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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
2.
Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
3.
Kaleidoscope
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The reflectors are usually enclosed in a tube, often containing on one end a cell with loose, colored pieces of glass or other transparent materials to be reflected into the viewed pattern. Rotation of the cell causes motion of the materials, resulting in an ever changing viewed pattern, a kaleidoscope operates on the principle of multiple reflection, where two or more reflectors are placed at an angle to one another. When the eye is placed at one end of the reflectors, for irregular objects situated at any position the angle should be an even aliquot part of 360°. The reflected object should be in contact with the ends of the reflectors, the eye should be as near as possible to the angular point of the ends of the reflector opposite the reflected object. An object-box on the ends of the reflectors can hold selected objects to be viewed in the reflected pattern, colorful transparent shapes to create beautiful patterns. Objects smaller than the aperture create an appearance of the pattern. Larger opaque objects and darker colors dont transmit much light and are usually avoided, if objects, fragments and/or liquids are loosely placed inside the cell and tumble when the cell is rotated, motion and change of colors and shapes can be introduced into the viewed pattern. Multiple reflection by two or more reflecting surfaces has been known since antiquity and was described by as such by Giambattista della Porta in his Magia Naturalis. Mr. Bradleys New Improvements in Planting and Gardening described a similar construction to be placed on geometrical drawings to show an image with multiplied reflection, however, an optimal configuration that produces the full effects of the kaleidoscope have not been recorded before 1815. He forgot about it, but noticed a more impressive version of the effect during experiments in February 1815. This triggered more experiments to find the conditions for the most beautiful, a version followed in which some of the objects and pieces of glass could move when the tube was rotated. The last step, regarded as most important by Brewster, was to place the reflecting panes in a tube with a concave lens to distinctly introduce surrounding objects into the reflected pattern. Brewster thought his instrument to be of value in all the ornamental arts as a device that creates an infinity of patterns. Artists could accurately delineate the produced figures of the kaleidoscope by means of the solar micoscope, Brewster believed it would at the same time become a popular instrument for the purposes of rational amusement. He decided to apply for a patent, british patent no.4136 for a new Optical Instrument called The Kaleidoscope for exhibiting and creating beautiful Forms and Patterns of great use in all the ornamental Arts was granted in July 1817. Unfortunately the manufacturer originally engaged to produce the product had one of the patent instruments to some of the London opticians to see if he could get orders from them. Soon the instrument was copied and marketed before the manufacturer had prepared any number of kaleidoscopes for sale, an estimated two hundred thousand kaleidoscopes sold in London and Paris in just three months. Brewster figured at most a thousand of these were authorized copies that were constructed correctly and it was thought that the patent was reduced in a Court of Law since its principles were supposedly already known
4.
Pucci family
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For people with the surname Pucci who are or were not members of this family, see Pucci. The Pucci family was a political family in Florence. Their former surname seems to have been Saracini, which explains the presence of a maure or moors head on their crest, the first Pucci family members to be mentioned date to the 13th century with their subscribing to the Arte dei Legnaioli. These early members include Antonio Pucci, who worked as an architect on the construction of the Loggia della Signoria and his son Puccio Pucci was a merchant who became rich thanks to trade and financial activities in medieval Florence. The first Pucci residences were in the Santa Croce district of Florence and they were Guelphs and so they were expelled and their houses demolished after the battle of Montaperti in 1260, though they were soon able to return upon the Ghibellines expulsion from the city. With wealth came political offices such as magistracies, priors and gonfalonieres - the Pucci family produced a total of 23 priors 8 holders of the post of confaloniere di giustizia. The plan had already been shelved, but the Medici intelligence network got wind of it, Pandolfo was hung from a window of the Bargello and the Puccis properties were seized. As a memorial to the quashing of the plot, or perhaps out of prudence or superstition, it was decided to brick up the window at the corner where the attack was to have occurred, as can still be seen. The Pucci later made peace with the Medici and Niccolò Pucci regained the Palazzo Pucci and its furnishings. In 1662 Orazio Roberto Pucci acquired the fiefdom of Barsento for 4,000 scudi and obtained the title of Marchese di Barsento, the noble title which has since been handed down through the family. The most recent notable family member has been Emilio Pucci, founder of the eponymous fashion house. He designed the uniform of the Italian Vigili Urbani with large white gloves. His brother Puccio Pucci was also notable, as an official for CONI. Puccio Pucci bought the Cappella della Madonna del Soccorso a few decades later and these paintings tell the story of Nastalgio degli Onesti and the first three in the narrative are now in the Prado in Madrid. The painting still in Florence shows the use of forks, which were adopted for the first time in Florence by the Pucci. It also shows the use of tableware and silver vessels. The Pucci commissioned several works for the churches neighbouring their palazzo, whilst he was archbishop of Bologna, cardinal Antonio Pucci commissioned Raphael to paint a scene of The Ecstasy of Saint Cecilia - now moved to the citys Pinacoteca. At the end of the 16th century Lorenzo Pucci commissioned Alessandro Allori to paint a Marriage at Cana as an altarpiece for the church of SantAgata, the familys palazzo was rebuilt by the grand-ducal architect Bernardo Buontalenti in the second half of the 16th century
5.
Palazzo Pucci, Florence
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The Palazzo Pucci is a palace located on Via dei Pucci #4 in central Florence, region of Tuscany Italy. The façade spans from Via dei Servi to Via Ricasoli, the site was owned by a member of the aristocratic Pucci family since around 1480. The present palace was designed around 1748 by the architect Paolo Falconieri, the central and oldest part of the palace was commissioned in the 16th century by cardinal Lorenzo Pucci, the façade still sports his coat of arms under the balcony. Much of the palace has remained in possession of the Pucci family since this time, one part of the palace was owned by the Baciocchi family, who rented part to the American sculptor Horatio Greenough. This palace is now occupied by the Archdiocese of Florence, the corner has a coat of arms of Pope Leo X sculpted by Baccio da Montelupo. On the arch of the Piano Nobile above the portal is the coat of arms of the Pucci family. The coat of arms depicts a Moor with a head-band and it is unclear why they used this profile of a black man for an emblem, some theories claim that an ancestor was a Saracini. Some claim the three hammers or crosses on the headband symbolize membership in the Carpenters’ Guild, or three letter “Ts”, acronym of the family motto Tempore tempora tempera. Other coats of arms depict the items of trade pursued by the family, and this may signify the family was involved in the slave trade
6.
Lake Placid, New York
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Lake Placid is a village in the Adirondack Mountains in Essex County, New York, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 2,521, the village of Lake Placid is near the center of the town of North Elba,50 miles southwest of Plattsburgh. Lake Placid, along with nearby Saranac Lake and Tupper Lake, Lake Placid hosted the 1932 and the 1980 Winter Olympics. Lake Placid also hosted the 1972 Winter Universiade and the 2000 Winter Goodwill Games, roy suffering from malnutrition had a vision in which he was told to till the land til fertile. From this he decided that is was his duty to bring civilized man unto the land of lake placid. Roys delusions worsened and he began to believe that his salted fish meal had turned to men and he scattered 44 fish across the land gave each a name, proceeded to declare himself mayor of this land, then he died from malnutrition. The abolitionist John Brown heard about Gerrit Smiths reforms, and left his anti-slavery activities in Kansas to buy 244 acres of land here and this parcel later became known as the Freed Slave Utopian Experiment, Timbucto. Shortly before his execution in 1859, John Brown asked to be buried on his farm, as leisure time increased in the late 19th century, Lake Placid was discovered for resort use by the rich and famous, who were drawn to the fashionable Lake Placid Club. Melvil Dewey, who invented the Dewey Decimal System, designed what was then called Placid Park Club in 1895 and this inspired the village to change its name to Lake Placid, which became an incorporated village in 1900. Dewey kept the club open through the winter in 1905, which aided the development of sports in the area. Nearby Saranac Lake had hosted an international sporting event as early as 1889. The mountain air was considered good for them, by 1921, the Lake Placid area could boast a ski jump, speed skating venue and ski association. In 1929, Dr. Godfrey Dewey, Melvils son, convinced the International Olympic Committee Lake Placid had the best winter sports facilities in the United States, the Lake Placid Club was the headquarters for the IOC for the 1932 and the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid. Lake Placid is best known as the site of the Winter Olympics. Lake Placid first hosted in 1932 and again 48 years later in 1980, in the U. S. the village is especially remembered as the site of the 1980 USA–USSR hockey game. Dubbed as the Miracle on Ice, a group of American college students and amateurs upset the heavily favored Soviet national ice hockey team, 4–3, another highpoint during the Games was American speed-skater Eric Heidens performance, who won five gold medals. During the 1932 games, the trails outside of the served for the cross-country skiing events. Lake Placid, St Moritz and Innsbruck are the sites to have twice hosted the Winter Olympic Games
7.
1932 Winter Olympics
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The 1932 Winter Olympics, officially known as the III Olympic Winter Games, were a winter multi-sport event in the United States, held in Lake Placid, New York. The games opened on February 4 and closed on February 15 and it was the first of four Winter Olympics held in the United States, Lake Placid hosted again in 1980. The games were awarded to Lake Placid in part by the efforts of Godfrey Dewey, head of the Lake Placid Club and son of Melvil Dewey, California also had a bid for the 1932 Winter Games. William May Garland, president of the California X Olympiad Association, wanted the games to place in in Wrightwood and Big Pines. The worlds largest ski jump at the time was constructed in Big Pines for the event, the Games were opened by Franklin D. Roosevelt, then the Governor of New York. He was elected President of the United States nine months later, sonja Henie won the second of three consecutive Olympic gold medals in figure skating. She also won gold in 1928 and 1936, eddie Eagan became the only Olympian to win gold medals at both the summer and winter games in different sports. He won gold in boxing in the 1920 Antwerp summer games, the bobsleigh race was held two days after the games closing ceremonies due to unseasonably warm weather in the region the week prior. The USA won the medal tally with a total of 12 medals, medals were awarded in 14 events contested in 4 sports. Bobsleigh Ice hockey Skating Figure skating Speed skating Nordic skiing Cross-country skiing Nordic combined Ski jumping The Games also included events in three demonstration sports, curling Sled dog race Speed skating These were the last Winter Olympics without alpine skiing, which was added in 1936. Alpine skiing held its 1932 World Championships during the Olympics, February 4–6 in Cortina dAmpezzo, athletes from 17 nations competed in these Games, down from 25 nations at the previous Games in 1928. Argentina, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands,1932 Summer Olympics Olympic Games celebrated in the United States 1904 Summer Olympics – St. Olympic. org. III Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1932,1932 The official report, Lake Placid Olympic Authority The program of the 1932 Lake Placid Winter Olympics
8.
