1.
Romania
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Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition back towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
2.
Hungarian language
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Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries. Like Finnish and Estonian, it belongs to the Uralic language family, its closest relatives being Mansi and it is one of several European languages not part of the Indo-European languages, and the most widely-spoken European language that does not belong to the Indo-European family. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar or magyar nyelv, the word Magyar is used as an English and Hungarian word to refer to Hungarian people as an ethnic group. Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family, the name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur, there are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian /aː/ corresponds to Khanty /o/ in certain positions, for example, Hungarian ház house vs. Khanty xot house, and Hungarian száz hundred vs. Khanty sot hundred. The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular, during the later half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian. Following an academic debate known as Az ugor-török háború, the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, foremost based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz. The traditional view argues that the Hungarian language separated from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium b. c. e. in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from settled hunters to nomadic pastoralists, in Hungarian, Iranian loans date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include tehén ‘cow’, tíz ‘ten’, tej ‘milk’, increasing archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan found in the previous decades confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and Ural Mountains. The Onogurs later had a influence on the language, especially between the 5th-9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied, and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic, e. g. borjú ‘calf’, dél ‘noon, many words related to agriculture, to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a dramatic way during these 300 years. After the arrival of the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin the language came into contact with different speech communities, Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians who settled in Hungary during the 12th-13th centuries, e. g. koboz ‘cobza’, komondor ‘mop dog’. Hungarian borrowed many words from especially the neighbouring Slavic languages, in exchange, these languages also borrowed words from Hungarian, e. g. Serbo-Croatian ašov from Hung ásó ‘spade’. Approximately 1. 6% of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin, on the basis of the growing genetic evidence, the accepted origin theory is contested by geneticists too
3.
Feliceni
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Feliceni is a commune in Harghita County, Romania, in the vicinity of Odorheiu Secuiesc. It forms part of the Székely Land, a region in eastern Transylvania. After World War I, by the terms of the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, as a result of the Second Vienna Award, the region belonged again to Hungary between 1940 and 1944. After World War II, it came under Romanian administration and became part of Romania in 1947, between 1952 and 1960, the villages formed part of the Hungarian Autonomous Province, then, of the Mureș-Hungarian Autonomous Province until it was abolished in 1968. Since then, the commune has been part of Harghita County, the commune has an absolute Székely majority. According to the 2002 census it has a population of 3,026 of which 99. 31% or 3,005 are Hungarian Polonița is located along the Polonița Creek in a narrow valley and it had 319 inhabitants in 2002, of whom 315 were Hungarians. The village was first mentioned in 1505 as Lengenfalwa when a certain Balthasar was elected judge at Udvarhely. In 1533, the name was recorded as Lengyelfalva, in 1899, the ethnonym Székely was added to the Hungarian placename in order to distinguish the locality from another Lengyelfalva of the historical Kingdom of Hungary. The Romanian name derives from the Hungarian one and was used as Lenghelfalău which was later Romanianized by translation. Its Roman Catholic church was built in 1802 replacing the medieval church
4.
Northern Court
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The Northern Court, also known as the Ashikaga Pretenders or Northern Pretenders, were a set of six pretenders to the throne of Japan during the Nanboku-chō period from 1336 through 1392. The present Japanese Imperial Family is descended of the Northern Court emperors, the Northern dynasty is also referred to as the senior line or the Jimyōin line, Jimyō-in was a temple and retirement residence of this lines emperors Go-Fukakusa and Fushimi. The origins of the Northern Court go back to Emperor Go-Saga, Go-Saga was succeeded in turn by two of his sons, Emperor Go-Fukakusa and Emperor Kameyama. On his death bed in 1272, Go-Saga insisted that his sons adopt a plan in which future emperors from the two lines would ascend the throne in alternating succession. This plan proved to be unworkable, resulting in rival factions, Kōgons family thus formed an alternate Imperial Court in Kyoto, which came to be called the Northern Court because its seat was in a location north of its rival. Cloistered Emperor Go-Daigo failed to control succession to the Imperial throne, Shoguns would rule Japan unimpeded until 1867. The Imperial Court supported by the Ashikaga shoguns was rivaled by the Southern Court of Go-Daigo and this came to be called the Southern Court because its seat was in a location south of its rival. Although the precise location of the seat did change, it was often identified as simply Yoshino. In 1392, Emperor Go-Kameyama of the Southern Court was defeated and abdicated in favor of Kōgons great-grandson, Emperor Go-Komatsu, the Northern Court was under the power of the Ashikaga shoguns and had little real independence. Partly because of this, since the 19th century, the Emperors of the Southern Imperial Court have been considered the legitimate Emperors of Japan, moreover, the Southern Court controlled the Japanese imperial regalia. The Northern Court members are officially called pretenders, one Southern Court descendant, Kumazawa Hiromichi, declared himself to be Japans rightful emperor in the days after the end of the Pacific War. He claimed that Emperor Hirohito was a fraud, arguing that Hirohitos entire line is descended from the Northern Court, despite this, he was not arrested for lèse majesté, even when donning the Imperial Crest. He could and did produce a koseki detailing his bloodline back to Emperor Go-Daigo in Yoshino, Go-Kameyama reached an agreement with Go-Komatsu to return to the old alternations on a ten-year plan. However, Go-Komatsu broke this promise, not only ruling for 20 years and these are the Hokuchō or Northern Court emperors, Emperor Kōgon 1332–1333. Emperor Go-Komatsu 1382–1392 These are the Nanchō or Southern Court emperors, Emperor Go-Daigo 1336–1339
5.
