure that allows for linear movement of one set of plates to change the plate overlap area is also used and might be called a slider. This has practical advantages for makeshift or home construction and may be found in resonant loop antennas or crystal radios, small variable capacitors operated by screwdriver are called trimmer capacitors. In addition to air and plastic, trimmers can also be using a ceramic dielectric. Capacitors with multiple sections often include trimmer capacitors in parallel to the variable sections, since the peak RF current normally flows from one stator to the other without going through wiper contacts, butterfly capacitors can handle large resonance RF currents, e. g. in magnetic loop antennas. The closely related split stator variable capacitor does not have the limitation of 90° angle since it uses two separate packs of rotor electrodes arranged axially behind one another. Unlike in a capacitor with several sections, the plates in a split stator capacitor are mounted on opposite sides of the rotor axis. Differential variable capacitors can therefore be used in capacitive potentiometric circuits, the variable capacitor with air dielectric was invented by the Hungarian engineer Dezső Korda
22.
Telephone exchange
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A telephone exchange is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network or in large enterprises. In historical perspective, telecommunication terms have been used with different semantics over time, the term telephone exchange is often used synonymously with central office, a Bell System term. Often, an office is defined as a building used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges. Such an area has also referred to as the exchange. Central office locations may also be identified in North America as wire centers, All central offices within a larger region, typically aggregated by state, were assigned a common numbering plan area code. For corporate or enterprise use, a telephone exchange is often referred to as a private branch exchange. Smaller installations might deploy a PBX or key telephone system in the office of a receptionist and this made it possible for subscribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public spaces. These made telephony an available and comfortable communication tool for everyday use, one of the first to propose a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar Puskás in 1877 while he was working for Thomas Edison. The first experimental telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás, the worlds first commercial telephone exchange opened on November 12,1877 in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin. George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange opened in New Haven. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire, Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 subscribers in 1878. In Europe other early telephone exchanges were based in London and Manchester, Belgium had its first International Bell exchange a year later. In 1887 Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by switchboard operators. Each operator sat in front of a panel containing banks of ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve jacks. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, the loop current lit a signal lamp near the jack. The operator responded by inserting the rear cord into the jack and switched her headset into the circuit to ask, Number. For a local call, the operator inserted the front cord of the pair into the partys local jack
23.
Mobile phone
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A mobile phone is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the systems of a mobile phone operator. Most modern mobile telephone services use a network architecture, and, therefore. Mobile phones which offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to seven billion, penetrating 100% of the global population. In first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone manufacturers were Samsung, Apple, a handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a pocket-size folding telephone with a thin carbon microphone. Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships, the race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. The first commercial automated cellular network was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and this was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Several other countries followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology, in 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. In 1991, the digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators, ten years later, in 2001, the third generation was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard. This was followed by 3. 5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access family, allowing UMTS networks to have data transfer speeds. By 2009, it had become clear that, at point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies
24.
Router (computing)
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A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet, a data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another router through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination node. A router is connected to two or more lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers that simply pass IP packets between the computers and the Internet. An example of a router would be the cable or DSL router. Though routers are typically dedicated hardware devices, software-based routers also exist, when multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers can exchange information about destination addresses using a dynamic routing protocol. Each router builds up a table listing the preferred routes between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A router may have interfaces for different physical types of connections, such as copper cables, fibre optic. Its firmware can also support different networking communications protocol standards, each network interface is used by this specialized computer software to enable data packets to be forwarded from one protocol transmission system to another. Routers may also be used to two or more logical groups of computer devices known as subnets, each with a different network prefix. The network prefixes recorded in the table do not necessarily map directly to the physical interface connections. It does this using internal pre-configured directives, called static routes, static and dynamic routes are stored in the Routing Information Base. The control-plane logic then strips non-essential directives from the RIB and builds a Forwarding Information Base to be used by the forwarding-plane, Forwarding plane, The router forwards data packets between incoming and outgoing interface connections. It routes them to the network type using information that the packet header contains. It uses data recorded in the routing control plane. Routers may provide connectivity within enterprises, between enterprises and the Internet, or between internet service providers networks, the largest routers interconnect the various ISPs, or may be used in large enterprise networks. Smaller routers usually provide connectivity for typical home and office networks, other networking solutions may be provided by a backbone Wireless Distribution System, which avoids the costs of introducing networking cables into buildings
25.