University of Milan
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The University of Milan, known colloquially as UniMi or Statale, is a higher education institution in Milan, Italy. It is one of the most important and largest universities in Europe, with about 60,000 students, the University of Milan has 9 schools and offers 134 undergraduate and graduate courses,21 Doctoral Schools and 92 Specialization Schools. The Universitys research and teaching activities have developed over the years and have received important international recognitions, the University is the only Italian member of the League of European Research Universities, a group of twenty-one research-intensive European Universities. It consistently ranks one of the best universities of Italy, both overall and in subject areas. The University of Milan is the only Italian member of the League of European Research Universities, a group of twenty-one research-intensive European Universities, the university consistently ranks as Italys best university in a number of areas. It also ranked among the top three in economics and statistics, earth science, history, and antiquities, the university is ranked third in Italy by Center for World University Rankings and fourth in the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities. It is ranked first in Italy by the Academic Ranking of World Universities while the Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranks it 6th to 9th, by 1928, the University already had the fourth-highest number of enrolled students in Italy, after Naples, Rome and Padua. At the end of the Second World War, the old Ospedale dei Poveri building, known as la Cà Granda, was assigned to the University. The building, one of the first Italian examples of civil architecture - commissioned in the 15th century by the Sforza family, the dukes of Milan - was seriously damaged by the bombings of 1943. In 1958, after a series of reconstruction and renovation works, it became home to the University Rectors Office, the administrative offices. The University added to its range of courses and at the time increased its number of centres. Two new schools were established, Pharmacy and Social and Political Sciences, Città Studi was also the site of a new complex, intended entirely for the biology departments, which was the work of architect Vico Magistretti. There was also an increase in the number of agreements with the hospital facilities. In 1968, the University was occupying approximately 127,000 m2, in 1989 there were 22 degree courses and 75,000 enrolled students, which increased to 90,000 by 1993. In 1998, the University split in two and the second public institution was founded, The University of Milan-Bicocca. The University of Insubria was also established in Varese, bringing together courses that were offered at Varese and Como by the Universities of Milan. The 2001 law that transformed the system opened a new phase of change. There was also an increase in the Universitys commitment to providing student services and in investments for new education and research facilities, furthermore, there was also a strengthening of commitment to technology transfer and the practical application of scientific research results in the economic-production context
9.
University of Georgia
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Its primary location is a 762-acre campus adjacent to the college town of Athens, Georgia, approximately an hours drive from the global city of Atlanta. The university has been labeled one of the Public Ivies, a publicly funded university considered to provide a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League. The university was founded in 1785 as the United States first state-chartered university and its historic North Campus is on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places as a designated historic district. The contiguous campus areas include rolling hills, gardens, and extensive green space including nature walks, fields, shrubbery, and large and varied arboreta. Close to the campus is the universitys 58-acre Health Sciences Campus that also has an extensive landscaped green space, more than 400 trees. The university offers over 140 degree programs in an array of disciplines. Consisting of thirteen separate libraries, the UGA Libraries rank among the nation’s largest and best research libraries containing 5.7 million volumes, the University of Georgia is one of 126 member institutions that comprise the Association of Research Libraries. The university is organized into seventeen schools and colleges, the university has three primary campuses. The largest one is the campus in Athens that has 460 buildings. The university has two campuses located in Atlanta and Lawrenceville, Georgia. The university operates several service and outreach stations spread across the state, the total acreage of the university in 30 Georgia counties is 41,539 acres. Varsity and intramural student athletics are a part of student life. UGA served as a member of the SEC in 1932. In their 121-year history, the varsity sports teams have won 39 national championships and 130 conference championships. The Georgia Redcoat Marching Band, the marching band of the university, plays at sports. The Senatus Academicus was composed of the Board of Visitors and the Board of Trustees with the Georgia Senate presiding over those two boards, the first meeting of the universitys board of trustees was held in Augusta, Georgia on February 13,1786. The meeting installed its first president, Abraham Baldwin, a native of Connecticut, Baldwin was a delegate to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, and one of two Georgia delegates to sign the final document. Many features on the University of Georgia campus resemble the campus of Yale, on July 2,1799, the Senatus Academicus met again in Louisville, Georgia and decided that the time was right to open the university
10.
Athens, Georgia
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Athens is a consolidated city–county in the U. S. state of Georgia, in the northeastern part of the state, comprising the former city of Athens proper and Clarke County. The University of Georgia, the flagship public research university, is located in this college town. In 1991, after a vote the preceding year, the city abandoned its charter to form a unified government with Clarke County. As of the 2010 census, the consolidated city-county had a population of 115,452. Athens is the sixth-largest city in Georgia, and the city of the Athens-Clarke County, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area. Athens-Clarke County has the smallest geographical area of a county in Georgia, in the late 18th century, a trading settlement on the banks of the Oconee River called Cedar Shoals stood where Athens is located today. On January 27,1785, the Georgia General Assembly granted a charter by Abraham Baldwin for the University of Georgia as the first state-supported university. Sixteen years later, in 1801, a committee from the board of trustees selected a site for the university on a hill above Cedar Shoals in what was then Jackson County. On July 25, John Milledge, one of the trustees and later governor of Georgia, bought 633 acres from Daniel Easley, Milledge named the surrounding area Athens after the city that was home to the academy of Plato and Aristotle in Greece. The first buildings on the University of Georgia campus were made from logs, the town grew as lots adjacent to the college were sold to raise money for the additional construction of the school. By the time the first class graduated from the university in 1804, completed in 1806 and named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, Franklin College was the University of Georgias and the City of Athens first permanent structure. This brick building is now known as Old College, Athens officially became a town in December 1806 with a government made up of a three-member commission. The university continued to grow, as did the town, with cotton mills fueling the industrial and commercial development, Athens became known as the Manchester of the South after the city in England known for its mills. The university essentially created a reaction of growth in the community which developed on its doorstep. During the American Civil War, Athens became a significant supply center when the New Orleans armory was relocated to what is now called the Chicopee building, fortifications can still be found along parts of the North Oconee River between College and Oconee St. In addition, Athens played a part in the ill-fated Stoneman Raid when a skirmish was fought on a site overlooking the Middle Oconee River near what is now the old Macon Highway. As in many towns, there is a Confederate memorial. It is located on Broad Street, near the University of Georgia Arch, during Reconstruction, Athens continued to grow
11.
Demosthenian Literary Society
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The Demosthenian Literary Society is a literary society primarily involved in debating at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia. It was founded in February 1803 by the first graduating class of the Universitys Franklin College and it is named after the Greek orator Demosthenes. Augustin Clayton, James Jackson, and Williams Rutherford are recognized as the fathers of Demosthenian. Clayton became the first student to receive his diploma from Franklin College and went on to become a judge of wide respect, representative from Georgia, with Georgias Clayton County being named in his honor. Rutherford and Jackson went on to become professors at Franklin College, after 167 years of male-only membership, the first female members of the Society were inducted on March 4,1970. President Sherrill Watkins presided over the initiation of Kathy Conrad, a freshman from Atlanta, and Bebe Herring, by the late 1970s, female members were heavily active in the Society and held numerous offices—even President. In 2008, the Society put forward its first all female Inter-Society Debate team, the four women swept the debate on warrantless wiretapping and FISA reform, winning the votes of all three judges and the alternate. Today, the Society has slightly more female than male members, citing issues of student disenfranchisement within the UGA and U. S. political systems, the Society voted in 2012 to secede from the United States of America as the micronation Demosthenia. This resolution was acknowledged as a move to raise the Societys profile, Demosthenian Hall was constructed by Dr. James Tinsley of Columbia County in 1824 at a cost to the Society of $4,000. It is the fourth oldest building at the University of Georgia and was placed on the National Register for Historic Places in 1971 and it has become the physical expression of a living tradition which binds generations of students. The Society’s minutes show that by September 5,1829, the building’s $4,000 construction cost had been paid off. The construction was financed by the Society’s members, alumni, located on the University of Georgia’s historic north quadrangle, its facade in the formal Federal style forms a pleasing contrast to the later columned Greek revival structures which surround it. The front is graced with a Palladian window over a light doorway, the exterior walls are two feet thick and are of stucco over brick construction. In 1997, Demosthenian Hall received a $200,000 facelift, the original hard wood floors were uncovered and restored in the Lower Chamber. The Upper Chamber is the room of the Society. The speaker’s lectern has been dated to the 1820s and may have built for the Hall. It is a medallion of holly leaves surrounded by swags of smaller leaves which are framed by delicate filigree and this ceiling is one of the most architecturally significant structures at the University of Georgia and is one of the few remaining examples of this form of decorative artwork. The Lower Chamber is the space of the Society, members can often be found studying or enjoying a game of chess in between classes
12.
Reed College
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Reed College is a private liberal arts college in southeast Portland in the U. S. state of Oregon. Reed is known for its mandatory freshman humanities program, required senior-year thesis, the college has many prominent alumni, including over 90 Fulbright Scholars,67 Watson Fellows,3 MacArthur Fellows, and 32 Rhodes Scholars—the second-highest number of any liberal arts college. The Reed Institute was founded in 1908, and held its first classes in 1911, Reed is named for Oregon pioneers Simeon Gannett Reed and Amanda Reed. Simeon was an entrepreneur in trade on the Columbia River, Reeds first president was William Trufant Foster, a former professor at Bates College and Bowdoin College in Maine. The college has a reputation for political liberalism, according to sociologist Burton Clark, Reed is one of the most unusual institutions of higher learning in the United States, featuring a traditional liberal arts and natural sciences curriculum. It requires freshmen to take Humanities 110, an introduction to the Classics, covering ancient Greece and Rome as well as the Bible. Its program in the sciences is likewise unusual with its TRIGA research reactor making it the school in the United States to have a nuclear reactor operated entirely by undergraduates. Upon completion of the thesis, students must also pass an oral exam that may encompass questions not only about the thesis. Reed maintains a 10,1 student-to-faculty ratio, and its small classes emphasize a style where the teacher often acts as a mediator for discussion rather than a lecturer. While large lecture-style classes exist, Reed emphasizes its smaller lab, although letter grades are given to students, grades are de-emphasized at Reed and focus is placed on a narrative evaluation. Unsatisfactory grades are reported directly to the student and the students adviser, papers and exams are generally returned to students with lengthy comments but without grades affixed. Many Reed students graduate without knowing their cumulative GPA or their grades in individual classes. Reed also claims to have experienced very little grade inflation over the years, noting, for example, although Reed does not award Latin honors to graduates, it confers several awards for academic achievement at commencement, including naming students to Phi Beta Kappa. Reed has no fraternities or sororities and few NCAA sports teams although physical education classes are required for graduation, Reed also has several intercollegiate athletic clubs, most notably the Rugby, Ultimate Frisbee, and Soccer teams. Reeds ethical code is known as The Honor Principle, while inspired by traditional honor systems, Reeds Honor Principle differs from these in that it is a guide for ethical standards themselves and not just their enforcement. Under the Honor Principle, there are no codified rules governing behavior, rather, the onus is on students individually and as a community to define which behaviors are acceptable and which are not. Discrete cases of grievance, known as Honor Cases, are adjudicated by a Judicial Board of twelve full-time students, there is also an Honor Council of students, faculty, and staff who educate the community on the Honor Principle and mediate conflict between individuals. Reed categorizes its academic program into five Divisions and the Humanities program, the formal chronological cleavage between the graduate and the undergraduate attitude of mind
13.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
14.