Northern Court (Japan)
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The Northern Court, also known as the Ashikaga Pretenders or Northern Pretenders, were a set of six pretenders to the throne of Japan during the Nanboku-chō period from 1336 through 1392. The present Japanese Imperial Family is descended of the Northern Court emperors, the Northern dynasty is also referred to as the senior line or the Jimyōin line, Jimyō-in was a temple and retirement residence of this lines emperors Go-Fukakusa and Fushimi. The origins of the Northern Court go back to Emperor Go-Saga, Go-Saga was succeeded in turn by two of his sons, Emperor Go-Fukakusa and Emperor Kameyama. On his death bed in 1272, Go-Saga insisted that his sons adopt a plan in which future emperors from the two lines would ascend the throne in alternating succession. This plan proved to be unworkable, resulting in rival factions, Kōgons family thus formed an alternate Imperial Court in Kyoto, which came to be called the Northern Court because its seat was in a location north of its rival. Cloistered Emperor Go-Daigo failed to control succession to the Imperial throne, Shoguns would rule Japan unimpeded until 1867. The Imperial Court supported by the Ashikaga shoguns was rivaled by the Southern Court of Go-Daigo and this came to be called the Southern Court because its seat was in a location south of its rival. Although the precise location of the seat did change, it was often identified as simply Yoshino. In 1392, Emperor Go-Kameyama of the Southern Court was defeated and abdicated in favor of Kōgons great-grandson, Emperor Go-Komatsu, the Northern Court was under the power of the Ashikaga shoguns and had little real independence. Partly because of this, since the 19th century, the Emperors of the Southern Imperial Court have been considered the legitimate Emperors of Japan, moreover, the Southern Court controlled the Japanese imperial regalia. The Northern Court members are officially called pretenders, one Southern Court descendant, Kumazawa Hiromichi, declared himself to be Japans rightful emperor in the days after the end of the Pacific War. He claimed that Emperor Hirohito was a fraud, arguing that Hirohitos entire line is descended from the Northern Court, despite this, he was not arrested for lèse majesté, even when donning the Imperial Crest. He could and did produce a koseki detailing his bloodline back to Emperor Go-Daigo in Yoshino, Go-Kameyama reached an agreement with Go-Komatsu to return to the old alternations on a ten-year plan. However, Go-Komatsu broke this promise, not only ruling for 20 years and these are the Hokuchō or Northern Court emperors, Emperor Kōgon 1332–1333. Emperor Go-Komatsu 1382–1392 These are the Nanchō or Southern Court emperors, Emperor Go-Daigo 1336–1339
6.
Meiji period
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The Meiji period, also known as the Meiji era, is a Japanese era which extended from October 23,1868 through July 30,1912. This period represents the first half of the Empire of Japan during which Japanese society moved from being a feudal society to its modern form. Fundamental changes affected its structure, internal politics, economy, military. The period corresponded with the reign of Emperor Meiji after 1868 and it was succeeded by the Taishō period upon the accession of Emperor Taishō to the throne. On February 3,1867, the 14-year-old Prince Mutsuhito succeeded his father, Emperor Kōmei, on November 9,1867, then-Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu tendered his resignation to the Emperor, and formally stepped down ten days later. Imperial restoration occurred the year on January 3,1868. The fall of Edo in the summer of 1868 marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, and a new era, Meiji, was proclaimed. The first reform was the promulgation of the Five Charter Oath in 1868, implicit in the Charter Oath was an end to exclusive political rule by the bakufu, and a move toward more democratic participation in government. To implement the Charter Oath, a rather short-lived constitution with eleven articles was drawn up in June 1868, the Meiji government assured the foreign powers that it would follow the old treaties negotiated by the bakufu and announced that it would act in accordance with international law. Mutsuhito, who was to reign until 1912, selected a new reign title—Meiji, to further dramatize the new order, the capital was relocated from Kyoto, where it had been situated since 794, to Tokyo, the new name for Edo. Confirmed in their positions, the daimyo became governors. The han were replaced with prefectures in 1871, and authority continued to flow to the national government, officials from the favored former han, such as Satsuma, Chōshū, Tosa, and Hizen staffed the new ministries. Formerly old court nobles, and lower-ranking but more radical samurai, replaced bakufu appointees, in as much as the Meiji Restoration had sought to return the Emperor to a preeminent position, efforts were made to establish a Shinto-oriented state much like it was 1,000 years earlier. Furthermore, a new State Shinto had to be constructed for the purpose, in 1871, the Office of Shinto Worship was established, ranking even above the Council of State in importance. The kokutai ideas of the Mito school were embraced, and the ancestry of the Imperial House was emphasized. The government supported Shinto teachers, a small but important move, although the Office of Shinto Worship was demoted in 1872, by 1877 the Home Ministry controlled all Shinto shrines and certain Shinto sects were given state recognition. Shinto was released from Buddhist administration and its properties restored, although Buddhism suffered from state sponsorship of Shinto, it had its own resurgence. Christianity also was legalized, and Confucianism remained an important ethical doctrine, increasingly, however, Japanese thinkers identified with Western ideology and methods
7.
Chrysanthemum Throne
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The Chrysanthemum Throne is the term used to identify the throne of the Emperor of Japan. The term also can refer to very specific seating, such as the throne in the Shishin-den at Kyoto Imperial Palace. In a metonymic sense, the Chrysanthemum Throne also refers rhetorically to the head of state, Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world. In much the same sense as the British Crown, the Chrysanthemum Throne is an abstract concept that represents the monarch. According to legend, the Japanese monarchy is said to have founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. The extant historical records only reach back to Emperor Ōjin, who is considered to have reigned into the early 4th century, in the 1920s, then-Crown Prince Hirohito served as regent during several years of his fathers reign, when Emperor Taishō was physically unable to fulfill his duties. However, the Prince Regent lacked the powers of the throne which he could only attain after his fathers death. The current Constitution of Japan considers the Emperor as the symbol of the State, the modern Emperor is a constitutional monarch. The metonymic meanings of Chrysanthemum Throne encompass the modern monarchy and the chronological list of legendary, the throne Takamikura is located in the Kyoto Imperial Palace. It is the oldest surviving throne used by the monarchy and it sits on an octagonal dais,5 metres above the floor. It is separated from the rest of the room by a curtain, the throne is used mainly for the enthronement ceremony, along with the twin throne michodai. This flexible English term is also a rhetorical trope, the Chrysanthemum throne is also understood as a synecdoche, which is related to metonymy and metaphor in suggesting a play on words by identifying a closely related conceptualization, e. g. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōzei is said to have acceded to the throne. Referring to the specific with the general, such as Chrysanthemum Throne for the reign of Emperor Yōzei or equally as well for the ambit of the Imperial system. Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697, brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. The Chrysanthemum Throne, A History of the Emperors of Japan, a Political History of Japan During the Meiji Era, 1867-1912. OCLC194887 Post, Jerrold and Robert S. Robins, nihon Odai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, a Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns, Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa
8.