Bridging (networking)
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A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single aggregate network from multiple communication networks or network segments. This function is called network bridging, bridging is distinct from routing, which allows multiple different networks to communicate independently while remaining separate. In the OSI model, bridging is performed in the first two layers, below the network layer, if one or more segments of the bridged network are wireless, the device is known as a wireless bridge and the function as wireless bridging. There are four types of network bridging technologies, simple bridging, multiport bridging, learning or transparent bridging, a simple bridge connects two network segments, typically by operating transparently and deciding on a frame-by-frame basis whether or not to forward from one network to the other. A store and forward technique is used so, during forwarding. Contrary to repeaters that extend the maximum span of a segment. Additionally, bridges reduce collisions by partitioning the collision domain, a multiport bridge connects multiple networks and operates transparently to decide on a frame-by-frame basis whether and where to forward traffic. Like the simple bridge, a multiport bridge typically uses store, the multiport bridge function serves as the basis for network switches. A transparent bridge uses a database to send frames across network segments. The forwarding database starts empty - entries in the database are built as the bridge receives frames. If an address entry is not found in the forwarding database, by means of these flooded frames, the destination network will respond and a forwarding database entry will be created. In the context of a bridge, one can think of the forwarding database as a filtering database. A bridge reads a frames destination address and decides to forward or filter. If the bridge determines that the node is on another segment on the network. If the destination address belongs to the segment as the source address. As nodes transmit data through the bridge, the bridge establishes a filtering database of known MAC addresses, the bridge uses its filtering database to determine whether a frame should be forwarded or filtered. Transparent bridging can also operate over devices with more than two ports, as an example, consider a bridge connected to three hosts, A, B, and C. A is connected to bridge port 1, B is connected to bridge port 2, C is connected to bridge port 3, a sends a frame addressed to B to the bridge
26.
Consumer electronics
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Consumer electronics or home electronics are electronic or digital equipment intended for everyday use, typically in private homes. Consumer electronics include devices used for entertainment, communications, and home-office activities, in British English, they are often called brown goods by producers and sellers, to distinguish them from white goods such as washing machines and refrigerators. Radio broadcasting in the early 20th century brought the first major consumer product, later products included telephones, personal computers, MP3 players, audio equipment, televisions and calculators. In the 2010s, consumer electronics stores often sell GPS, automotive electronics, video game consoles, electronic instruments, karaoke machines, digital cameras. Stores also sell digital cameras, camcorders, cell phones, some consumer electronics stores, such as Best Buy have also begun selling office and baby furniture. Consumer electronics stores may be bricks and mortar retail stores, online stores. The CEA estimated the value of 2015 consumer electronics sales at US$220 billion, for its first fifty years the phonograph turntable did not use electronics, the needle and soundhorn were purely mechanical technologies. However, in the 1920s radio broadcasting became the basis of production of radio receivers. The vacuum tubes that had made radios practical were used with record players as well, television was soon invented, but remained insignificant in the consumer market until the 1950s. The transistor, invented in 1947 by Bell Laboratories, led to significant research in the field of semiconductors in the early 1950s. The transistors advantages revolutionized that industry along with other electronics, by 1959 Fairchild Semiconductor had introduced the first planar transistor from which come the origins of Moores Law. Integrated circuits followed when manufacturers built circuits on a substrate using electrical connections between circuits within the chip itself. One overriding characteristic of consumer products is the trend of ever-falling prices. This is driven by gains in manufacturing efficiency and automation, lower costs as manufacturing has moved to lower-wage countries. Semiconductor components benefit from Moores Law, a principle which states that, for a given price. While consumer electronics continues in its trend of convergence, combining elements of many products, there is an ever increasing need to keep product information updated and comparable, for the consumer to make an informed choice. Style, price, specification, and performance are all relevant, there is a gradual shift towards e-commerce web-storefronts. Many products include Internet connectivity using technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, products not traditionally associated with computer use now provide options to connect to the Internet or to a computer using a home network to provide access to digital content
27.
Video game console
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A video game console is an electronic, digital or computer device that outputs a video signal or visual image to display a video game that one or more people can play. The term video game console is used to distinguish a console machine primarily designed for consumers to use for playing video games. An arcade machine consists of a video game computer, display, game controller, a home computer is a personal computer designed for home use for a variety of purposes, such as bookkeeping, accessing the Internet and playing video games. There are various types of game consoles, including home video game consoles, handheld game consoles, microconsoles. Although Ralph Baer had built working game consoles by 1966, it was nearly a decade before the Pong game made them commonplace in regular peoples living rooms. Through evolution over the 1990s and 2000s, game consoles have expanded to additional functions such as CD players, DVD players, Blu-ray disc players, web browsers, set-top boxes. The first video appeared in the 1960s. They were played on massive computers connected to vector displays, not analog televisions, Ralph H. Baer conceived the idea of a home video game in 1951. In the late 1960s, while working for Sanders Associates, Baer created a series of game console designs. In 1972, Magnavox released the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home game console which could be connected to a TV set. Magnavox replaced the switch design with separate cartridges for each game, by autumn 1975, Magnavox, bowing to the popularity of Pong, cancelled the Odyssey and released a scaled-down version that played only Pong and hockey, the Odyssey 100. A second, higher end console, the Odyssey 200, was released with the 100 and added on-screen scoring, up to four players, almost simultaneously released with Ataris own home Pong console through Sears, these consoles jump-started the consumer market. All three of the new consoles used simpler designs than the original Odyssey did with no board game pieces or extra cartridges, in the years that followed, the market saw many companies rushing similar consoles to market. Most of the consoles from this era were dedicated consoles playing only the games came with the console. These video game consoles were often just called video games, because there was reason to distinguish the two yet. While a few companies like Atari, Magnavox, and newcomer Coleco pushed the envelope, Fairchild released the Fairchild Video Entertainment System in 1976. The VES, however, contained a programmable microprocessor so its cartridges only needed a single ROM chip to store microprocessor instructions, RCA and Atari soon released their own cartridge-based consoles, the RCA Studio II and the Atari 2600, respectively. The first handheld console with interchangeable cartridges was the Microvision designed by Smith Engineering
28.