University of Florence
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The University of Florence is an Italian public research university located in Florence, Italy. It comprises 12 schools and has about 60,000 students enrolled, the first university in Florence was the Studium Generale, which was established by the Florentine Republic in 1321. The Studium was recognized by Pope Clement VI in 1349, the Pope also established that the first Italian faculty of theology would be in Florence. The Studium became a university in 1364, but was moved to Pisa in 1473 when Lorenzo the Magnificent gained control of Florence. Charles VIII moved it back from 1497–1515, but it was moved to Pisa again when the Medici family returned to power, in 1923, the Istituto was officially denominated as University by the Italian Parliament. Faculties are located in strategic areas based on their subject matter. The Faculty of Economics, Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Political Sciences are in the Polo delle Scienze Sociali, in the Novoli district, near the new courthouse. The Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, the Faculty of Pharmacology, the Faculty of Engineering is located at the S. Marta Institute, whereas the Faculty of Agriculture is in front of the Parco delle Cascine. The Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences is located in Sesto Fiorentino, the Faculty of Architecture is in the center of the city, as the Accademia di Belle Arti, home of Michelangelos David. The Faculties of Literature, History, Philosophy, and Pedagogy are in the centre of Florence, leonardo da Vinci carried out studies on anatomy at the Santa Maria Nuova Hospital in the center of town which is today a teaching hospital affiliated with the University of Florence. Giovanni Sartori, political scientist, professor of Political Science, born in 1924 in Florence, giovanni Spadolini, historian and important Italian politician, professor of Contemporary History, born in 1925 in Florence. Mario Draghi, President of ECB, full professor of Monetary Economics and Monetary Policy in the faculty of Political Science from 1981 to 1991
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Italian Air Force
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The Italian Air Force is the aerial defence force of the Italian Republic. The Air Force was founded as an independent service arm on March 28,1923, after World War II, when Italy was made a republic by referendum, the Regia Aeronautica was given its current name. Since its formation the service has held a prominent role in modern Italian military history, the aerobatic display team is the Frecce Tricolori. Among the earlier adopters of military aviation, Italys air arm dates back to 1884, the Air Service operated balloons based near Rome. In 1911, reconnaissance and bombing sorties during the Italo-Turkish War by the Servizio Aeronautico represented the first ever use of heavier than air aircraft in armed conflict. On 28 March 1923, the Italian air force was founded as an independent service by King Vittorio Emanuele III of the Kingdom of Italy and this air force was known as the Regia Aeronautica. During the 1930s, the fledgeling Regia Aeronautica was involved in its first military operations, first in Ethiopia in 1935, after a period of neutrality, Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940 alongside Germany. The Regia Aeronautica could deploy more than 3,000 aircraft, the Regia Aeronautica fought from the icy steppes of Russia to the sand of the North African desert losing men and machines. After the armistice of 8 September 1943, Italy was divided two sides, and the same fate befell the Regia Aeronautica. The Air Force was split into the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force in the south aligned with the Allies, the end of the hostilities, on 8 May 1945, opened the gates to the rebirth of military aviation in Italy. A popular vote by the people resulted in the end of the Kingdom of Italy, hence the Regia Aeronautica lost its Royal designation, and it became the Aeronautica Militare, a name that it has continued to hold ever since. American military aid sent by the Mutual Defense Assistance Program brought about the introduction of American-made P-47 Thunderbolt, then in 1952, the Italian Air Force was granted jet fighters for the first time, American F-84G Thunderjets and F-86D Sabre jets. Next F-84F jet fighters and C-119 Flying Boxcar transport planes were sent from the United States to the Italian Air Force, during the 1970s, the Air Force acquired the Italian Aeritalia G222 and the modern American C-130 Hercules tactical transport planes, capable of carrying cargo or paratroopers. It also received the new Lockheed-Aeritalia F-104S Starfighter fighters for ground attack and this was a huge development and production project. Tornado fighters are still in service with all three countries, plus a few more, as of 2012, also, Italian companies worked together with the Embraer Company of Brazil in the smaller project of developing and producing the AMX International AMX aircraft. In 1990, after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, Italy joined the coalition forces, with the need to replace the obsolescent F-104 Starfighters, Italy joined with Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom in the development of the Eurofighter Typhoon. With the Eurofighter Typhoon still some years from introduction to service, the ADV Tornados served as fighter-interceptors to supplement and then to replace the old F-104 Starfighters. The last of the Italian F-104s was removed from service in 2004 and this latter one occurred just a few minutes flying time east of the Italian peninsula, and the commanders-in-chief of the Italian Air Force soon saw the need to improve the Italian air defenses
16.
Torpedo bomber
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A torpedo bomber is a military aircraft designed primarily to attack ships with aerial torpedoes. They were an important element in many famous Second World War battles, notably the British attack at Taranto, Torpedo bombers first appeared immediately prior to the First World War. Generally, they carried torpedoes specifically designed for air launch, which were smaller and lighter than those used by submarines and surface warships. Many early torpedo bombers were floatplanes, such as the Short 184, some postwar jet aircraft were adapted as torpedo bombers in the late 1940s and 1950s. The last known torpedo bomber attack was made by US Navy Skyraiders against the Hwacheon Dam during the Korean War, the North Korean Air Force finally retired the worlds last operational torpedo bombers in the 1980s. Many naval staffs began to appreciate the possibility of using aircraft to launch torpedoes against moored ships in the period before the First World War, captain Alessandro Guidoni, an Italian naval captain, experimented with dropping weights from Farman MF.7 in 1912. Fiske of the United States Navy took out a patent in 1912 for a torpedo carrying aircraft entitled Method of and he suggested that aircraft would attack at night. Winston Churchill, as First Lord of the Admiralty from October 1911 to May 1915, was a proponent of naval air power. He established the Royal Naval Air Service in April 1912 and took flying lessons to foster aviation development, Churchill ordered the RNAS to design reconnaissance spotters and torpedo bombers for the Fleet. The British Admiralty ordered the Short Admiralty Type 81 biplane floatplane as a reconnaissance aircraft and it first flew in July 1913 and was loaded aboard the cruiser HMS Hermes, which had been converted to become the Royal Navys first seaplane tender. On 28 July 1914, Arthur Longmore dropped the first aerial torpedo, the support wires of the floats were moved to allow the torpedo to be carried above the water and a specially designed quick-release mechanism was used. The first plane designed from the outset as a bomber was the five-seat floatplane biplane AD Seaplane Type 1000 or AD1. However, it proved to be a failure, when the prototype built by J. Samuel White from the Isle of Wight first flew in June 1916, it was found to be too heavy and its float struts too weak for operations. On 12 August 1915, a Royal Naval Air Service Short 184 floatplane torpedo bomber sank a Turkish merchantman in the Sea of Marmara and it was operating from HMS Ben-my-Chree, a seaplane carrier converted from a ferry. Fitted with a hangar, Ben-my-Chree was used to carry up to six biplanes with their wings folded back to reduce carrying space. This was the first ship sunk by air-launched torpedo, five days later, another ship supplying Turkish forces in the Gallipoli campaign against British, Australian and New Zealand troops was also sunk. Production of the Short 184 continued until after the Armistice of 11 November 1918 and it served in eight navies, including the Imperial Japanese Navy, which built them under licence. The first torpedo bomber designed for operation from aircraft carriers was the Sopwith Cuckoo, the Admiralty planned to use five carriers and 100-120 Cuckoos to attack the German High Seas Fleet, which had been sheltering in Kiel since the Battle of Jutland in 1916
17.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
18.
Benito Mussolini
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Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy, known as Il Duce, Mussolini was the founder of Italian Fascism. In 1912 Mussolini was the member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party. Mussolini was expelled from the PSI for withdrawing his support for the stance on neutrality in World War I. He served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917, Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the youngest Prime Minister in Italian history until the appointment of Matteo Renzi in February 2014, within five years he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. Mussolini remained in power until he was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1943, a few months later, he became the leader of the Italian Social Republic, a German client regime in northern Italy, he held this post until his death in 1945. Mussolini had sought to delay a major war in Europe until at least 1942, however, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, resulting in declarations of war by France and the United Kingdom and starting World War II. In the summer of 1941 Mussolini sent Italian forces to participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union, and war with the United States followed in December. On 24 July 1943, soon after the start of the Allied invasion of Italy, the Grand Council of Fascism voted against him, on 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the Gran Sasso raid by German special forces. In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape north and his body was then taken to Milan, where it was hung upside down at a service station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise. Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a town in the province of Forlì in Romagna on 29 July 1883. During the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed Duces town, pilgrims went to Predappio and Forlì, to see the birthplace of Mussolini. His father, Alessandro Mussolini, was a blacksmith and a Socialist, while his mother, Benito was the eldest of his parents three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed, as a young boy, Mussolini would spend some time helping his father in his smithy. His fathers political outlook combined views of anarchist figures like Carlo Cafiero and Mikhail Bakunin, the military authoritarianism of Garibaldi, in 1902, at the anniversary of Garibaldis death, Benito Mussolini made a public speech in praise of the republican nationalist. The conflict between his parents about religion meant that, unlike most Italians, Mussolini was not baptized at birth, as a compromise with his mother, Mussolini was sent to a boarding school run by Salesian monks. After joining a new school, Mussolini achieved good grades, in 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland, partly to avoid military service
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Edda Mussolini
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Edda Mussolini was the eldest child of Benito Mussolini, Italys fascist dictator from 1922 to 1943. Upon her marriage to fascist propagandist and foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano she became Edda Ciano, Countess of Cortellazzo and her husband was executed in January 1944 for dissenting from Mussolinis rule. She strongly denied her involvement in the National Fascist Party regime and had an affair with a Communist after her fathers execution by the Italian partisans in April 1945 and she was born out of wedlock to Benito Mussolini and Rachele Guidi in Forlì, Romagna. Her parents did not marry until December 1915, in her early years, while her father was editor of Il Popolo dItalia in Milan, Edda lived with Rachele in Forlì. Her father became Prime Minister of Italy in October 1922 and Dictator after January 1925, in March 1925, Rachele and Edda with her brothers and sisters, moved from Milan to Carpegna and then to Rome in November 1929 to live with their father. Edda was a woman in her youth. Her powerful father made dating difficult, as most young men feared him and she has been described as being opinionated and outspoken. It was while in Rome that she met Galeazzo Ciano, son of Admiral Count Costanzo Ciano and they were married on 24 April 1930 in a lavish ceremony attended by 4,000 guests. Her husband was appointed Italian Consul in Shanghai, and it was there their first son, the couple moved back to Italy in 1932, where Galeazzo took the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. By many accounts, theirs was a marriage, and both had lovers. One of them being a general named Zhangxueliang. However, her father liked Galeazzo and so his career prospered, after the Italian invasion of Albania in June 1939, the city of Santi Quaranta was renamed Porto Edda in her honour during the annexation. In July 1939, she was depicted on the front cover of Time in a feature entitled Lady of the Axis, during the Greco-Italian War, Edda Ciano volunteered for service with the Italian Red Cross. On 14 March 1941, she was embarked near the Albanian port of Valona on the Lloyd Triestino liner Po, british planes, in violation of the Geneva Conventions, attacked and sank the ship, with some loss of life. But Edda managed to survive by swimming to the shore and she continued to work for the Red Cross until 1943. It seems that Heinrich Himmler bestowed Edda the rank of an honorary SS leader in 1943, after Eddas close call in the Adriatic Sea, Rachele and Benito Mussolini were doubly distressed when her brother, Bruno, died in August of the same year. In July 1943, when internal opposition against Mussolini finally emerged in the Fascist Grand Council, for this act, he was arrested for treason, tried and executed on 11 January 1944. Edda Ciano escaped to Switzerland on 9 January 1944, disguised as a peasant woman and she managed to smuggle out the Counts wartime diaries, which had been hidden in her clothing by her confidant Emilio Pucci
20.