Crown prince
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A crown prince or crown princess is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a prince is also titled crown princess. The term is now borne as a title mainly in Asia, Scandinavia, and the Middle East, however, heirs apparent to non-imperial and non-royal monarchies, crown prince is not used as a title, although it is sometimes used as a synonym for heir apparent. g. Former Crown Prince Hassan bin Talal of Jordan, compare heir apparent and heir presumptive. In Scandinavian kingdoms, the heir presumptive to the crown may hold a different title than the heir apparent and it is also the title borne by the heir apparent of Liechtenstein, as well as the heir apparent or presumptive of Monaco. It generally requires a specific conferral by the sovereign, which may be withheld, reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran. Paras, Crown Prince of Nepal Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia, Egypt, Prince of the Said, meaning Prince of Upper Egypt Persia, Pahlavi dynasty and Qajar dynasty, the full style was Vala Hazrat-i-Humayun Vali Ahd, Shahzada, i. e. His August Imperial Highness the Heir Apparent, Prince, the above component vali ahd meaning successor by virtue of a covenant was adopted by many oriental monarchies, even some non-Muslim, e. g. g. He was not necessarily the son, wonja. Southeast Asian traditions, Siam Makutrajakuman in Thailand since 1886, krom Phrarajawangboworn Sathanmongkol or Phra Maha Uparaja or commonly called Wang Na in Thailand prior to 1886. Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Anom in Yogyakarta sultanate and Surakarta, Indonesia, raja Muda or Tengku Mahkota in the Malay sultanates of Malaysia. org- here napoleonic section
9.
Ashikaga Takauji
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Ashikaga Takauji was the founder and first shogun of the Ashikaga shogunate. His rule began in 1338, beginning the Muromachi period of Japan and he was a descendant of the samurai of the Seiwa Genji line who had settled in the Ashikaga area of Shimotsuke Province, in present-day Tochigi Prefecture. According to Zen master and intellectual Musō Soseki, who enjoyed his favor and collaborated with him, First, he kept his cool in battle and was not afraid of death. Second, he was merciful and tolerant, third, he was very generous with those below him. Takauji was a general of the Kamakura shogunate sent to Kyoto in 1333 to put down the Genkō War which had started in 1331, after becoming increasingly disillusioned with the Kamakura shogunate over time, Takauji joined the banished Emperor Go-Daigo and Kusunoki Masashige, and seized Kyoto. Soon after, Nitta Yoshisada joined their cause, and laid siege to Kamakura, when the city fell to Nitta, the Shogunal regent, Hōjō Takatoki, and his clansmen committed suicide. This ended the Kamakura shogunate, as well as the Hōjō clans power, Go-Daigo was enthroned once more as emperor, reestablishing the primacy of the Imperial court in Kyoto and starting the so-called Kenmu Restoration. However, shortly thereafter, the clans became increasingly disillusioned with the reestablished imperial court. Sensing their discontent, Takauji pleaded with the emperor to do something before rebellion would break out, Hōjō Tokiyuki, son of Takatoki, took the opportunity to start the Nakasendai rebellion to try to reestablish the shogunate in Kamakura in 1335. Takauji put down the rebellion and took Kamakura for himself, taking up the cause of his fellow samurai, he claimed the title of Sei-i Taishōgun and allotted land to his followers without permission from the court. Takauji announced his allegiance to the court, but Emperor Go-Daigo sent Nitta Yoshisada to reclaim Kamakura. Takauji defeated Yoshisada in the battles of Sanoyama and Mishima and this cleared the path for Takauji and Tadayoshi to march on to Kyoto. He captured Kyoto for a few days in Feb.1336, only to be out and to Kyūshū by the arrival of forces under Prince Takanaga, Prince Norinaga, Kitabatake Akiie. Takauji and his brother were forced to retreat to the west, Takauji then allied himself with the clans native to Kyūshū. After defeating the Kikuchi clan at Hakata Bay in the Battle of Tatarahama, by May, he was able to advance towards Kyoto again, via a flotilla. His brother advanced simultaneously by land and both reached the environs of present-day Kobe in July, at the decisive Battle of Minatogawa in 1336, Takauji defeated Yoshisada again and killed Masashige, allowing him to seize Kyoto for good. Besides other honors, Emperor Go-Daigo had given Takauji the title of Chinjufu Shogun, or Commander-in-chief of the Defense of the North, significant events which shaped the period during which Takauji was shogun are,1338 – Takauji appointed shogun. 1351 – Tadayoshi joins Southern Court, southern army takes Kyoto, truce, Takauji returns to Kyoto, Tadayoshi and Takauji reconciled, Kō no Moronao and Kō no Moroyasu are exiled
10.
Ashikaga Tadayoshi
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Ashikaga Tadayoshi was a general of the Northern and Southern Courts period of Japanese history and a close associate of his elder brother Takauji, the first Muromachi shogun. Son of Ashikaga Sadauji and of a daughter of Uesugi Yorishige, Tadayoshi is today considered a military and administrative genius and the true architect of many of his elder brothers successes. In contemporary chronicles he is called with his name, but is instead called either gosho or Daikyū-ji-dono from the name of his family temple. His posthumous name was Kozan Keigen, the Ashikaga were a samurai family from Kamakura having blood ties with the Seiwa Genji, Minamoto no Yoritomos clan. Like his brother, Tadayoshi resolutely abandoned the Kamakura shogunate to ally himself with Emperor Go-Daigo during the Kemmu Restoration of 1333, when Go-Daigo had ascended to the throne in 1318, he had immediately manifested his intention to rule without interference from the military in Kamakura. The samurai class as a whole however was not ready to give away power, so the alliance between him and the Ashikaga was bound to be only temporary. Go-Daigo wanted to re-establish his rule in Kamakura and the east of the country without sending there a shogun, as this was seen, just a year from the fall of its shogunate, as still too dangerous. As a compromise, he sent his six-year-old son Prince Norinaga to Mutsu province and nominated him Governor-General of the Mutsu, the appointment of a warrior to such an important post was intended to show the Emperor that the samurai class was not ready for a purely civilian rule. Since he ruled without interference from Kyoto and the area in itself was in effect a miniature shogunate, in 1335, during the Nakasendai Rebellion led by Hōjō Tokiyuki Tadayoshi, being unable to defend the city, had to leave Kamakura in a rush. Not being in the position to take along another son of Go-Daigos, Prince Morinaga, in Dec.1335, Tadayoshi was defeated by imperial forces under the command of Nitta Yoshisada forcing his retreat to the Hakone mountains. However, with the aid of his brother Takauji, they were able to defeat Yoshisada at the battles of Sanoyama and Mishima, the brothers were then free to advance upon Kyoto. Their occupation of Kyoto was short lived however, as loyal to Go-Daigo forced the brothers to flee west. In April 1336, Ashikaga Tadayoshi, drove the enemy before him helping his brother defeat the Kikuchi clan and this Battle of Tatarahama occurred in Hakata Bay. The victory enabled Takauji to become master of Kyushu, by May, Takauji was able to advance with a flotilla, reaching the environs of present-day Kobe in July. Tadayoshi followed in parallel with a land force, turning against Go-Daigo, Tadayoshi and Takauji set up a rival emperor in 1336 after defeating the Loyalists in the Battle of Minatogawa. Their Muromachi shogunate was founded in 1338, dividing power between them, Takauji took charge of military affairs and Tadayoshi of judicial and administrative matters. Both Tadayoshi and Takauji were disciples of famous Zen master, intellectual and garden designer Musō Soseki, the creation of both systems is generally attributed wholly to Tadayoshi. It was also Soseki which famously wrote about the two brothers, describing Takauji as more apt to military pursuits, and Tadayoshi to government
11.