Digital camera
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A digital camera or digicam is a camera that produces digital images that can be stored in a computer, displayed on a screen and printed. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs, Digital and movie cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film, however, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound, some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing. The history of the camera began with Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. His 1961 idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts position, unfortunately, as with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcocks filmless camera in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept. Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first electronic camera using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975, earlier ones used a camera tube, later ones digitized the signal. Early uses were military and scientific, followed by medical. In the mid to late 1990s digital cameras became common among consumers, by the mid-2000s digital cameras had largely replaced film cameras, and higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera. By the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had a digital camera. The two major types of image sensor are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier, compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back-side-illuminated CMOS sensor, overall final image quality is more dependent on the image processing capability of the camera, than on sensor type. The resolution of a camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into that discrete signals. The brighter the image at a point on the sensor. Depending on the structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used. The number of pixels in the sensor determines the cameras pixel count, in a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000 pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, final quality of an image depends on all optical transformations in the chain of producing the image
29.
Global Positioning System
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The Global Positioning System is a space-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. The GPS system operates independently of any telephonic or internet reception, the GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, however, the US government can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War. The U. S. Department of Defense developed the system and it became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A, getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes, in 2000, the U. S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a denial of access. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System was developed contemporaneously with GPS, GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters. There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system and Chinas BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, special and general relativity predict that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by the Earths observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day than the clocks on the Earth. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to 10 kilometers per day, the relativistic time effect of the GPS clocks running faster than the clocks on earth was corrected for in the design of GPS. The Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkinss Applied Physics Laboratory, decided to monitor Sputniks radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, the Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required. The next spring, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem — pinpointing the users location and this led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system. In 1959, ARPA also played a role in TRANSIT, the first satellite navigation system, TRANSIT, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour, in 1967, the U. S. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required by GPS. In the 1970s, the ground-based OMEGA navigation system, based on comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy, during the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded and it is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time
30.
Printer (computing)
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In computing, a printer is a peripheral which makes a persistent human-readable representation of graphics or text on paper or similar physical media. The worlds first computer printer was a 19th-century mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for his difference engine, the plotter was used for those requiring high quality line art like blueprints. Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, by 1990, most simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then laser printed, expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap. The HP Deskjet of 1988 offered the same advantages as laser printer in terms of flexibility, inkjet systems rapidly displaced dot matrix and daisy wheel printers from the market. By the 2000s high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the price point. Even the desire for printed output for offline reading while on mass transit or aircraft has been displaced by e-book readers, today, traditional printers are being used more for special purposes, like printing photographs or artwork, and are no longer a must-have peripheral. Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest and these devices are in their earliest stages of development and have not yet become commonplace. Personal printers are designed to support individual users, and may be connected to only a single computer. These printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs, requiring minimal setup time to produce a copy of a given document. However, they are generally slow devices ranging from 6 to around 25 pages per minute, however, this is offset by the on-demand convenience. Some printers can print documents stored on cards or from digital cameras. Networked or shared printers are designed for high-volume, high-speed printing and they are usually shared by many users on a network and can print at speeds of 45 to around 100 ppm. The Xerox 9700 could achieve 120 ppm, a virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer. It is called a printer by analogy with a printer which produces a two-dimensional document by a similar process of depositing a layer of ink on paper. The choice of print technology has an effect on the cost of the printer and cost of operation, speed, quality and permanence of documents. Some printer technologies dont work with certain types of physical media, cheques can be printed with liquid ink or on special cheque paper with toner anchorage so that alterations may be detected. The machine-readable lower portion of a cheque must be printed using MICR toner or ink, banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly. The following printing technologies are found in modern printers, A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text
31.
Microwave oven
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A microwave oven is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the Radarange, it was first sold in 1946, Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods. They are also useful for heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items, such as hot butter, fats. Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items, which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water. Some modern microwave ovens are part of units with built-in extractor hoods. The exploitation of high-frequency radio waves for heating substances was possible by the development of vacuum tube radio transmitters around 1920. By 1930 the application of waves to heat human tissue had developed into the medical therapy of diathermy. At the 1933 Chicago Worlds Fair, Westinghouse demonstrated the cooking of foods between two metal plates attached to a 10 kW,60 MHz shortwave transmitter. The Westinghouse team, led by I. F. Mouromtseff, found that foods like steaks and this patent proposed radio frequency heating, at 10 to 20 megahertz. The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of waves of a small enough wavelength. The magnetron was originally a component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II. A more high-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, sir Henry Tizard travelled to the U. S. in late September 1940 to offer the magnetron in exchange for their financial and industrial help. An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, contracts were awarded to Raytheon and other companies for mass production of the magnetron. In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from a radar set he was working on started to melt a candy bar he had in his pocket
32.