Galeazzo Ciano
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Gian Galeazzo Ciano, 2nd Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari was Foreign Minister of Fascist Italy from 1936 until 1943 and Benito Mussolinis son-in-law. On 11 January 1944, Count Ciano was shot by firing squad at the behest of his father-in-law, Mussolini, Gian Galeazzo Ciano was born in Livorno, Italy, in 1903. He was the son of Costanzo Ciano and his wife Carolina Pini, his father was an Admiral and he was a founding member of the National Fascist Party and re-organizer of the Italian merchant navy in the 1920s. The elder Ciano, nicknamed Ganascia, was not above extracting private profit from his public office and he would use his influence to depress the stock of a company, after which he would buy a controlling interest, then increase his wealth after its value rebounded. Among other holdings, he owned a newspaper, farmland in Tuscany, as a result, his son Galeazzo was accustomed to living a high-profile and glamorous life, which he maintained almost until the end of his life. Father and son took part in Mussolinis 1922 March on Rome. After studying Philosophy of Law at the University of Rome, the younger Ciano worked briefly as a journalist before choosing a career, soon. On 24 April 1930, when he was 27 years old, he married Benito Mussolinis daughter Edda Mussolini, soon after their marriage, Ciano left for Shanghai to serve as Italian consul. On his return to Italy in 1935, he became the minister of press, Ciano volunteered for action in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia as a bomber squadron commander. He received two medals of valor and reached the rank of captain. His future opponent Alessandro Pavolini served in the squadron as a lieutenant. Upon his highly trumpeted return from the war as a hero in 1936, Ciano began to keep a diary a short time after his appointment and kept it active up to his 1943 dismissal as foreign minister. Also in 1937, prior to the Italian annexation in 1939, Count Gian Galeazzo Ciano was named an Honorary Citizen of Tirana, Albania. At the time of the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Ciano did not agree with Mussolinis war plans, when Mussolini formally declared war on France in 1940, he wrote in his diary, I am sad, very sad. Prior to the German campaign in France in 1940, Count Ciano leaked a warning of imminent invasion to neutral Belgium and he was silenced by being removed from his post as foreign minister. The rest of the cabinet was removed as well on 5 February 1943 and he was offered the post of ambassador to the Holy See, and presented his credentials to Pope Pius XII on 1 March. In this role he remained in Rome, watched closely by Mussolini, the regimes position had become even more unstable by the coming summer, however, and court circles were already probing the Allied commands for some sort of agreement. On the afternoon of 24 July 1943, Mussolini summoned the Fascist Grand Council to its first meeting since 1939, at that meeting, Mussolini announced that the Germans were thinking of evacuating the south
21.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
22.
Wilhelm Harster
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Wilhelm Harster was a high-ranking member in the SS and a Holocaust perpetrator during the Nazi era. He was twice convicted for his crimes by the Netherlands and later by West Germany and he had been employed by the government of Bavaria as a civil servant and was let go with a full pension after a public outcry. Harster graduated from University of Munich with a degree in 1927, before the war, Harster was reservist with the Reichswehr, joining in 1920. In 1929 he joined the Kriminalpolizei and graduated in 1932 as a Regierungsassessor and he joined the Nazi Party on 1 May 1933, holding the party number of 3,226,954. He joined the SS on 9 November 1933 with the number of 225,932. He joined the Sicherheitsdienst or SD on 29 October 1935 and eventually obtained the rank of Gruppenführer and he was also recalled to service in the Wehrmacht, serving in July 1940 as a member of a machinegun company. From 19 July 1940 until 29 August 1943, he was the commander of the Security Police and SD in the occupation of the Netherlands and he was implicated in the deaths of 104,000 Jews in the Holocaust, including Anne Frank. After his role in the occupation of the Netherlands, he was moved to Italy as the commander of the SD there under Karl Wolff from 29 August 1943 until his capture. Harster was captured by the British Army where he was transferred to the Netherlands, in 1949, he was convicted and sentenced to 12 years for his role in the deportation and murder of Dutch Jews. He was, however, released in 1953, after the war, he again became a civil servant in Bavaria, until he was retired due to public and media pressure in 1963. He was given credit for time served and was pardoned in 1969 and his doctorate was officially removed from him. SS-Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Polizei Dr. jur. Wilhelm Harster, ISLAND FARM SPECIAL CAMP, XI POWS HELD AT BRIDGEND. Historical Analysis of 20 Name Files from CIA Records, the National Archives, The Interagency Working Group. Das Verfahren vor dem Münchner Landgericht wegen der Deportation der niederländischen Juden, paderborn, Ferdinand Schöningh,2012,257 p
23.
Sicherheitsdienst
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Sicherheitsdienst, full title Sicherheitsdienst des Reichsführers-SS, or SD, was the intelligence agency of the SS and the Nazi Party in Nazi Germany. The organization was the first Nazi Party intelligence organization to be established and was considered an organization with the Gestapo. Between 1933 and 1939, the SD was administered as an independent SS office, after which it was transferred to the authority of the Reich Main Security Office, as one of its seven departments/offices. Its first director, Reinhard Heydrich, intended for the SD to bring every single individual within the Third Reichs reach under continuous supervision. Heydrichs successor, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg trials, sentenced to death and hanged in 1946. The SD was one of the oldest security organizations of the SS and was first formed in 1931 as the Ic-Dienst, operating out of a single apartment, Himmler appointed a former naval officer, Reinhard Heydrich, to organise the small agency. The office was renamed Sicherheitsdienst in the summer of 1932, the SD became more powerful after the Nazis took control of Germany and the SS started infiltrating all leading positions of the security apparatus of the Reich. Once Hitler was appointed Chancellor by German President Paul von Hindenburg, Himmlers SS and SD made their presence felt at once by helping rid the regime of its known political enemies and its perceived ones, as well. As far as Heydrich and Himmler were concerned, the SD left their mission somewhat vaguely defined so as to remain an instrument for all eventualities, one of those eventualities would soon arise. For a while, the SS was in ‘competition’ with the Sturmabteilung for influence within Germany, Himmler distrusted the SA and came to deplore the ‘rabble-rousing’ brownshirts and what they considered to be the indecent sexual deviants amid its leadership. On 20 April 1934 Hermann Göring handed over control of the Geheime Staatspolizei to Himmler, Heydrich, named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934, also continued as head of the SD. Thereafter, the SD was made the sole Party information service on 9 June 1934, additionally, reports were coming in to the SD and Gestapo that the vulgarity of the SAs behavior was damaging the party and was even making antisemitism less palatable. Moreover, the crushing of the SA and its leadership sent a clear message to everyone that opposition to Hitler’s regime could be deadly. During the autumn of 1937, Hitler secured Mussolini’s support to annex Austria, nonetheless, to facilitate the incorporation of Austria into the greater Reich, the SD and Gestapo went to work arresting people right away using lists compiled by Heydrich. Heydrich’s SD and Austrian SS members received financing from Berlin to harass Austrian Chancellor von Schuschnigg’s government all throughout 1937, one section of the SD that was nothing more than a front for subversive activities against Austria ironically promoted “German-Austrian peace. Once the annexation was official, the Austrian police was immediately subordinated to Heydrich’s SD, SS and the Gestapo. Machinations by the SD, the Gestapo, and the SS helped to bring Austria fully into Hitlers grasp and on 13 March 1938, concomitant to their machinations against Austria, the SD was also involved in subversive activities throughout Czechoslovakia. This SD intelligence operation was akin to their efforts in Austria, however, unlike Austria
24.
Gestapo
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The Gestapo, abbreviation of Geheime Staatspolizei, or the Secret State Police, was the official secret police of Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe. The force was created by Hermann Göring in 1933 by combining the various security agencies of Prussia into one organization. Then from 27 September 1939 forward, it was administered by the Reichssicherheitshauptamt and was considered an organization to the SS Sicherheitsdienst. This gave Göring command of the largest police force in Germany, soon afterward, Göring detached the political and intelligence sections from the police and filled their ranks with Nazis. On 26 April 1933, Göring merged the two units as the Geheime Staatspolizei, which was abbreviated for a stamp and became known as the Gestapo. He originally wanted to name it the Secret Police Office, and its first commander was Rudolf Diels, a protégé of Göring. Diels was appointed with the title of chief of Abteilung Ia of the Political Police of the Prussian Interior Ministry, Diels was best known as the primary interrogator of Marinus van der Lubbe after the Reichstag fire. In late 1933, the Reich Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick wanted to integrate all the forces of the German states under his control. Göring outflanked him by removing the Prussian political and intelligence departments from the interior ministry. Göring himself took over the Gestapo in 1934 and urged Hitler to extend the agencys authority throughout Germany and this represented a radical departure from German tradition, which held that law enforcement was a Land and local matter. In this, he ran into conflict with Heinrich Himmler, who was chief of the second most powerful German state. Frick did not have the muscle to take on Göring by himself so he allied with Himmler, with Fricks support, Himmler took over the political police of state after state. Concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to counteract the power of the Sturmabteilung, Göring handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934. Also on that date, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia, Heydrich, named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934, also continued as head of the SS Security Service. Himmler wanted to free himself entirely from Roehm, who he viewed as an obstacle, roehms position was menacing as upwards of over 4. Several Nazi chieftains, among them Goering, Joseph Goebbels, Rudolf Hess, both the SD and Gestapo released information concerning an imminent putsch by the SA. Once persuaded, Hitler acted by setting Himmlers SS into action, on 17 June 1936, Hitler decreed the unification of all police forces in the Reich and named Himmler as Chief of German Police. This action effectively merged the police into the SS and removed it from Fricks control, Himmler was nominally subordinate to Frick as police chief, but as Reichsführer-SS, he answered only to Hitler
25.