Emperor Go-Hanazono
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Emperor Go-Hanazono was the 102nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1428 through 1464, before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was simply Hikohito-shinnō. He was the eldest son of Imperial Prince Fushimi-no-miya Sadafusa and his mother was Sachiko, daughter of Niwata Tsuneari. His father was the 3rd of the Fushimi-no-miya line and grandson of the Northern Pretender Emperor Sukō, making Go-Hanazono the great-grandson of Sukō and he was also the great-great-great grandson of Emperor Go-Fushimi. 1428, In the 17th year of Shōkō-tennō s reign, the emperor died at age 27, shōchō1, on the 29th day of the 7th month, Emperor Go-Hanazono is said to have acceded to the throne. The new emperor is age 10,1429, Minamoto-no Yoshinobu is honored in court, and thereafter, he is known as Shogun Ashikaga Yoshinori. 1433, The Emperor of China, at time the Xuande Emperor, addressed a letter to Yoshinori in which he gave the Shogun the title. 1441, Shogun Yoshinori is murdered at age 48 by Akamatsu Mitsusuke,1441, The assassins of Yoshinori kill themselves. 1442, Shogun Yoshikatsu died at the age of 10 and he enjoyed riding horses, but he was gravely injured in a fall from a horse, and died as a result. He was shogun for only three years and his 8-year-old brother, Yoshinari, was then named shogun. An armed group of rebels penetrated the palace defenses, a fire was started and one of the men sought to kill Go-Hanazono, but the emperor escaped. However, the managed to steal the Three Sacred Treasures, the mirror, the sword. Later, a found the mirror and a priest found the sword. 1451, A delegation from the Ryukyu Islands arrives for the first time in Heian-kyō,1451, Shogun Yoshinari sent a letter to the Emperor of China, at that time, the Jingtai Emperor. 1453, The name of Shogun Minamoto-no Yoshinari was changed to Ashikaga Yoshimasa,1458, The Sacred Jewel is retrieved from the former Southern Court. It is returned to Miyako to join the other Sacred Treasures,1464, Go-Hanazono resigned his throne in favor of his son, who would be known as Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado. January 18,1471, Former Emperor Go-Hanazono died at age 52, kugyō is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal
12.
Fushimi-ku, Kyoto
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Fushimi is one of the eleven wards in the city of Kyoto, in Kyoto Prefecture, Japan. Also of note is the Gokōgu shrine, which houses a stone used in the construction of Fushimi Castle, the water in the shrine is particularly famous and it is recorded as one of Japans 100 best clear water spots. Although written with different characters now, the name Fushimi originally comes from fusu + mizu, in other words, the location was known for good spring water. The water of Fushimi has particularly soft characteristics, making it a component to the particular type of sake brewed in Fushimi. This also explains why the area developed as a center in Kyoto. Today, Fushimi is the second greatest area of Japan in terms of sake production, the ward has a North Korean school, Kyoto Korean Elementary School
13.
Emperor Go-Murakami
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Emperor Go-Murakami was the 97th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession, and a member of the Southern Court during the Nanboku-chō period of rival courts. He reigned from September 18,1339, until March 29,1368 and he reigned from Sumiyoshi, Ōsaka, Yoshino, Nara, and other temporary locations. This 14th-century sovereign was named after the 10th-century Emperor Murakami and go-, translates as later, and thus, he is sometimes called the Later Emperor Murakami. The Japanese word go has also translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as Murakami. Prince Norinaga was Go-Daigos son from his consort of his later years. He lived during the turbulent years of conflict between rival claimants to the Chrysanthemum Throne, the contested succession pitted what were known as the Northern and Southern Courts against each other. These years are known as the Nanboku-chō period. However, in 1336, because Ashikaga Takauji had raised a rebellion and he was accompanied by Kitabatake Akiie, in order to confront Takauji. When Takauji defeated them in Kyōto in 1336, they returned to Mutsu Province. In 1337, because Tagajō was attacked, they returned yet again to the west, in 1338, he headed to Tagajō, but returned to Yoshino because of a storm. In Oct.1338, he was named Crown Prince, on 19 Sept.1339, he became emperor upon the death of Emperor Go-Daigo. In 1348, Kō no Moronao attacked Yoshino, and the Emperor left for modern-day Nishiyoshino Village in Yoshino District, Nara Prefecture, in 1352, he entered Otokoyama in Yamashiro Province. As a result of the Battle of Shichijō Ōmiya, Kusunoki Masanori recovered Kyōto from Ashikaga Yoshiakira, at this time, April 1352, the Retired Northern Emperors Kōgon, Kōmyō, and Sukō were taken to Anau, the location of the Southern Court. However, within twenty days, Ashikaga Yoshiakira had recaptured Kyōto, the Emperor and his retinue were confined to Otokoyama, but escaped to Kawachi Province during an attack by Yoshiakira, and a few months later returned to Yoshino. In 1361, Hosokawa Kiyōji and Kusunoki Masanori, who had returned to the Southern Courts allegiance, attacked Kyōto, but, Yoshiakira quickly responded, and they evacuated Kyōto in less than twenty days. Go-Murakamis tomb is known as Hinoo no misasagi, it is located in the precincts of Kanshin-ji temple in Kawachinagano, kugyō is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time
14.