Washing machine
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A washing machine is a machine used to wash laundry, such as clothing and sheets. The term is applied to machines that use water as opposed to dry cleaning or ultrasonic cleaners. Laundry detergent is used to clean clothes, and is sold in either powdered or liquid form. Laundering by hand involves soaking, beating, scrubbing, and rinsing dirty textiles, Water for the laundry would be hand carried, heated on a fire for washing, then poured into the tub. That made the warm soapy water precious, it would be reused, first to wash the least soiled clothing, removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was originally a separate process. First, soap would be rinsed out with clear water, after rinsing, the soaking wet clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. The entire process often occupied an entire day of hard work, Clothes washer technology developed as a way to reduce the manual labor spent, providing an open basin or sealed container with paddles or fingers to automatically agitate the clothing. The earliest machines were hand-operated and constructed from wood, while later machines made of metal permitted a fire to burn below the washtub, the earliest special-purpose mechanical washing device was the washboard, invented in 1797 by Nathaniel Briggs of New Hampshire. By the mid-1850s steam-driven commercial laundry machinery were on sale in the UK, technological advances in machinery for commercial and institutional washers proceeded faster than domestic washer design for several decades, especially in the UK. In the United States there was emphasis on developing machines for washing at home, though machines for commercial laundry services were widely used in the late 19th. The rotary washing machine was patented by Hamilton Smith in 1858, as electricity was not commonly available until at least 1930, some early washing machines were operated by a low-speed, single-cylinder hit-and-miss gasoline engine. After the items were washed and rinsed, water had to be removed by twisting, to help reduce this labor, the wringer/mangle machine was developed. As implied by the term mangle, these machines were quite dangerous, especially if powered. A users fingers, hand, arm, or hair could become entangled in the laundry being squeezed, resulting in injuries, unwary bystanders, such as children, could also be caught. Safer mechanisms were developed over time, and the more hazardous designs were eventually outlawed, the mangle used two rollers under spring tension to squeeze water out of clothing and household linen. Each laundry item would be fed through the wringer separately, the first wringers were hand-cranked, but were eventually included as a powered attachment above the washer tub. The wringer would be swung over the wash tub so that extracted wash water would fall back into the tub to be reused for the next load, the modern process of water removal by spinning did not come into use until electric motors were developed. Spinning requires a constant high-speed power source, and was originally done in a device known as an extractor
33.
Dishwasher
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A dishwasher is a mechanical device for cleaning dishware and cutlery. A mix of water and dishwasher detergent is pumped to one or more rotating spray arms, once the wash is finished, the water is drained, more hot water is pumped in and a rinse cycle begins. After the rinse cycle finishes and the water is drained, the dishes are dried using one of several drying methods, typically a rinse aid is used to eliminate water spots for streak-free dishes and glassware resulting from hard water or other reasons. In addition to units, industrial dishwashers are available for use in commercial establishments such as hotels and restaurants. Users operate dishwashers by scraping food from dirty dishes, loading them into the dishwasher racks, adding dishwasher detergent, turning on the device, dishwasher use starts with installation as an appliance. Most home users fix their dishwashers in one place, such as under a countertop, the user scrapes dishes clean, such as by pushing uneaten food from a plate into a waste container as food waste. From the early 2010s, manufacturers have designed consumer dishwashers for use without pre-rinsing or pre-washing, Dishwashers are designed to hold different dishes in different places. For the most common installed two-rack consumer style of dishwasher, the user loads cups, bowls, eating utensils go in the bottom rack into a container, with pointed ends down for safety. Some dishwashers have a rack for utensils. Heavier dishes go on the rack, with large pots facing downward toward the spray nozzle. After the dishwasher is loaded, the user puts dishwasher detergent into the machine, contemporary dishwashers use sensors to determine how much washing is required, and when they finish, will provide clean dishes. Dishwashers and the used in dishwashers are not designed for use with some materials. The washing cycles heat and chemicals can harm kitchen knives and non-stick surface pans, detergents have their own usage restrictions, including not being safe for cleaning various materials like wood or certain metals. The first reports of a mechanical dishwashing device are of an 1850 patent in the United States by Joel Houghton for a hand-powered wood device and this device was made of wood and was cranked by hand while water sprayed onto the dishes. This device was both slow and unreliable, another patent was granted to L. A. Alexander in 1865 that was similar to the first but featured a hand-cranked rack system. Neither device was practical or widely accepted, cochranes inspiration was her frustration at the damage to her good china that occurred when her servants handled it during cleaning. Europes first domestic dishwasher with a motor was invented and manufactured by Miele in 1929. In the United Kingdom, William Howard Livens invented a small, drying elements were even added to his design in 1940
34.
HVAC
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Heating, ventilation and air conditioning is the technology of indoor and vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, Refrigeration is sometimes added to the fields abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR, or ventilating is dropped as in HACR. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings, methods for ventilating a building may be divided into mechanical/forced and natural types. HVAC systems can be used in domestic and commercial environments. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and maintain pressure relationships between spaces, the means of air delivery and removal from spaces is known as room air distribution. In modern buildings the design, installation, and control systems of functions are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings, contractors normally estimate the capacity, engineer, for larger buildings, building service designers, mechanical engineers, or building services engineers analyze, design, and specify the HVAC systems. Specialty mechanical contractors then fabricate and commission the systems, Building permits and code-compliance inspections of the installations are normally required for all sizes of building. HVAC is based on inventions and discoveries made by Nikolay Lvov, Michael Faraday, Willis Carrier, Edwin Ruud, Reuben Trane, James Joule, William Rankine, Sadi Carnot, heaters are appliances whose purpose is to generate heat for the building. This can be done via central heating, such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to heat water, steam, or air in a central location such as a furnace room in a home, or a mechanical room in a large building. The heat can be transferred by convection, conduction, or radiation, heaters exist for various types of fuel, including solid fuels, liquids, and gases. Another type of source is electricity, normally heating ribbons composed of high resistance wire. This principle is used for baseboard heaters and portable heaters. Electrical heaters are used as backup or supplemental heat for heat pump systems. The heat pump gained popularity in the 1950s in Japan and the United States, heat pumps can extract heat from various sources, such as environmental air, exhaust air from a building, or from the ground. In the case of heated water or steam, piping is used to transport the heat to the rooms, most modern hot water boiler heating systems have a circulator, which is a pump, to move hot water through the distribution system
35.