LVMH
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LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton SE, better known as LVMH, is a French multinational luxury goods conglomerate, native of France and headquartered in Paris. It controls around 60 subsidiaries that each manage a number of prestigious brands. The subsidiaries are often managed independently, the oldest of the LVMH brands is wine producer Château dYquem, which dates its origins back to 1593. Christian Dior, the luxury group, is the main holding company of LVMH, owning 40. 9% of its shares. Bernard Arnault, majority shareholder of Dior, is Chairman of both companies and CEO of LVMH, arnaults successful integration of various famous aspirational brands into the group has inspired other luxury companies into doing the same. Thus, the French conglomerate Kering and the Swiss-based Richemont have also created extended portfolios of luxury brands, the company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. During the first half of 2015, LVMH recorded strong results in Europe, the revenue of the groupe increased of 19 per cent. LVMH is based in 20 avenue Foch in the 8th arrondissement, Paris, the company is listed on the Euronext Paris exchange, and is a constituent of the CAC40 index. As of 2010, the group had revenues of €20.3 billion with a net income of just over €3 billion, by the 29 February 2016 the company had a share value of 78,126 million euros, distributed in 506,980,299 shares. In 2013, with revenue of $21,7 billion, LVMH is ranked first luxury goods company in Deloittes Global Powers of Luxury Goods” report, the group currently employs more than 83,000 people. Thirty percent of LVMHs staff work in France, LVMH operates over 2,400 stores worldwide. Its current business plan aims to control the brands it manages in order to maintain. For example, Louis Vuitton products are only through Louis Vuitton boutiques found in upmarket locations in wealthy cities or in concessions in other luxury goods shops. At the end of 2010, the only declared major shareholder in LVMH was Groupe Arnault, the groups control amounted to 47. 64% of LVMHs stock and 63. 66% of its voting rights. A further 2. 43% of shares were declared as treasury stock, LVMH holds 66% of the drinks division, Moët Hennessy, with the remaining 34% held by Diageo. A partial list including some of LVMHs best-known brands and subsidiaries, on 7 March 2011, LVMH announced the acquisition of the 50. 4% family-owned shares of the Italian jeweller Bulgari and the intention to make a tender offer for the rest, which was publicly owned. The transaction was about $5.2 billion, in 2011, LVMH invested $640 million in establishing LCapitalAsia. In 2011, LVMH invested $640 million in establishing LCapitalAsia, LVMH sales decreased by about 10 percent from in 2011 in China, and LVMH stopped opening stores in second and third-tier cities in mainland China
26.
Zermatt
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Zermatt is a municipality in the district of Visp in the German-speaking section of the canton of Valais in Switzerland. It has a population of about 5,800 inhabitants, the town lies at the upper end of Mattertal at an elevation of 1,620 m, at the foot of Switzerlands highest peaks. It lies about 10 km from the over 10,800 ft high Theodul Pass bordering Italy, Zermatt is famed as a mountaineering and ski resort of the Swiss Alps. The year round population is 5,759, though there may be several times as many tourists in Zermatt at any one time. Much of the economy is based on tourism, with about half of the jobs in town in hotels or restaurants. Just over one-third of the permanent population was born in the town, the name of Zermatt, as well as that of the Matterhorn itself, derives from the alpine meadows, or matten, in the valley. The name appeared first as Zur Matte and became later Zermatt and it does not appear until 1495 on a map or 1546 in a text, but may have been employed long before. Praborno or Prato Borno are the names of Zermatt, they appear in the ancient maps as early as the thirteenth century. The Romand-speaking people from the Aosta Valley and from the Romand-speaking part of canton Wallis used this name until about 1860 in the form of Praborne, the reason of this change from Praborno to Zermatt is attributed to the gradual replacement of the Romance-speaking people by German-speaking colony. The town of Zermatt lies at the end of the Matter Valley. Zermatt is almost completely surrounded by the mountains of the Pennine Alps among which Monte Rosa. It is followed by the Dom, Lyskamm, Weisshorn and the Matterhorn, most of the Alpine four-thousanders are located around Zermatt or in the neighbouring valleys. The town of Zermatt, while dense, is geographically small, there are three main streets which run along the banks of the river Matter Vispa, and numerous cross-streets, especially around the station and the church which forms the centre of Zermatt. In general anything is at most a thirty-minute walk away, there are several suburbs within Zermatt. Winkelmatten, which was once a hamlet, lies on a hill on the southern side. Steinmatten is located on the bank of the main river. Many hamlets are located in the valleys above Zermatt, however they are not usually inhabited all year round, zum See lies south of Zermatt on the west bank of the Gorner gorge, near Furi where a cable car station is located. On the side of Zmutt valley lies the hamlet of Zmutt, findeln is located in the eastern valley above the Findelbach river
27.
Toni Frissell
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Antoinette Frissell was born in 1907 to Lewis Fox Frissell and Antoinette Wood Montgomery. Her brothers were Phelps Montgomery Frissell and filmmaker Varick Frissell, who was killed in Newfoundland during the filming of The Viking in 1931, ancestors include Elisha Phelps, US representative from Connecticut as well as Maj. Gen. Noah Phelps, Revolutionary War hero. When Frissell was younger, she was passionate about theater, in her early twenties, she started taking pictures in part because of her brother, Varick Frissell, a filmmaker and photographer who taught her the basics of photography. She was married to Francis “Mac” Bacon on September 9,1932 after a few months of the couple’s romance and she had a passion for skiing, and once went on a three month long skiing trip with her husband and daughter after her daughter’s graduation. In the early seventies, she began to have trouble with her memory, to counteract this, she began to write a memoir, one that turned into almost a thousand-page manuscript. Frissell was born in 1907 in Manhattan, NY, but took photos under the name Toni Frissell, at the beginning of her career, she worked briefly for Vogue, making captions and writing a bit for the magazine. She was fired because of her poor spelling, but was encouraged by Vogue’s fashion editor Carmel Snow to take up photography. She took up photography to cope with the illness of her mother, the death of her brother Varick Frissell, and her first published picture was in Town and Country. After this, she advocated for herself and got a contract with Vogue and she worked with many other famous photographes of the day. Her first photography job, as a photographer for Vogue in 1931, was due to Condé Montrose Nast. She later took photographs for Harpers Bazaar and her fashion photos, even of evening gowns and such, were often notable for their outdoor settings, emphasizing active women. She was one of the first photographers to move outside of the studio for fashion photography and she did not shoot indoors primarily because “I dont know how to photograph in a studio. I never did know about technical points and still dont” and her style continued in this ‘plein air’ way throughout her career. For this kind of innovation and experimentation she was well known, in 1941, Frissell volunteered her photographic services to the American Red Cross. Later she worked for the Eighth Army Air Force and became the photographer of the Womens Army Corps. On their behalf, she took thousands of images of nurses, front-line soldiers, WACs, African-American airmen and she traveled to the European front twice. Her moving photographs of women and African American fighter pilots in the elite 332d Fighter Group were used to encourage public support for women. Throughout her photographic career, she worked at home and abroad for these large publications, in later work she concentrated on photographing women from all walks of life, often as a commentary on the human condition
28.
Harper's Bazaar
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Harpers Bazaar is an American womens fashion magazine, first published in 1867. Harpers Bazaar is published by Hearst and, as a magazine, considers itself to be the resource for women who are the first to buy the best. Writers Alice Meynell, Daisy Fellowes, Gloria Guinness, and Eleanor Hoyt Brainerd, when Harpers Bazaar began publication, it was a weekly magazine catering to women in the middle and upper classes. It showcased fashion from Germany and Paris in a newspaper-design format and it was not until 1901 that Harpers moved to a monthly issued magazine which it maintains today. Now Harpers Bazaar is owned and operated by the Hearst Corporation in the U. S. harper & Brothers founded the magazine. This company also gave birth to Harpers Magazine and HarperCollins Publishing, glenda Bailey is the editor-in-chief of U. S. edition of Harpers Bazaar. As the turn-of-the-century began in America, Harpers Bazaar began featuring both illustrations and photographs for its covers and inside features of society and increasingly of fashion. During the late Victorian period, as the suffrage movement was gaining momentum. Bazaar also began profiling prominent socialites, such as the Astors, in 1933, editor-in-chief Carmel Snow brought photojournalist Martin Munkacsi to a windswept beach to shoot a swimwear spread. As the model ran toward the camera, Munkacsi took the picture that made fashion-magazine history, until that moment, nearly all fashion was carefully staged on mannequin-like models in a studio. Snows buoyant spirit and wicked sense of adventure brought life to the pages of Bazaar, Snows genius came from cultivating the best people. Her first big find was art director Alexey Brodovitch, who innovated Bazaars iconic Didot logo, Snow also unleashed the force of nature known as Diana Vreeland, whom she brought on as fashion editor in 1936. The collaboration of these four visionaries resulted in some of the germane fashion shoots of the 20th century and ended only with Snows retirement, at the age of 70, throughout his career at the magazine, Brodovitch, a Russian émigré, revolutionized magazine design. With his directive Astonish me, he inspired some of the greatest visual artists of the 20th century, one of his assistants was future Rolling Stone art director Tony Lane. Sadly, Brodovitchs personal life was less triumphant, plagued by alcoholism, he left Bazaar in 1958 and eventually moved to the south of France, where he died in 1971. Diana, who is said to have invented the word pizzazz, before long, she became fashion editor, collaborating with photographers Louise Dahl-Wolfe and Richard Avedon and, later, art director Henry Wolf. Her eccentricity, perception and wit, as well as her sharp wit and sweeping pronouncements, were memorialized in the movie Funny Face, making her, for many, Richard Avedon began creating fashion portfolios for Harpers Bazaar at the age of 22. His distinctive photographs showed both chic insouciance and boundless vitality, avedons women leapt off curbs, roller-skated on the Place de la Concorde, and were seen in nightclubs, enjoying the freedom and fashions of the postwar era
29.