Emperor of Japan
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The Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and is the ceremonial head of state of Japans system of constitutional monarchy. According to the 1947 constitution, he is the symbol of the State, in Japanese, the Emperor is called Tennō, which means heavenly sovereign. In English, the use of the term Mikado for the Emperor was once common, currently, the Emperor of Japan is the only remaining monarch in the world reigning under the title of Emperor. The Imperial House of Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world, in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, it is said that Japan was founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. He acceded the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the death of his father, Emperor Shōwa, the role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1192, the Emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, Japanese Emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. In fact, between 1192 and 1867, the shoguns, or their shikken regents in Kamakura, were the de facto rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the Emperor. After the Meiji Restoration in 1867, the Emperor was the embodiment of all power in the realm. His current status as a figurehead dates from the 1947 Constitution, since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called Kyūjō, later Kōkyo, and is located on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier, Emperors resided in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries, the Emperors Birthday is a national holiday. Unlike most constitutional monarchies, the Emperor is not the nominal Chief Executive, article 65 of the Constitution explicitly vests executive power in the Cabinet, of which the Prime Minister is the leader. The Emperor is also not the commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, the Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 also explicitly vests this role with the Prime Minister. The Emperors powers are limited only to important ceremonial functions, article 4 of the Constitution stipulates that the Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government. It also stipulates that the advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state, article 4 also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law. Article 6 of the Constitution delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles, Appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet. Dissolution of the House of Representatives, proclamation of general election of members of the Diet. Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights. Attestation of instruments of ratification and other documents as provided for by law
15.
Imperial cult
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An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor, or a dynasty of emperors, are worshipped as demigods or deities. Cult here is used to worship, not in the modern pejorative sense. The cult may be one of personality in the case of a newly arisen Euhemerus figure or one of identity or supranational identity in the case of a multi-ethnic state. A divine king is a monarch who is held in a religious significance by his subjects. This system of government combines theocracy with an absolute monarchy, the Ptolemaic dynasty based their own legitimacy in the eyes of their Greek subjects on their association with, and incorporation into, the cult of Alexander the Great. In Imperial China, an emperor was considered the Son of Heaven, the scion and representative of heaven on earth, he was the ruler of all under heaven, the bearer of the Mandate of Heaven, his commands considered sacred edicts. A number of legendary figures preceding the proper imperial era of China also hold the title of emperor, such as the Yellow Emperor. Even before the rise of the Caesars, there are traces of a regal spirituality in Roman society, King Numitor corresponds to the regal-sacred principle in early Roman history. Romulus, the founder of Rome, was heroized into Quirinus. Varro spoke of the mystery and power of Roman regality. In Plutarchs Phyrro,19.5, the Greek ambassador declared amid the Roman Senate he felt instead like being in the midst of an assembly of Kings. As the Roman Empire developed the Imperial cult gradually developed more formally and this practice began at the start of the Empire under Augustus, and became a prominent element of Roman religion. The cult spread over the whole Empire within a few decades, Emperor Diocletian further reinforced it when he demanded the proskynesis and adopted the adjective sacrum for all things pertaining to the imperial person. The deification of emperors was gradually abandoned after the emperor Constantine I started supporting Christianity, however, the concept of the imperial person as sacred carried over, in a Christianized form, into the Byzantine Empire. In ancient Japan, it was customary for every clan to claim descendancy from gods, later in history, this was considered common practice by noble families, and the head members of the family, including that of the imperial family, were not seen to be divine. It was not until the Meiji period, that the Japanese Emperor began to be venerated along with a sense of nationalism. Arahitogami – the concept of a god who is a human being applied to the Shōwa Emperor, ningen-sengen – the declaration with which the Shōwa Emperor, on New Years Day 1946, declined claims of divinity, keeping with traditional family values as expressed in the Shinto religion. Devaraja is the Hindu-Buddhist cult of deified royalty in Southeast Asia and it is simply described as Southeast Asian concept of divine king
16.
Imperial Seal of Japan
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It is a contrast to the Paulownia Seal used by the Japanese government. Therefore, each member of the Imperial family used a modified version of the seal. Shinto shrines either displayed the imperial seal or incorporated elements of the seal into their own emblems, the symbol is a yellow or orange chrysanthemum with black or red outlines and background. A central disc is surrounded by a front set of 16 petals, a rear set of 16 petals are half staggered in relation to the front set and are visible at the edges of the flower. An example of the chrysanthemum being used is in the badge for the Order of the Chrysanthemum, the Imperial Seal is also used on the standards of the Imperial Family. National seals of Japan Chrysanthemum Throne Imperial Seal of Korea Order of the Chrysanthemum
17.
Chrysanthemum
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Chrysanthemums, sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus Chrysanthemum in the family Asteraceae. They are native to Asia and northeastern Europe, most species originate from East Asia and the center of diversity is in China. There are countless horticultural varieties and cultivars, the name chrysanthemum is derived from the Ancient Greek, χρυσός chrysos and Ancient Greek, ἄνθεμον anthemon. The genus once included more species, but was several decades ago into several genera. The other species included in the narrow view of the genus Chrysanthemum are now transferred to the genus Glebionis. The other genera separate from Chrysanthemum include Argyranthemum, Leucanthemopsis, Leucanthemum, Rhodanthemum, wild Chrysanthemum taxa are herbaceous perennial plants or subshrubs. They have alternately arranged leaves divided into leaflets with toothed or occasionally smooth edges, the compound inflorescence is an array of several flower heads, or sometimes a solitary head. The head has a base covered in layers of phyllaries, the simple row of ray florets are white, yellow or red, many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great variety of colors. The disc florets of wild taxa are yellow, the fruit is a ribbed achene. Chrysanthemums, also known as ‘mums’, are one of the prettiest varieties of perennials that start blooming early in the fall and this is also known as favorite flower for the month of November. Chrysanthemums were first cultivated in China as a flowering herb as far back as the 15th century BC, over 500 cultivars had been recorded by the year 1630. The plant is renowned as one of the Four Gentlemen in Chinese, the plant is particularly significant during the Double Ninth Festival. The flower may have brought to Japan in the eighth century AD. The Festival of Happiness in Japan celebrates the flower, Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 when Colonel John Stevens imported a cultivated variety known as Dark Purple from England. The introduction was part of an effort to grow attractions within Elysian Fields in Hoboken, modern cultivated chrysanthemums are showier than their wild relatives. The flower heads occur in forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative. This genus contains many hybrids and thousands of cultivars developed for horticultural purposes, in addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is Chrysanthemum × morifolium, derived primarily from C. indicum, over 140 varieties of chrysanthemum have gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit
18.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
19.