Thermostat
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A thermostat is a component which senses the temperature of a system so that the systems temperature is maintained near a desired setpoint. It is a closed loop control device, as it seeks to reduce the error between the desired and measured temperatures, sometimes a thermostat combines both the sensing and control action elements of a controlled system, such as in an automotive thermostat. A thermostat exerts control by switching heating or cooling devices on or off, or by regulating the flow of a heat transfer fluid as needed, to maintain the correct temperature. Thermostats can be constructed in ways and may use a variety of sensors to measure the temperature. The output of the sensor then controls the heating or cooling apparatus, instead, the heating or cooling equipment runs at full capacity until the set temperature is reached, then shuts off. Increasing the difference between the setting and the desired temperature therefore does not shorten the time to achieve the desired temperature. A thermostat may have a maximum switching frequency, or switch heating and cooling equipment on and this reduces the risk of equipment damage from frequent switching. The term thermostat is derived from the Greek words θερμός thermos, hot and στατός statos, standing, early technologies included mercury thermometers with electrodes inserted directly through the glass, so that when a certain temperature was reached the contacts would be closed by the mercury. These were accurate to within a degree of temperature, common sensor technologies in use today include, Bimetallic mechanical or electrical sensors. He invented a mercury thermostat to regulate the temperature of a chicken incubator and this is one of the first recorded feedback-controlled devices. Modern thermostat control was developed in the 1830s by Andrew Ure, a Scottish chemist, Warren S. Johnson of Wisconsin patented a bi-metal room thermostat in 1883, and two years later filed a patent for the first multi-zone thermostatic control system. Albert Butz invented the electric thermostat and patented it in 1886, one of the first industrial uses of the thermostat was in the regulation of the temperature in poultry incubators. Charles Hearson, a British engineer, designed the first modern incubator for eggs that was taken up for use on farms in 1879. The incubators incorporated an accurate thermostat to regulate the temperature so as to simulate the experience of an egg being hatched naturally. This covers only devices which both sense and control using purely mechanical means, domestic water and steam based central heating systems have traditionally been controlled by bi-metallic strip thermostats, and this is dealt with later in this article. Purely mechanical control has been localised steam or hot-water radiator bi-metallic thermostats which regulated the individual flow, however, Thermostatic Radiator Valves are now being widely used. Purely mechanical thermostats are used to regulate dampers in some rooftop turbine vents, some automobile passenger heating systems have a thermostatically controlled valve to regulate the water flow and temperature to an adjustable level. In older vehicles the thermostat controls the application of engine vacuum to actuators that control water valves, in modern vehicles, the vacuum actuators may be operated by small solenoids under the control of a central computer
36.
Season
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A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology and hours of daylight. Seasons result from the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. During May, June, and July, the northern hemisphere is exposed to direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the sun. The same is true of the hemisphere in November, December. It is the tilt of the Earth that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the months which increases the solar flux. However, due to lag, June, July, and August are the hottest months in the northern hemisphere and December, January. In temperate and subpolar regions, four calendar-based seasons are recognized, spring, summer, autumn or fall. Ecologists often use a model for temperate climate regions, prevernal, vernal, estival, serotinal, autumnal. Many tropical regions have two seasons, the rainy, wet, or monsoon season and the dry season, some have a third cool, mild, or harmattan season. Seasons often held special significance for agrarian societies, whose lives revolved around planting and harvest times, in some parts of the world, some other seasons capture the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season, tornado season, and wildfire season. The most historically important of these are the three seasons—flood, growth, and low water—which were previously defined by the annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt. The seasons result from the Earths axis of rotation being tilted with respect to its orbital plane by an angle of approximately 23.5 degrees, regardless of the time of year, the northern and southern hemispheres always experience opposite seasons. This is because during summer or winter, one part of the planet is directly exposed to the rays of the Sun than the other. For approximately half of the year, the northern hemisphere tips toward the Sun, for the other half of the year, the same happens, but in the southern hemisphere instead of the northern, with the maximum around December 21. The two instants when the Sun is directly overhead at the Equator are the equinoxes. Also at that moment, both the North Pole and the South Pole of the Earth are just on the terminator, and hence day and night are equally divided between the northern and southern hemispheres. Around the March equinox, the northern hemisphere will be experiencing spring as the hours of daylight increase, the effect of axial tilt is observable as the change in day length and altitude of the Sun at noon during a year. Between this effect and the daylight hours, the axial tilt of the Earth accounts for most of the seasonal variation in climate in both hemispheres
37.