Haute couture
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Haute couture is the creation of exclusive custom-fitted clothing. A haute couture garment is made for a client, tailored specifically for the wearers measurements. Considering the amount of time, money, and skill allotted to each completed piece, haute couture garments are described as having no price tag. The term originally referred to Englishman Charles Frederick Worths work, produced in Paris in the mid-nineteenth century, in modern France, haute couture is a protected name that may not be used except by firms that meet certain well-defined standards. However, the term is used loosely to describe all high-fashion custom-fitted clothing whether it is produced in Paris or in other fashion capitals such as London, Milan. In either case, the term can refer to the houses or fashion designers that create exclusive. In France, the haute couture is protected by law and is defined by the Chambre de commerce et dindustrie de Paris based in Paris. The chambre syndicale de la haute couture is defined as the commission that determines which fashion houses are eligible to be true haute couture houses. Formation of the organization was brought about by Charles Frederick Worth, an affiliated school was organized in 1930 called LEcole de la Chambre Syndicale de la Couture. The school helps bring new designers to help the couture houses that are present today. Since 1975, this organization has worked within the Federation Francaise, de couture, more rigorous criteria for haute couture were established in 1945. g. With that of prêt-à-porter in the public perception, almost every haute couture house also markets prêt-à-porter collections, which typically deliver a higher return on investment than their custom clothing. Falling revenues have forced a few houses to abandon their less profitable haute couture division. These houses are no longer considered haute couture houses by the original, legal usage of the term. Many top designer fashion houses such as Chanel use the word for some of their special collections, as well, the term haute couture has taken on further popular meanings referring to non-dressmaking activities, such as production of fine art, music, etc. Haute couture can be referenced back as early as the 17th Century, rose Bertin, the French fashion designer to Queen Marie Antoinette, can be credited for bringing fashion and haute couture to French culture. Visitors to Paris brought back clothing that was copied by local dressmakers. Stylish women also ordered fashion d dressed in the latest Parisian fashion to serve as models, as railroads and steamships made European travel easier, it was increasingly common for wealthy women to travel to Paris to shop for clothing and accessories
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Capri
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Capri, Italian pronunciation, ) is an island located in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the Sorrentine Peninsula, on the south side of the Gulf of Naples in the Campania region of Italy. The main town Capri that is located on the shares the name. It has been a resort since the time of the Roman Republic, Capri is part of the region of Campania, Province of Naples. The town of Capri is the main population centre. The island has two harbours, Marina Piccola and Marina Grande, the separate comune of Anacapri is located high on the hills to the west. The etymology of the name Capri is unclear, it might either be traced back to the Ancient Greeks, but it could also derive from Latin capreae. Fossils of wild boars have been discovered, lending credence to the etymology, on the other hand. Finally, there is also the possibility that the name derives from an Etruscan word for rocky, Capri is a large, limestone and sandstone rock. The sides of the island are perpendicular cliffs and the surface of the island is composed of more cliffs, Edwin Cerio was mayor of Capri from 1920 to 1923. Although he was three years in office, his vision and policies had far-reaching impact on the nature and role of the government on the island. Italy is a Republic, thus Capri, as part of Italy, has adopted those same principles too, the voters of the island elect representatives for the two villages on the island. The chosen representatives then choose two mayors to govern with them, the city has been inhabited since early times. The emperor ordered these to be displayed in the garden of his main residence, modern excavations have shown that human presence on the island can be dated to the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Augustus developed Capri, he built temples, villas, aqueducts, in his Aeneid, Virgil states that the island had been populated by the Greek people of Teleboi, coming from the Ionian Islands. Strabo says that in ancient times in Capri there were two towns, later reduced to one, tacitus records that there were twelve Imperial villas in Capri. Ruins of one at Tragara could still be seen in the 19th century, augustus successor Tiberius built a series of villas at Capri, the most famous of which is the Villa Jovis, one of the best-preserved Roman villas in Italy. In 27 AD, Tiberius permanently moved to Capri, running the Empire from there until his death in 37 AD, in 182 AD, Emperor Commodus banished his sister Lucilla to Capri. After the end of the Western Roman Empire, Capri returned to the status of a dominion of Naples, in 866 Emperor Louis II gave the island to Amalfi
31.
Stanley Marcus
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Harold Stanley Marcus was an early president and later chairman of the board of the luxury retailer Neiman Marcus in Dallas, Texas, which his father and aunt had founded in 1907. During his tenure at the company, he became a published author, writing his memoir Minding the Store. He served his community as an avid patron of the fine arts. He established the Neiman-Marcus Christmas Catalogue, which famous for extravagant His and Hers gifts such as airplanes. The Advertising Hall of Fame notes, Stanley Marcus was among the most important figures in the history of American retail merchandising and marketing, through his many innovations, he transformed a local Dallas clothing store into an international brand synonymous with high style, fashion and gracious service. Marcus was born in The Cedars, Dallas, Texas, the son of Herbert Marcus, Sr. who later became a co-founder of the original Neiman-Marcus store with his sister Carrie and her husband, Al Neiman. Stanley was the first of four born to Herbert, Sr. and his wife. One of Stanley Marcuss first jobs was as a 10-year-old salesman of Saturday Evening Post and he attended Forest Avenue High School, where he studied debate as well as English with teacher Myra Brown, whom he later credited with much of his early interest in books. At his new school, he became a member of the historically Jewish fraternity Zeta Beta Tau, while living in Boston and pursuing his chosen major, English literature, Marcus began a lifelong hobby of collecting rare and antique books. To finance his pursuits, he began The Book Collectors Service Bureau and he went back to study at Harvard Business School in 1926, leaving after one year to participate in a massive expansion of the retail operation in Dallas. Instead, the couple chose a design by local firm DeWitt & Washburn, Marcus was responsible for a number of innovations at the Dallas retailer. His department store was the first American haute couture boutique to introduce weekly fashion shows, ineligible for military service due to his age, he instead helped the war effort by championing the conservation of scarce resources normally devoted to fashion trends. The changes were expected to create a total savings of 100,000,000 yards of fabric to be used in the war effort and his work promoting cooperation with the WPBs mandates did not still Marcuss competitive instincts. With the fall of Paris, the fashion capital, New York mayor Fiorello LaGuardia began to declare his city the new leader at every opportunity. To this claim, Marcus retorted in the press, New York is finished as a manufacturing center. Theyre making clothes in Kansas, Philadelphia and Texas now and they wont give it up, the day is gone when only a New York dress is a good dress. In his memoirs Marcus recalled, Many women opened charge accounts just to members of the club. Marcus began yet another Neiman-Marcus tradition, the International Fortnight, in 1957 as a way to attract customers in the lull between the fall fashion rush and the Christmas shopping crunch
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Neiman Marcus
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Neiman Marcus, originally Neiman-Marcus, is an American luxury department store owned by the Neiman Marcus Group, headquartered in Dallas, Texas. Neiman Marcus is currently owned by the Canada Pension Plan Investment Board, in 1907 the trio found themselves with $25,000 from the successful sales-promotion firm they had built in Atlanta, Georgia, and two potential investments into which to invest the funds. Rather than take a chance on an unknown sugary soda pop business, for this reason, early company CEO Peb Atera was quoted in 1957 as saying in jest that Neiman Marcus was founded on bad business judgment. The store, established on September 10,1907, was furnished and stocked with clothing of a quality not commonly found in Texas. Within a few weeks, the initial inventory, mostly acquired on a buying trip to New York made by Carrie, was completely sold out. Oil-rich Texans, welcoming the opportunity to flaunt their wealth in more sophisticated fashion than was previously possible, flocked to the new store. In spite of a financial panic set off only a few weeks after its opening, Neiman Marcus was instantly successful. In 1914 a fire destroyed the Neiman Marcus store and all of its merchandise, a temporary store was set up and opened in 17 days. By the end of 1914, Neiman Marcus opened in its new, permanent location at the corner of Main Street and Ervay Street. In its first year at the new building, Neiman Marcus recorded a profit of $40,000 on sales of $700,000, in 1927 the store expanded and Neiman Marcus premiered the first weekly retail fashion show in the United States. The store staged a show called One Hundred Years of Texas Fashions in 1936 in honor of the centennial of Texas independence from Mexico. During the 1930s and 1940s Neiman Marcus began to include less expensive clothing lines along with its high-end items, in response to the Great Depression, between 1942 and 1944, sales at Neiman Marcus grew from $6 million to $11 million. Despite a major fire in 1946, the continued to profit. Herbert Marcus, Sr. died in 1950, and Carrie Neiman died two years later, leaving Stanley Marcus in charge of the companys operations, the 1950s saw the addition of a $1.6 million store at 8300 Preston Road. It was 63, 000-square-foot, inspired by the art and culture of Southwestern Indians, copied from Indian weaving, pottery, and sand paintings. The themed decor included Kachina figures on colored-glass murals and an Alexander Calder mobile named Mariposa, area teachers cited the Gauguin exhibits as spurring a dramatic increase in art study. In the 1950s and 1960s Gittings operated a studio in Neiman Marcus. Clients included Hope Portocarrero, Lyndon Johnson, Howard Hughes, a late 1960s Christmas Book featured portraits of Wyatt Cooper, his wife Gloria Vanderbilt, and children Carter and Anderson Cooper
33.
Marilyn Monroe
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Marilyn Monroe was an American actress and model. Famous for playing comic dumb blonde characters, she one of the most popular sex symbols of the 1950s. Although she was an actress for only a decade, her films grossed $200 million by the time of her unexpected death in 1962. She continues to be considered a popular culture icon. Born and raised in Los Angeles, Monroe spent most of her childhood in foster homes, while working in a factory in 1944 as part of the war effort, she was introduced to a photographer from the First Motion Picture Unit and began a successful pin-up modeling career. The work led to short-lived film contracts with Twentieth Century-Fox and Columbia Pictures, after a series of minor film roles, she signed a new contract with Fox in 1951. Over the next two years, she became an actress with roles in several comedies, including As Young as You Feel and Monkey Business. Monroe faced a scandal when it was revealed that she had posed for photos before becoming a star, but rather than damaging her career. Although she played a significant role in the creation and management of her public image throughout her career, she was disappointed at being typecast and underpaid by the studio. She was briefly suspended in early 1954 for refusing a film project, when the studio was still reluctant to change her contract, Monroe founded a film production company in late 1954, she named it Marilyn Monroe Productions. She dedicated 1955 to building her company and began studying acting at the Actors Studio. In late 1955, Fox awarded her a new contract, which gave her more control and a larger salary. After a critically acclaimed performance in Bus Stop and acting in the first independent production of MMP, The Prince and her last completed film was the drama The Misfits. Monroes troubled private life received much attention and she struggled with substance abuse, depression, and anxiety. She had two highly publicized marriages, to retired baseball star Joe DiMaggio and playwright Arthur Miller, both of which ended in divorce and she died at the age of 36 on August 5,1962, from an overdose of barbiturates at her home in Los Angeles. Although Monroes death was ruled a suicide, several conspiracy theories have been proposed in the decades following her death. Monroe was born Norma Jeane Mortenson at the Los Angeles County Hospital on June 1,1926, Gladys, the daughter of two poor Midwestern migrants to California, was a flapper and worked as a film negative cutter at Consolidated Film Industries. When she was fifteen, Gladys married a man nine years her senior, John Newton Baker and she filed for divorce in 1921, and Baker took the children with him to his native Kentucky
34.