Richard Ponsonby-Fane
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Richard Arthur Brabazon Ponsonby-Fane was a British academic, author, and Japanologist. Richard Arthur Brabazon Ponsonby was born at Gravesend on the bank of the Thames in Kent. His boyhood was spent in the home in London and at his grandfathers Somerset country home. He added Fane to his name when Brympton devolved to him in 1916, Ponsonby was educated at Harrow School. In 1896, Ponsonby traveled to Cape Town to serve as Private Secretary to the Governor of the British Cape Colony, for the next two decades, his career in the British Empires colonial governments spanned the globe. He worked closely with a number of leaders as private secretary to the Governor of Natal, to the Governor of Trinidad and Tobago, to the Governor of Ceylon. He was re-posted to Natal in 1907, and in 1910, also in 1910 he played a single first-class cricket match for the Marylebone Cricket Club. In 1915-1919, he was re-posted as private secretary to the Governor of Hong Kong, in addition to his government duties in Hong Kong, he began lecturing at the University of Hong Kong in 1916, and his association with the faculty of the university continued until 1926. After 1919, Ponsonby-Fane became a permanent resident of Japan, traveling four months of the year to Hong Kong for lectures at the Crown colonys university, in 1921, when the Japanese Crown Prince visited Hong Kong en route to Europe, Ponsonby-Fane was introduced as his interpreter. When Emperor Shōwa was enthroned in 1928, he was the only non-Japanese guest who was invited to witness the ceremonies from in front of the palaces Kenreimon gate. In 1930, when HIH Prince Takamatsu and his wife traveled to Europe, Ponsonby-Fane sailed on the same ship, in 1932, Ponsonby-Fane built a Japanese-style home in one of the northern suburbs of Kyoto. In the last decades of his life, he was photographed with a long woolen scarf draped around his shoulders. This unique scarf was said to be hand-knit by Dowager Empress Teimei, the widow of Emperor Taishō, Ponsonby-Fane died at home in Kyoto in December 1937. In an overview of writings by and about Richard Ponsonby-Fane, OCLC/WorldCat lists roughly 74 works in 136 publications in 2 languages and 1,443 library holdings and this list is not finished, you can help Wikipedia by adding to it. The Imperial Family of Japan,1915 The Capital and Palace of Heian,1924 The Vicissitudes of Shinto,1931 The Nomenclature of the N. Y. K, order of the Sacred Treasure,1921. University of Hong Kong, Honorary Doctor of Laws,1926, Private Secretary to the Sovereign Britton, Dorothy. Richard Ponsonby-Fane, A Modern William Adams, pp. 190-204 in Britain and Japan, Japanese Capitals in Historical Perspective, Place, Power and Memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo. ISBN9780700714094, OCLC45325157 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon, a Biographical sketch of Dr. R. Ponsonby-Fane, Studies in Shinto and Shrines
20.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
21.
Isaac Titsingh
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Isaac Titsingh FRS was a Dutch surgeon, scholar, merchant-trader and ambassador. During a long career in East Asia, Titsingh was an official of the Dutch East India Company. He represented the European trading company in exclusive official contact with Tokugawa Japan, traveling to Edo twice for audiences with the shogun and he was the Dutch and VOC governor general in Chinsura, Bengal. Titsingh worked with his counterpart, Charles Cornwallis, who was general of the British East India Company. In China, Titsingh effectively functioned as ambassador for his country at the time as he represented the Dutch East India Company as a trade representative. Isaac Titsingh was born in Amsterdam, the son of Albertus Titsingh and his baptism took place at the Amstelkerk in Amsterdam on 21 January 1745. His father, Albertus Titsingh was a successful and prominent Amsterdam surgeon and he thus possessed the means for Isaac Titsingh to be brought up with an ‘enlightened education’ of the 18th century. Isaac Titsingh became a member of the Amsterdam Chirurgijngilde and received the degree of a Doctor of Law from Leiden University in January 1765, in March 1764 Titsingh was appointed as a freeman and 1766 went within his employment to Batavia. Titsingh was the commercial Opperhoofd or chief factor in Japan between 1779-1780, 1781–1783, and in 1784, the singular importance of the head of the VOC in Japan during this period was enhanced by the Japanese policy of sakoku—imposed isolation. The sole exception to this door was the VOC factory on the island of Dejima in Nagasaki Bay. During this period of seclusion, Titsingh is believed to have been the first Freemason in Japan, in this highly controlled context, the traders became the sole official conduit for trade and for scientific-cultural exchanges between Europe and Japan. The VOC Opperhoofd was accorded the status of a tributary of the Shogun, nevertheless, the average Opperhoofd was not interested in the customs or culture of the Japanese. Titsingh showed an almost incredible interest and distinguished himself as an observer of Japanese civilization for a European of his time when compared to his colleagues in Dejima. Titsingh arrived in Nagasaki on 15 August 1779, where he took over the factory from Arend Willem Feith. During his first audience with Ieharu in Edo from 25 March 1780 until 5 April 1780 and he became incredibly prominent within the elite society of Edo and became friends with several daimyōs and retired daimyōs of the area. After a short return to Batavia in 1780, Titsingh returned to Nagasaki on 12 August 1781, there were no Dutch shipments from Batavia in 1782 due to the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War and thus the trading post in Dejima was cut off from communication with Java during this year. Titsingh stayed a total of three years and eight months in Japan before finally leaving Nagasaki at the end of November 1784 to return to Batavia, in 1785, Titsingh was appointed director of the trading post at Chinsura in Bengal. Titsingh was described by William Jones, the philologist and Bengal jurist, Titsingh’s return to Batavia led to new positions as Ontvanger-Generaal and later as Commissaris ter Zee
22.
Common Era
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Common Era or Current Era is a year-numbering system for the Julian and Gregorian calendars that refers to the years since the start of this era, i. e. since AD1. The preceding era is referred to as before the Common or Current Era, the Current Era notation system can be used as a secular alternative to the Dionysian era system, which distinguishes eras as AD and BC. The two notation systems are equivalent, thus 2017 CE corresponds to AD2017 and 400 BCE corresponds to 400 BC. The year-numbering system for the Gregorian calendar is the most widespread civil calendar used in the world today. For decades, it has been the standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations. The expression has been traced back to Latin usage to 1615, as vulgaris aerae, the term Common Era can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish academics. He attempted to number years from a reference date, an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, numbering years in this manner became more widespread in Europe with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, in 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The first use of the Latin term vulgaris aerae discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler, Kepler uses it again in a 1616 table of ephemerides, and again in 1617. A1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English – so far, a 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,6. A1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, before the beginning of the vulgar æra, a 1796 book uses the term vulgar era of the nativity. The first so-far-discovered usage of Christian Era is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the page of a 1584 theology book. In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac, a 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of Christian Era. The English phrase common Era appears at least as early as 1708, a 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. The first-so-far found usage of the phrase before the era is in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era, the Catholic Encyclopedia in at least one article reports all three terms being commonly understood by the early 20th century. Thus, the era of the Jews, the common era of the Mahometans, common era of the world
23.