Home automation
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Home automation or smart home is building automation for the home. It involves the control and automation of lighting, heating, ventilation, air conditioning, wi-Fi is often used for remote monitoring and control. Home devices, when remotely monitored and controlled via the Internet, are an important constituent of the Internet of Things, while there are many competing vendors, there are very few world-wide accepted industry standards and the smart home space is heavily fragmented. Popular communications protocol for products include X10, Ethernet, RS-485, 6LoWPAN, Bluetooth LE, ZigBee and Z-Wave, manufacturers often prevent independent implementations by withholding documentation and by litigation. The home automation market was worth US$5.77 billion in 2015, early home automation began with labor-saving machines. In 1975, the first general purpose home automation network technology and it is a communication protocol for electronic devices. It primarily uses electric power transmission wiring for signalling and control, where the signals involve brief radio frequency bursts of digital data, by 1978, X10 products included a 16 channel command console, a lamp module, and an appliance module. Soon after came the wall switch module and the first X10 timer, by 2012, in the United States, according to ABI Research,1.5 million home automation systems were installed. The word domotics is a contraction of the Latin word for a home, heating, ventilation and air conditioning, it is possible to have remote control of all home energy monitors over the internet incorporating a simple and friendly user interface. Technology is still in its infancy, and consumers could invest in a system that becomes abandonware. In 2014, Google bought the company selling the Revolv Hub home automation system, integrated it with Nest and in 2016 shut down the servers Revolv Hub depended on, rendering the hardware useless. Microsoft Research found in 2011, that home automation could involve high cost of ownership, inflexibility of interconnected devices, however, there are now open source software systems which can be used with proprietary hardware. There are a variety of technology platforms, or protocols. Each one is, essentially, its own language, each language speaks to the various connected devices and instructs them to perform a function. The automation protocol transport has involved direct wire connectivity, powerline and wireless hybrid, most of the protocols below are not open. Customers may be hesitant to bet their IoT future on proprietary software or hardware devices that use proprietary protocols that may fade or become difficult to customize and interconnect. The nature of home automation devices can also be a problem for security, since patches to bugs found in the operating system often do not reach users of older. One set of researchers say that the failure of vendors to support devices with patches and updates leaves more than 87% of active devices vulnerable
38.
Inertial navigation system
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It is used on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Other terms used to refer to inertial navigation systems or closely related devices include inertial guidance system, inertial instrument, inertial measurement units, older INS systems generally used an inertial platform as their mounting point to the vehicle, and the terms are sometimes considered synonymous. Inertial measurement units typically contain three orthogonal rate-gyroscopes and three accelerometers, measuring angular velocity and linear acceleration respectively. By processing signals from these devices it is possible to track the position and orientation of a device, Inertial navigation is used in a wide range of applications including the navigation of aircraft, tactical and strategic missiles, spacecraft, submarines and ships. Recent advances in the construction of systems have made it possible to manufacture small. These advances have widened the range of applications to include areas such as human. An inertial navigation system includes at least a computer and a platform or module containing accelerometers, gyroscopes, the advantage of an INS is that it requires no external references in order to determine its position, orientation, or velocity once it has been initialized. An INS can detect a change in its position, a change in its velocity. It does this by measuring the acceleration and angular velocity applied to the system. Since it requires no external reference, it is immune to jamming, Inertial navigation systems are used in many different moving objects, including vehicles—such as aircraft, submarines, spacecraft—and guided missiles. However, their cost and complexity place constraints on the environments in which they are practical for use, Gyroscopes measure the angular velocity of the sensor frame with respect to the inertial reference frame. By using the orientation of the system in the inertial reference frame as the initial condition and integrating the angular velocity. This can be thought of as the ability of a passenger in a car to feel the car turn left and right or tilt up. Based on this alone, the passenger knows what direction the car is facing but not how fast or slow it is moving. Accelerometers measure the acceleration of the moving vehicle in the sensor or body frame. Performing integration on the inertial accelerations using the correct kinematic equations yields the inertial velocities of the system, therefore, the position must be periodically corrected by input from some other type of navigation system. The inaccuracy of a good-quality navigational system is less than 0.6 nautical miles per hour in position and on the order of tenths of a degree per hour in orientation. Accordingly, inertial navigation is used to supplement other navigation systems
39.