Sophia Loren
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Sophia Loren is an Italian film actress. Encouraged to enroll in acting lessons after entering a beauty pageant and she appeared in several bit parts and minor roles in the early part of the decade, until her five-picture contract with Paramount in 1956 launched her international career. Notable film appearances around this time include The Pride and the Passion, Houseboat, after starting her family in the early 1970s, Loren spent less time on her acting career and chose to make only occasional film appearances. In later years, she has appeared in American films such as Grumpier Old Men, in 1995, she received the Cecil B. DeMille Award for lifetime achievements, one of such awards. In 1999, Loren was acknowledged as one of the top 25 female American Screen Legends in the American Film Institutes survey, AFIs 100 Years.100 Stars. Loren was born Sofia Villani Scicolone in the Clinica Regina Margherita in Rome, Italy, the daughter of Romilda Villani and Riccardo Scicolone, Riccardo Scicolone refused to marry Villani, leaving the piano teacher and aspiring actress without support. Lorens parents had another child together, her sister Maria, in 1938, Loren has two younger paternal half-brothers, Giuliano and Giuseppe. Romilda, Sofia, and Maria lived with Lorens grandmother in Pozzuoli, during World War II, the harbour and munitions plant in Pozzuoli was a frequent bombing target of the Allies. During one raid, as Loren ran to the shelter, she was struck by shrapnel, after that, the family moved to Naples, where they were taken in by distant relatives. After the war, Loren and her returned to Pozzuoli. Lorens grandmother Luisa opened a pub in their room, selling homemade cherry liquor. Romilda Villani played the piano, Maria sang, and Loren waited on tables, the place was popular with the American GIs stationed nearby. When she was 14, Sofia entered a beauty pageant, Miss Italia 1950 and, later, she enrolled in acting class and was selected as an uncredited extra in Mervyn LeRoys film Quo Vadis, at the age of 15. In 1951, she appeared in Italian film Era lui. sì. sì. where she played an odalisque. She appeared in bit parts and minor roles in the early part of the decade. She began using her current stage name in La Favorita, the new name being a twist on the name of the Swedish actress Märta Torén and was suggested by Goffredo Lombardo or Carlo Ponti and her first starring role was in Aida, for which she received critical acclaim. After playing the role in Two Nights with Cleopatra, her breakthrough role was in The Gold of Naples
35.
Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
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Jacqueline Lee Jackie Kennedy Onassis was the wife of the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy, and First Lady of the United States from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. Bouvier was the daughter of Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou Bouvier III. In 1951, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in French literature from George Washington University, in 1952, Bouvier met Congressman John F. Kennedy at a dinner party. In November of that year, he was elected as a United States Senator from Massachusetts, and they had four children, two of whom died in infancy. As First Lady, she was known for her highly publicized restoration of the White House and her emphasis on arts, on November 22,1963, she was riding with the President in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas, when he was assassinated. She and her children withdrew from view after his funeral. Following her second death in 1975, she had a career as a book editor for the final two decades of her life. She is remembered for her contributions to the arts and preservation of historic architecture, as well as for her style, elegance. She was an icon, and her famous ensemble of pink Chanel suit. She ranks as one of the most popular First Ladies and in 1999 was named on Gallups list of Most Admired Men and Women in 20th-century America. Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28,1929, at Southampton Hospital in Southampton, New York, to Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou Black Jack Bouvier III, Bouviers mother was of Irish descent, and her father had French, Scottish, and English ancestry. Named after her father, Bouvier was baptized at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola in Manhattan and her younger sister Lee was born in 1933. Bouvier spent her childhood years in Manhattan and at Lasata. She idolized her father, who favored her over her sister. From an early age, Bouvier was an equestrienne and successfully competed in the sport. She also took lessons, was an avid reader, and excelled at learning languages. Bouvier enrolled in the Chapin School in Manhattan in 1935, which she attended for grades 1–6. She was a student but often misbehaved, one of her teachers described her as a darling child, the prettiest little girl, very clever, very artistic
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Lingerie
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Lingerie are womens undergarments, and may imply their being fashionable and alluring. Lingerie undergarments use flexible, stretchy, sheer, or decorative materials like Lycra, nylon, polyester, satin, lace, silk, certain cotton or synthetic undergarments are also lingerie. The word lingerie derives from the French word linge, meaning linen, so faire le linge, comes to mean do the laundry. In French the word applies to all undergarments for either sex. In English it means womens underwear or nightclothes, lingerie as a word was first used to refer to underwear and bras in 1922. Informal usage suggests visually appealing or even erotic clothing, although most lingerie is designed to be worn by women, some manufactures now design lingerie for men. The concept of lingerie is a visually appealing undergarment that was developed during the nineteenth century. Lady Duff-Gordon of Lucile was a pioneer in developing lingerie that freed women from more restrictive corsets, through the first half of the 20th century, women wore underwear for three primary reasons, to alter their outward shape, for hygienic reasons, or for modesty. Before the invention of crinoline, womens underwear was very large. During the late 19th century, corsets became smaller, less bulky and constricting, when the First World War broke out, women found themselves filling in mens work roles, creating a demand for more practical undergarments. Manufacturers began to use lighter and more breathable fabrics, in 1935 brassières were updated with padded cups to flatter small breasts and three years later underwire bras were introduced that gave a protruding bustline. There was also a return to a small waist achieved with girdles, the 1940s woman was thin, but had curvaceous hips and breasts that were pointy and shapely. In the 1960s the female silhouette was liberated along with social mores, the look was adolescent breasts, slim hips, and extreme thinness. As the 20th century progressed, underwear became smaller and more form fitting, in the 1960s, lingerie manufacturers such as Fredericks of Hollywood begin to glamorize lingerie. The lingerie industry expanded in the 21st century with designs that doubled as outerwear, the French refer to this as dessous-dessus which basically means innerwear as outerwear. Designers are putting greater emphasis on rich-looking fabrics, laces, embroideries and brighter, the global lingerie market in 2003 was estimated at $29 billion, while in 2005, Bras accounted for 56 per cent of the lingerie market and briefs represented 29 per cent. Also predominant are French lingerie houses, including Chantelle, Aubade and Simone Pérèle, each with a long history and a commitment to innovation and French style. Since the mid-1990s, women have had more choice in bra sizes, in the UK, for instance, the media is fuelling an awareness campaign about the need for each woman to have a proper bra fitting before every purchase
37.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
38.
Sandro Botticelli
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Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi, known as Sandro Botticelli, was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. Botticellis posthumous reputation suffered until the late 19th century, since then, among Botticellis best-known works are The Birth of Venus and Primavera. Botticelli was born in the city of Florence in a house in the Via Nuova, BorgOgnissanti, Vasari reported that Botticelli was initially trained as a goldsmith by his brother Antonio. By 1462 he was apprenticed to Fra Filippo Lippi, many of his works have been attributed to the elder master. Influenced also by the monumentality of Masaccios painting, it was from Lippi that Botticelli learned a more intimate, by 1470, Botticelli had his own workshop. The Adoration of the Magi for Santa Maria Novella, contains the portraits of Cosimo de Medici, his sons Piero and Giovanni, the quality of the scene was hailed by Vasari as one of Botticellis pinnacles. In 1481, Pope Sixtus IV summoned Botticelli and other prominent Florentine, the iconological program was the supremacy of the Papacy. Sandros contribution included the Temptations of Christ, the Punishment of the Rebels, thus Vasari characterized the first printed Dante with Botticellis decorations, he could not imagine that the new art of printing might occupy an artist. Recent scholarship suggests otherwise, the Primavera was painted for Lorenzos townhouse in Florence, by 1499, both had been installed at Castello. In these works, the influence of Gothic realism is tempered by Botticellis study of the antique, but if the painterly means may be understood, the subjects themselves remain fascinating for their ambiguity. The complex meanings of these continue to receive widespread scholarly attention, mainly focusing on the poetry. The works do not illustrate particular texts, rather, each relies upon several texts for its significance, of their beauty, characterized by Vasari as exemplifying grace and by John Ruskin as possessing linear rhythm, there can be no doubt. The pictures feature Botticellis linear style emphasized by the soft continual contours, in 1491 he served on a committee to decide upon a façade for the Cathedral of Florence. For this reason, persisting in his attachment to that party, Botticelli biographer Ernst Steinmann searched for the artists psychological development through his Madonnas. In the deepening of insight and expression in the rendering of Marys physiognomy, Botticelli was already little employed in 1502. In 1504 he was a member of the appointed to decide where Michelangelos David would be placed. After his death, his reputation was eclipsed longer and more thoroughly than that of any other major European artist and his paintings remained in the churches and villas for which they had been created and his frescoes in the Sistine Chapel were upstaged by those of Michelangelo. The English collector William Young Ottley, however, had brought Botticellis The Mystical Nativity to London with him in 1799 after buying it in Italy, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood incorporated elements of his work into their own
39.
Braniff International Airways
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Its routes were primarily in the midwestern and southwestern United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America. In the late 1970s it expanded to Asia and Europe, the airline ceased operations in May 1982 because high fuel prices and the Airline Deregulation Act of December 1978 rendered it uncompetitive. Two later airlines used the Braniff name, the Hyatt Hotels-backed Braniff, Inc. in 1984–89 and these companies included Braniff Air Lines, Inc. Paul R. Braniff, Inc. Braniff Airways, Inc. and Braniff International Corporation, on April 26,1926, Paul Braniff incorporated Braniff Air Lines, Inc. with the Oklahoma Secretary of State but was not used for airline operations and was eventually dissolved. On June 20,1928, service began from Oklahoma City to Tulsa using a single-engine 5 passenger Stinson Detroiter on June 20,1928, Paul Braniff acted as pilot of the first flight with one passenger on board the inaugural flight from Oklahoma City to Tulsa. The Braniff brothers remained a part of the company as the ownership was transferred to Universal Aviation Corporation in April 1929, with the purchase of the company by Universal, the entity began operating as Braniff Air Lines, Inc. Universal was a conglomerate of smaller airlines and railways that planned a southern coast-to-coast air, in early 1930, the company was purchased by the Aviation Corporation holding company, whose other holdings included the predecessors of American Airlines. The Braniff brothers started a new airline in November,1930 named Braniff Airways, Braniff Airways began service between Oklahoma City, Tulsa, and Wichita Falls, Texas, with Lockheed Vega single-engine prop aircraft. Braniffs survival was assured when Paul Braniff, then manager, flew to Washington. The United States Post Office granted Braniff its first airmail route in the wake of the 1934 Air Mail scandal, in 1935 Braniff became the first airline to fly from Chicago to the U. S. –Mexico border. Beard became President and CEO of Braniff in 1954, and Fred Jones of Oklahoma City remained as Chairman of the Board, Braniff acquired Long and Harmon Airlines in January,1935, extending its network in Texas. Braniff soon bought Douglas DC-2s from TWA for the extended network, Braniff Airways acquired Bowen Airlines, which was headquartered at Fort Worths Meacham Field, in late 1935. Bowen flew from Chicago to Houston via St. Louis, Springfield, Tulsa and Dallas, Worth and Austin, and from Ft. Bowen did not have any of the coveted Air Mail Contracts, Bowens slogan was From the Great Lakes to the Gulf, which became the Braniff moniker after the merger. Bowen had a fleet of Vultee V-1As, Lockheed Vegas, thomas Elmer Braniff created a Mexican airline, Aerovias Braniff, in 1943. Service began in March 1945, after the carrier got operating permits from the Mexican government, Aerovias Braniff operated from Laredo, Texas, to Monterrey and Mexico City. The new company, owned by Mr. Braniff, had three 21 passenger Douglas DC-3s that had been allocated to the carrier from the United States War Surplus Administration in February,1945. Mr. Braniff had applied to the federal Civil Aeronautics Board for authority to merge Aerovias Braniff with Braniff Airways, during World War II the airline leased aircraft to the United States military, and its facilities at Dallas Love Field became a training site for pilots and mechanics
40.