Anno Domini
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The terms anno Domini and before Christ are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means in the year of the Lord, There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, the Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the AD abbreviation before the year number, however, BC is placed after the year number, which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is widely used after the number of a century or millennium. Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes concluded that AD means After Death. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be included in either of the BC, astronomical year numbering and ISO8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years. The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was followed by the first year of his table. Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the year during which his birth or conception occurred. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC,1 BC, There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls There were confused summations of emperors regnal years It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesuss birth. It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the day of an event. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hegira, at the time, it was believed by some that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Anno Mundi 6000 was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius. The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. e. On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century
24.
Emperor Jimmu
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Emperor Jimmu, (original birth name of Shinto, Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Biko no Mikoto, was the first Emperor of Japan, according to legend. His accession is dated as 660 BC. According to Japanese mythology, he is a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, through her grandson Ninigi and he launched a military expedition from Hyuga near the Inland Sea, captured Yamato, and established this as his center of power. In modern Japan, Jimmus accession is marked as National Foundation Day on February 11, Jimmu is recorded as Japans first ruler in two early chronicles, Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. Nihon Shoki gives the dates of his reign as 660–585 BC, prior to this time, these rulers had been known as sumera no mikoto/ōkimi. This practice had begun under Empress Suiko, and took root after the Taika Reforms with the ascendancy of the Nakatomi clan. According to the account in the Kojiki, Emperor Jimmu was born on February 13,711 BC. Both the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki give Jimmus name as Kamu-yamato Iware-biko no mikoto, iware indicates a toponym whose precise purport is unclear. The Imperial House of Japan traditionally based its claim to the throne on its descent from the sun-goddess Amaterasu via Jimmus great grandfather Ninigi. In Japanese mythology, the Age of the Gods is the period before Jimmus accession, Jimmu figures as a direct descendant of the sun goddess, Amaterasu via the side of his father, Ugayafukiaezu. Amaterasu had a son called Ame no Oshihomimi no Mikoto and through him a grandson named Ninigi-no-Mikoto and she sent her grandson to the Japanese islands where he eventually married Konohana-Sakuya-hime. Among their three sons was Hikohohodemi no Mikoto, also called Yamasachi-hiko, who married Toyotama-hime and she was the daughter of Ryūjin, the Japanese sea god. They had a son called Hikonagisa Takeugaya Fukiaezu no Mikoto. The boy was abandoned by his parents at birth and consequently raised by Tamayori-hime and they eventually married and had four sons. The last of these, Kanyamato Iwarebiko, became Emperor Jimmu, according to the chronicles Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Jimmus brothers were born in Takachiho, the southern part of Kyūshū in modern-day Miyazaki Prefecture. They moved eastward to find a more appropriate for administering the entire country. Jimmus older brother, Itsuse no Mikoto, originally led the migration, as they reached Naniwa, they encountered another local chieftain, Nagasunehiko, and Itsuse was killed in the ensuing battle. Jimmu realized that they had been defeated because they battled eastward against the sun, so he decided to land on the east side of Kii Peninsula and they reached Kumano, and, with the guidance of a three-legged crow, Yatagarasu, they moved to Yamato
25.
Emperor Suizei
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Emperor Suizei, sometimes romanized as Suisei and known as Kamu-nuna-kaha-mimi no mikoto, was the second Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this life. Modern scholars have come to question the existence of at least the first nine emperors, Suizeis descendant, the name Suizei-tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. Suizei is regarded by historians as an emperor and there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for verification and study. In the Kojiki little more than his name and genealogy are recorded, the Nihonshoki is more expansive, though the section is mythical, and almost wholly cut from the cloth of Chinese legends. An Imperial misasagi or tomb for Suizei is currently maintained, despite the lack of any early records attesting to his historical existence. He is ranked as the first of eight emperors without specific legends associated with them, the Kojiki does, however, record his ascent to the throne. According to its account Suizei was the son of Jimmus chief wife. His older brother, Kamuyawimimi was originally crown-prince, on Jimmus death Tagishimimi, a son of Jimmu by a lesser wife, Ahiratsuhime, attempted to seize the throne. Suizei encouraged Kamuyawimimi to slay Tagishimimi, but since he was overcome by fright at the prospect, on this, Kamuyawimimi ceded his rights and declared that Suizei, being braver, should be emperor. The story may reflect an attempt to explain the ancient practice of ultimogeniture, whereby the last-born exercised superior rights of inheritance. Jien records that Suizei was one of the sons of Emperor Jimmu, and this emperors posthumous name literally means joyfully healthy peace. The actual site of his grave is not known and this emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as his mausoleum and it is formally named Tsukida no oka no e no misasagi. Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Aston, nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697. OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds, gukanshō, The Future and the Past. ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Chamberlain, Basil Hall, read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21,1882, reprinted, May,1919
26.
Emperor Annei
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Emperor Annei, also known as shikitsuhikotamatemi no Mikoto, was the third emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this life. Modern scholars have come to question the existence of at least the first nine emperors, Anneis descendant, the name Annei-tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. Annei is regarded by historians as an emperor and there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for verification and study. In Kojiki and Nihonshoki only his name and genealogy were recorded and he is considered to have been the second of eight emperors without specific legends associated with them, also known as the eight undocumented monarchs. Emperor Annei was either the eldest son or the son of Emperor Suizei. Before his accession to the throne, he was known as Prince Shikitsu-hiko Tamatemi, jien records that he ruled from the palace of Ukena-no-miya at Katashiro in Kawachi in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. This emperors posthumous name literally means steady tranquillity, the actual site of Anneis grave is not known. This emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Anneis mausoleum and it is formally named Unebi-yama no hitsujisaru Mihodo no i no e no no misasagi. Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Aston, nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697. OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds, gukanshō, The Future and the Past. ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Chamberlain, Basil Hall, read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21,1882, reprinted, May,1919. OCLC1882339 Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth, ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. Nihon Ōdai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns
27.