Brushless DC electric motor
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The controller times commutation and creates current waveforms. In a well designed PMSM the air gap magnetic flux is spatial sinusoidal, the motor structural elements of a brushless motor system is typically permanent magnet synchronous motor, but can also be a switched reluctance motor, or induction motor. Brushless motors may be implemented as stepper motors as well, however and they are frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined angular position while still producing torque. A well design power supply/controller/PMSM can also be held at zero rpm, two key performance parameters of brushless DC motors are the motor constants Kt and Ke. Brushed DC motors develop a maximum torque when stationary, linearly decreasing as velocity increases, some limitations of brushed motors can be overcome by brushless motors, they include higher efficiency and a lower susceptibility to mechanical wear. These benefits come at the cost of potentially less rugged, more complex, a typical brushless motor has permanent magnets which rotate around a fixed armature, eliminating problems associated with connecting current to the moving armature. An electronic controller replaces the brush/commutator assembly of the brushed DC motor, the controller performs similar timed power distribution by using a solid-state circuit rather than the brush/commutator system. This in turn means that the motors internals can be enclosed and protected from dirt or other foreign matter. Controller software can be customized to the motor being used in the application. The maximum power that can be applied to a motor is limited almost exclusively by heat, too much heat weakens the magnets. When converting electricity into mechanical power, brushless motors are more efficient than brushed motors and this improvement is largely due to the frequency at which the electricity is switched determined by the position sensor feedback. Additional gains are due to the absence of brushes, which reduces energy loss due to friction. The enhanced efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load region of the performance curve. Under high mechanical loads, brushless motors and high-quality brushed motors are comparable in efficiency, because the controller implements the traditional brushes functionality it needs the rotors orientation/position. This is automatic in a brushed motor due to the geometry of rotor shaft. Some designs use Hall effect sensors or a rotary encoder to directly measure the rotors position, others measure the back-EMF in the undriven coils to infer the rotor position, eliminating the need for separate Hall effect sensors, and therefore are often called sensorless controllers. In a brushless DC motor, two coils are energized at a time with equal and opposite polarities, one pushes the rotor away from it while the other attracts the rotor towards it. This increases the torque capacity of the motor and Hall effect sensors or a rotary encoder determine which two coils have to be energized to achieve this strategy
40.
Induction motor
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An induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motors rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type, three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial drives because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans, although traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump, squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency drive applications. Tesla applied for U. S. patents in October and November 1887 and was granted some of these patents in May 1888, in April 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferrariss research on his AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor operation. George Westinghouse, who was developing an alternating current power system at time, licensed Tesla’s patents in 1888. Tesla was also employed for one year as a consultant, Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott was assigned to assist Tesla and later took over development of the induction motor at Westinghouse. Steadfast in his promotion of development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889. Furthermore, he claimed that Teslas motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor. The General Electric Company began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891, by 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Arthur E. Kennelly was the first to bring out full significance of the i to designate the 90-degree rotation operator in complex number analysis of AC problems. GEs Charles Proteus Steinmetz greatly developed application of AC complex quantities including in terms now commonly known as the induction motors Steinmetz equivalent circuit. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7. 5-horsepower motor in 1897. In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motors stator creates a field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motors rotor turns at the rate as the stator field. The induction motor stators magnetic field is changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces a current in the induction motors rotor, in effect the motors secondary winding. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor, the currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field
41.
DC motor
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A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic. DC motors were the first type used, since they could be powered from existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motors speed can be controlled over a wide range, small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a motor used for portable power tools. Larger DC motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, the advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many applications. A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field aligned with the center of the coil, the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the coil can be changed with the direction and magnitude of the current flowing through it. A simple DC motor has a set of magnets in the stator. The windings usually have multiple turns around the core, and in large motors there can be several parallel current paths, the ends of the wire winding are connected to a commutator. The commutator allows each armature coil to be energized in turn, the total amount of current sent to the coil, the coils size and what its wrapped around dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created. The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the effective electromagnetic fields are pointed, by turning on and off coils in sequence a rotating magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic fields interact with the fields of the magnets in the stationary part of the motor to create a force on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator fields use electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow control over the motor. At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air, different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected provide different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by changing the applied to the armature. The introduction of variable resistance in the circuit or field circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are controlled by power electronics systems which adjust the voltage by chopping the DC current into on
42.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
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Electric vehicle