Mary Wells Lawrence
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Mary Wells Lawrence is a retired American advertising executive. She was the president of Wells Rich Greene, an advertising agency known for its creative, innovative. Lawrence was the first female CEO of a listed on the New York Stock Exchange. In the late 1940s, Lawrence studied for two years at the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where she met industrial design student Bert Wells, while there she became a member of Kappa Alpha Theta. In 1949, they married and moved to Youngstown, Ohio, Mary began her advertising career there in 1951, as a copywriter for McKelvey’s department store. She quickly relocated to New York City, where she studied theatre, by 1952, she had become Macys fashion advertising manager. She divorced Bert Wells that year, only to him in 1954. Lawrence worked as a copywriter and copy group head at McCann Erickson in 1953, in 1957, she began a seven-year tenure at Doyle Dane Bernbach. In her 2002 book, A Big Life in Advertising, Lawrence cited DDB partners James Edwin Doyle, Maxwell Dane, Lawrence had two daughters with Bert Wells, Pamela and Kathy. She divorced Bert a second time in 1965, and married former Braniff International Airways president Harding Lawrence on November 25,1967. Mr. Lawrence had four children, sons Harding, Jr. who died in infancy, State R. James B. and one daughter and he died on February 16,2002 at age 81 of pancreatic cancer. Lawrence went to work for Jack Tinker and his new advertising group, Jack Tinker, the members of this revolutionary new think tank were dubbed Tinkers Thinkers. The Thinkers would create ad campaigns for other agencies at Interpublic, Lawrence had previously worked for Tinker at McCann-Erickson, and was excited to partner with him again. Her star rose in the world with the success of her advertising campaign for Braniff International Airways. She hired Alexander Girard as project designer, and designer Emilio Pucci to create new uniforms for the flight attendants. The campaign was lauded as critical to the airlines revolutionary turnaround, following the success of the Braniff campaign, Lawrence founded Wells Rich Greene on April 5,1966, and became the agencys president. Partner Richard Rich acted as the treasurer, and Stewart Greene its secretary. Braniff remained a Wells Rich Greene client through 1968, by 1969, Lawrence was reported to be the highest-paid executive in advertising
41.
Alexander Girard
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Alexander Girard affectionately known as Sandro, was an architect, interior designer, furniture designer, industrial designer and a textile designer. He was born in New York City to an American mother from Boston and he was raised in Florence, Italy and in 1917 he was sent as a boarder to Bedford Modern School in England leaving in 1924 to study architecture in London. After also graduating from the Royal School of Architecture in Rome, one of the artists Girard supported was Cochiti Pueblo potter Helen Cordero, the creator of Storyteller pottery figurines. In 1952, Alexander Girard was hired to head the fabric, Girard worked with George Nelson and Charles and Ray Eames to form a design team that has influenced the fundamentals of design throughout the United States and the rest of the world. Girard initially established a collection based on his architectural training. His first fabric line consisted of plain upholsteries and geometric drapery prints—stripes, circles and he went on to create many more patterns and designs, largely inspired by folk art. He also worked with a 19th-century textile mill he discovered in central Mexico, many of the more popular and classic designs are currently available from Maharam. Originals from this collection are rare and have become highly collectible, in 1971 he developed 40 screen printed graphics on fabrics for Robert Propst’s Action Office 2 System. These Environmental Enrichment panels add a touch of warmth, color and this Herman Miller showplace was a unique space filled with textiles and folk art pieces on Manhattan’s East 53rd street. Textiles and Objects was an innovation demonstrating textiles as an part of interior displays for both designers and the individual consumer. The showroom also featured folk art Girard collected from around the world, t&O closed in shortly after opening, due to insufficient marketing and a public was not quite ready to add such colorful and exotic objects to the typical 1950’s palette of their homes. In May,1965, Girard began his work for Braniff International Airways re-branding campaign called “The End of the Plain Plane”. He used colors like light and dark blue, beige, ochre, orange, turquoise, italian couturier fashion designer Emilio Pucci designed attendant uniforms. Girard also designed a line of furniture for Braniffs ticket offices and this furniture was also available to the public by Herman Miller in 1967 but was available for one year only. In 1960 Girard designed every aspect of the La Fonda del Sol restaurant located in the Time-Life building in Manhattan, in a Latin American and contemporary theme/style, including menus, matchbooks, tableware and the ceramic tiles on the floors and walls. Girard created over eighty different sun motifs found throughout the restaurant, as part of the commission, Charles and Ray Eames were brought in to design a fabric covered fiberglass chair and table, both with a new pedestal design. The chairs were similar to the plastic Eames chairs with a modification to the top silhouette of the fiberglass bucket, in 1956, Just Lunning, president of Georg Jensen, commissioned Girard to design seven table settings for an exhibition on 5th Avenue in New York. Each setting was created around a vignette outlining the personalities and situations of the company at the particular table and he created place mats and dishes specific to the project
42.
Barbie
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Barbie is a fashion doll manufactured by the American toy company Mattel, Inc. and launched in March 1959. American businesswoman Ruth Handler is credited with the creation of the using a German doll called Bild Lilli as her inspiration. Barbie is the figurehead of a brand of Mattel dolls and accessories, including family members. Mattel has sold over a billion Barbie dolls, making it the company’s largest and most profitable line, however, sales have declined sharply since 2014. The doll transformed the toy business in affluent communities worldwide by becoming a vehicle for the sale of related merchandise, Ruth Handler watched her daughter Barbara play with paper dolls, and noticed that she often enjoyed giving them adult roles. At the time, most childrens toy dolls were representations of infants, realizing that there could be a gap in the market, Handler suggested the idea of an adult-bodied doll to her husband Elliot, a co-founder of the Mattel toy company. He was unenthusiastic about the idea, as were Mattels directors, during a trip to Europe in 1956 with her children Barbara and Kenneth, Ruth Handler came across a German toy doll called Bild Lilli. The adult-figured doll was exactly what Handler had in mind, so she purchased three of them and she gave one to her daughter and took the others back to Mattel. The Lilli doll was based on a character appearing in a comic strip drawn by Reinhard Beuthin for the newspaper Bild. Lilli was a bombshell, a working girl who knew what she wanted and was not above using men to get it. The Lilli doll was first sold in Germany in 1955, and although it was sold to adults. Upon her return to the United States, Handler redesigned the doll, the doll made its debut at the American International Toy Fair in New York on March 9,1959. This date is used as Barbies official birthday. The first Barbie doll wore a black and white zebra striped swimsuit and signature topknot ponytail, the doll was marketed as a Teen-age Fashion Model, with her clothes created by Mattel fashion designer Charlotte Johnson. The first Barbie dolls were manufactured in Japan, with their clothes hand-stitched by Japanese homeworkers, around 350,000 Barbie dolls were sold during the first year of production. Louis Marx and Company sued Mattel in March 1961, after licensing Lilli, they claimed that Mattel had “infringed on Greiner & Haussers patent for Bild-Lilli’s hip joint, and also claimed that Barbie was a direct take-off and copy of Bild-Lilli. The company additionally claimed that Mattel falsely and misleadingly represented itself as having originated the design, Mattel counter-claimed and the case was settled out of court in 1963. In 1964, Mattel bought Greiner & Haussers copyright and patent rights for the Bild-Lilli doll for $21,600
43.
Apollo 15
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Apollo 15 was the ninth manned mission in the United States Apollo program, the fourth to land on the Moon, and the eighth successful manned mission. It was the first of what were termed J missions, long stays on the Moon and it was also the first mission on which the Lunar Roving Vehicle was used. The mission began on July 26,1971, and ended on August 7, at the time, NASA called it the most successful manned flight ever achieved. Commander David Scott and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin spent three days on the Moon, including 18½ hours outside the spacecraft on lunar extra-vehicular activity, the mission landed near Hadley rille, in an area of the Mare Imbrium called Palus Putredinus. The crew explored the area using the first lunar rover, which allowed them to travel farther from the Lunar Module than had been possible on missions without the rover. They collected 77 kilograms of lunar surface material, Scott had attended the University of Michigan, but left before graduating to accept an appointment to the United States Military Academy. The crewmen did their work at either the United States Military Academy or the United States Naval Academy. C. Gordon Fullerton Joseph P. Allen Robert A. Parker Karl G.5 km Apogee,171.3 km Inclination,29. 679° Period,87. There had been a rivalry between that prime and backup crew on that mission, with the prime being all United States Navy. Originally Apollo 15 would have been an H mission, like Apollos 12,13 and 14, but on September 2,1970, NASA announced it was canceling what were to be the current incarnations of the Apollo 15 and Apollo 19 missions. To maximize the return from the missions, Apollo 15 would now fly as a J mission and have the honor of carrying the first lunar rover. One of the changes in the training for Apollo 15 was the geology training. Although on previous flights the crews had trained in field geology. Scott and Irwin would train with Leon Silver, a Caltech geologist who on Earth was interested in the Precambrian, Silver had been suggested by Harrison Schmitt as an alternative to the classroom lecturers that NASA had previously used. Among other things, Silver had made important refinements to the methods for dating rocks using the decay of uranium into lead in the late 1950s, crews began to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry, and communicate using walkie-talkies to a CAPCOM in a tent. The CAPCOM was accompanied by a group of geologists unfamiliar with the area who would rely on the descriptions to interpret the findings. The decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970, the Site Selection Committees had narrowed the field down to two sites — Hadley Rille or the crater Marius, near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway, to David Scott the choice was clear, with Hadley, being exploration at its finest
44.
Province of Pistoia
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The province of Pistoia is a province in the Tuscany region of central Italy. Its capital is the city of Pistoia and the province is landlocked and it has an area of 964.12 square kilometres and a total population of 291,788 inhabitants. There are 22 communes in the province, the province was formed in 1927 under the rule of Mussolini, and had the lowest income per capita in Tuscany in 1966 due to high poverty levels. This is because the province was mainly agricultural before World War II ended, the population of the province has recently been increasing, moving from 268,437 in 2011 to some 292,000 in 2015. The city of Pistoia is roughly 40 kilometres away from both Lucca and Florence, the land around the cities of Pistoia and Pescia are popular locations for flower and plant cultivation for global exports, and town and commune Quarrata is known for its wood furniture
€60.1 million (2012)