Emperor Itoku
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Emperor Itoku, also known as Ooyamatohikosukitomo no Mikoto, was the fourth emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this life. Modern scholars have come to question the existence of at least the first nine emperors, Itokus descendant, the name Itoku-tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. Itoku is regarded by historians as an emperor and there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for verification and study. In the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki only his name and genealogy were recorded and he is believed to be the son of Emperor Annei, and his mother is believed to have been Nunasoko-Nakatsu-hime, who was the granddaughter of Kotoshiro-Nushi-no-kami. He is considered to have been the third of eight emperors without specific legends associated with them, jien records that Itoku was the second or third son of Emperor Annei, but the surviving documents provide no basis for speculating why the elder brother or brothers were passed over. He is traditionally believed to have ruled from the palace of Migario-no-miya at Karu in what would come to be known as Yamato Province and his posthumous name literally means benign virtue. The actual site of his grave is not known and this emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Anneis mausoleum and it is formally named Unebi-yama no minami no Masago no tani no e no misasagi. Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Aston, nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697. OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds, gukanshō, The Future and the Past. ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Chamberlain, Basil Hall, read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21,1882, reprinted, May,1919. OCLC1882339 Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth, ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns
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Emperor Kaika
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Emperor Kaika, also known as Wakayamatonekohikooobi no Mikoto, is the ninth emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this life or reign. He may have lived in the early 1st century, the name Kaika-tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. Kaika is regarded by historians as an emperor, and there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material for further verification and study, in the Kojiki and Nihonshoki, only his name and genealogy were recorded. He was the eighth of eight emperors without specific legends associated with them, jien records that Kaika was the second son of Emperor Kōgen and that he ruled from the palace of Isakawa-no-miya at Kasuga in what came to be known as Yamato Province. The site of Kaikas grave is not known and this emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kaikas mausoleum and it is formally named Kasuga no Izakawa no sak no e no misasagi. Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697, OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. Gukanshō, The Future and the Past, ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Chamberlain, Basil Hall. Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, OCLC1882339 Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon, nihon Ōdai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns
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Emperor Sujin
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Emperor Sujin, also known as Mimakiiribikoinie no Sumeramikoto or Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto, was the tenth emperor of Japan. The legendary emperors reign is conventionally assigned the years of reign 97 BC –30 BC, Sujins grave site has not been identified, however, Andonyama kofun in Tenri, Nara has been designated by the Imperial Household Agency as the kofun. It is formally named Yamanobe no michi no Magari no oka no e no misasagi, Sujin is responsible for setting up the Ise Shrine or the Saikū associated with it to enshrine Amaterasu. He is also credited with initiating the worship of Ōmononushi and he also confiscated certain sacred treasures that had been passed down the line in Izumo. The emperor may have been the first to perform a census and establish, modern scholars have come to question the existence of at least the first nine emperors, and Sujin is the first many agree might have actually existed, in the third or fourth centuries. Sujin is regarded by historians as an emperor and the paucity of material information about him makes difficult any further verification. Sujin-tennō is a Posthumous name assigned by later generations, possibly ascribed during the compilation of the Kojiki, according to the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihonshoki, Sujin was the second son of Emperor Kaika Sujins mother was Ikagashikome no Mikoto, a stepmother of his father. He acceded to the throne purportedly in 97 B. C, on the third year of his reign, he removed the capital to Shiki, naming it the Palace of Midzu-gaki, or Mizugaki-no-miya. The Kujiki records the appointment of 137 governors for the provinces ruled by Emperor Sujin. Pestilence struck the 5th year of his rule, and half the populace died, by the 6th year, peasants abandoning fields and rebellion became rampant. Up to this time, both the sun goddess Amaterasu and the god Yamato-ōkunitama were enshrined in imperial residence, the emperor, over-awed with having to cohabit with these two powerful deities, set up separate enshrinements to house them. Amaterasu was moved to Kasanui village in Yamato Province, and there built as Himorogi altar out of stone, placing a daughter. The other god was entrusted to another daughter named Nunaki-iri-bime but her hair fell out, in the 7th year, the Emperor decreed a divination to be performed, and so he made a trip to the plain of Kami-asaji or Kamu-asaji-ga-hara, and invoked the eighty myriad deities. Yamato-to-to-hi-momoso-hime acting as sibyl became possessed by a god, who identified himself as Ōmononushi, the emperor complied, but there was no immediatate change for the better. The emperor was given guidance in a dream to seek out a certain Ōtataneko. Eventually, the pestilence subsided, the land was calmed, the Miwa sept of the Kamo clan claim descent from this Ōtataneko personage. The emperor also appointed Ikagashikoo, ancestor of the Mononobe clan and elder brother of the empress as kami-no-mono-akatsu-hito, in his 10th year of rule, Sujin instituted the Generals to the Four Cardinal Quarters, instructing them to quell those who would not submit to their rule. General Ōhiko, who had sent up north, was at the top of the Wani acclivity, when a certain maiden approached him and sang him a cryptic song
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Emperor Suinin
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Emperor Suinin, also known as Ikumeiribikoisachi no Mikoto, was the 11th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this life or reign. Suinin is regarded by historians as an emperor and there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for verification and study. The name Suinin-tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations, after twenty years of searching, she is said to have settled on the area of Ise, establishing the Ise Shrine. According to Asama Shrine tradition, the earliest veneration of Konohanasakuya-hime at the base of Mount Fuji was in the 8th month of the 3rd year of the reign of Emperor Suinin. Nihonshoki records the match in which Nomi no Sukune and Taima no Kehaya held during his era. Jien records that Tehiede Tuhōyō was the son of Emperor Sujin. Jien also explains that during the reign of Emperor Suinin, the first High Priestess was appointed for Ise Shrine in what would become known as Ise Province. The legend of Kaguya-hime seems to found its basis in Suinins story with Kaguya-him-no-Mikoto, one of his consorts, the actual site of Suinins grave is not known. This emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Suinins mausoleum and it is formally named Sugawara no Fushimi no higashi no misasagi. Suinins tomb can be visited in Nishi-machi, Amagatsuji, Nara City and this kofun-type Imperial tomb is characterized by a keyhole-shaped island located within a wide, water-filled moat. Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697, OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. Gukanshō, The Future and the Past, ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Chamberlain, Basil Hall. Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, OCLC1882339 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. Nihon Ōdai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns, ISBN 978-0-231-04940-5, OCLC59145842 Ise Shrine - Naiku, official website