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An electric vehicle, also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion. EVs include road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft, in the 21st century, EVs saw a resurgence due to technological developments and an increased focus on renewable energy. Government incentives to increase adoptions were introduced, including in the United States, around the same period, early experimental electrical cars were moving on rails, too. American blacksmith and inventor Thomas Davenport built a toy electric locomotive, powered by an electric motor. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built a locomotive that attained a speed of four miles per hour. In England a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, between 1832 and 1839, Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells. By the 20th century, electric cars and rail transport were commonplace, electrified trains were used for coal transport, as the motors did not use precious oxygen in the mines. Switzerlands lack of fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail network. One of the earliest rechargeable batteries - the nickel-iron battery - was favored by Edison for use in electric cars and they were produced by Baker Electric, Columbia Electric, Detroit Electric, and others, and at one point in history out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. In fact, in 1900,28 percent of the cars on the road in the USA were electric, EVs were so popular that even President Woodrow Wilson and his secret service agents toured Washington DC in their Milburn Electrics, which covered 60–70 mi per charge. A number of developments contributed to decline of electric cars, as roads were improved outside urban areas electric vehicle range could not compete with the ICE. Finally, the initiation of production of gasoline-powered vehicles by Henry Ford in 1913 reduced significantly the cost of gasoline cars as compared to electric cars. In January 1990, General Motors President introduced its EV concept two-seater and that September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 EV1s,800 of which were available through three-year leases. Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, Nissan and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers, in 2003, upon the expiration of GMs EV1 leases, GM crushed them. A movie made on the subject in 2005-2006 was titled Who Killed the Electric Car. Ford released a number of their Ford Ecostar delivery vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, after public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV EVs to eager buyers, they later sold at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. This lesson did not go unlearned, BMW of Canada sold off a number of Mini EVs when their Canadian testing ended, the production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique stopped in September 2005
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Anti-lock braking system
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It is an automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking which were practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It does this at a faster rate and with better control than many drivers could manage. Since initial widespread use in cars, anti-lock braking systems have been improved considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also control the front-to-rear brake bias. The concept for ABS predates the modern systems that were introduced in the 1950s, in 1908, for example, J. E. Francis introduced his Slip Prevention Regulator for Rail Vehicles. In 1920 the French automobile and aircraft pioneer Gabriel Voisin experimented with systems that modulated the hydraulic braking pressure on his aircraft brakes to reduce the risk of tire slippage and these systems use a flywheel and valve attached to a hydraulic line that feeds the brake cylinders. The flywheel is attached to a drum that runs at the speed as the wheel. In normal braking, the drum and flywheel should spin at the same speed, however, when a wheel slows down, then the drum would do the same, leaving the flywheel spinning at a faster rate. This causes the valve to open, allowing a small amount of fluid to bypass the master cylinder into a local reservoir, lowering the pressure on the cylinder. The use of the drum and flywheel meant the only opened when the wheel was turning. In testing, a 30% improvement in braking performance was noted, an additional benefit was the elimination of burned or burst tires. The first patented system was created by German engineer Karl Wessel in 1928, Wessel, however, never developed a working product and neither did Robert Bosch who produced a similar patent eight years later. In 1958, a Royal Enfield Super Meteor motorcycle was used by the Road Research Laboratory to test the Maxaret anti-lock brake, the experiments demonstrated that anti-lock brakes can be of great value to motorcycles, for which skidding is involved in a high proportion of accidents. Stopping distances were reduced in most of the tests compared with locked wheel braking, particularly on slippery surfaces, enfields technical director at the time, Tony Wilson-Jones, saw little future in the system, however, and it was not put into production by the company. The first fully electronic anti lock system was developed in the late 60s for the Concorde aircraft, chrysler, together with the Bendix Corporation, introduced a computerized, three-channel, four-sensor all-wheel ABS called Sure Brake for its 1971 Imperial. It was available for years thereafter, functioned as intended. In 1970, Ford added an antilock braking system called Sure-track to the wheels of Lincoln Continentals as an option. In 1971, General Motors introduced the Trackmaster rear-wheel only ABS as an option on their rear-wheel drive Cadillac models, in the same year, Nissan offered an EAL developed by Japanese company Denso as an option on the Nissan President, which became Japans first electronic ABS
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Electronic stability control
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When ESC detects loss of steering control, it automatically applies the brakes to help steer the vehicle where the driver intends to go. Braking is automatically applied to wheels individually, such as the front wheel to counter oversteer or the inner rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC systems also reduce power until control is regained. ESC does not improve a vehicles cornering performance, instead, it helps to minimize the loss of control. According to Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and the U. S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, in 1983, a series production Four-wheel electronic anti-skid control is introduced on the Toyota Crown. In 1987, Mercedes-Benz, BMW and Toyota introduced their first traction control systems, Traction control works by applying individual wheel braking and throttle to keep traction while accelerating but, unlike the ESC, it is not designed to aid in steering. In 1990, Mitsubishi released the Diamante in Japan and it featured a new electronically controlled active trace & traction control system that Mitsubishi developed. Simply named TCL in 1990, the system has now evolved into Mitsubishis modern Active Skid, developed to help the driver maintain the intended line through a corner, an onboard computer monitored several vehicle operating parameters through various sensors. Although not a ‘proper’ modern stability control system, trace control monitors steering angle, throttle position, the TCL systems standard wheel slip control function enables better traction on slippery surfaces or during cornering. From 1987 to 1992, Mercedes-Benz and Robert Bosch GmbH co-developed a system called Elektronisches Stabilitätsprogramm to control lateral slippage, in 1995, three automobile manufacturers introduced ESC systems. Mercedes-Benz, supplied by Bosch, was the first to implement ESP with their Mercedes-Benz S600 Coupé and that same year BMW, supplied by Bosch and ITT Automotive introduced the system on the BMW7 Series. Toyotas Vehicle Stability Control system (also in 2004, a system called Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management appeared on the Toyota Crown Majesta in 1995. In 1997, Audi introduced the first series production ESP for all-wheel drive vehicles, in 1998, Volvo Cars began to offer their version of ESC called Dynamic Stability and Traction Control on the new Volvo S80. Meanwhile, others investigated and developed their own systems, during a moose test, which became famous in Germany as the elk test, the Swedish journalist Robert Collin of Teknikens Värld in October 1997 rolled a Mercedes A-Class at 78 km/h. Because Mercedes-Benz promotes a reputation for safety, they recalled and retrofitted 130,000 A-Class cars with ESC and this produced a significant reduction in crashes and the number of vehicles with ESC rose. Today, virtually all premium brands have made ESC standard on all vehicles, the availability of ESC in small cars like the A-Class ignited a market trend thus ESC became available for all models at least as an option. Consequently, the European Union decided in 2009 to make ESC mandatory, since November 1,2011, EU Type Approval is only granted to models equipped with ESC. By November 1,2014, ESC is required on all newly registered cars in the EU, general Motors worked with Delphi Automotive and introduced its version of ESC called StabiliTrak in 1997 for select Cadillac models
