1.
Hanging scroll
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A hanging scroll is one of the many traditional ways to display and exhibit East Asian painting and calligraphy. Hanging scrolls are generally intended to be displayed for periods of time and are then rolled up to be tied and secured for storage. The hanging scrolls are rotated according to season or occasion, the painting surface of the paper or silk can be mounted with decorative brocade silk borders. In the composition of a scroll, the foreground is usually at the bottom of the scroll while the middle and far distances are at the middle. The traditional craft involved in creating a hanging scroll is considered an art in itself, mountings for East Asian paintings can be divided into a few types, such as handscrolls, hanging scrolls, album leaves, and screens amongst others. In the hanging scroll the actual painting is mounted on paper, and provided at the top with a stave, to which is attached a hanging cord, in China, scrolls originated in their earliest form from literature and other texts written on bamboo strips and silk banners. The earliest hanging scrolls are related to and developed from silk banners in early Chinese history and these banners were long and hung vertically on walls. Such silk banners and hanging scroll paintings were found at Mawangdui dating back to the Han Dynasty, by the time of the Tang Dynasty, the aesthetic and structural objectives for hanging scrolls were summarized, which are still followed to this day. During the early Song Dynasty, the scrolls became well suited to the art styles of the artists, consequently hanging scrolls were made in different sizes. The hanging scroll provides an artist with a format to display his art on a wall. It is one of the most common types of scrolls for East Asian painting, horizontal hanging scrolls are also very frequently used and a common form. The hanging scroll is different from the handscroll in that the latter is not hung, the handscroll is a long narrow scroll for displaying a series of scenes in Chinese painting. Thin strip paintings Narrow strip paintings intended for rooms and spaces. Hall paintings Hall paintings are intended to be the centerpiece in the main hall and its usually quite a large hanging scroll that serves as a focal point in an interior and often has a complicated subject. Four hanging scrolls These hanging scrolls were developed from screen paintings and it features several narrow and long hanging scrolls and is usually hung next to each other on a wall, but can also be hung on its own. The subjects have related themes, such as the flowers of the four seasons, the Four Gentlemen, panoramic screen The panoramic screen consists of several hanging scrolls that have continuous images, in which part of subject continues further in another scroll. These hanging scrolls cover large areas of a wall and usually do not have a border in between, couplet A couplet is two hanging scrolls placed side by side or accompanying a scroll in the middle. These are with poetic calligraphy in vertical writing and this style came to popularity during the Ming Dynasty
2.
National Palace Museum
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The National Palace Museum is located in Taipei and Taibao, Taiwan. It has a permanent collection of nearly 700,000 pieces of ancient Chinese imperial artifacts and artworks, the collection encompasses 8,000 years of history of Chinese art from the Neolithic age to the modern. Most of the collection are high quality pieces collected by Chinas emperors, the National Palace Museum and the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City in Beijing, mainland China, share the same roots. In English, the institution in Taipei is distinguished from the one in Beijing by the additional National designation, in common usage in Chinese, the institution in Taipei is known as the Taipei Former Palace, while that in Beijing is known as the Beijing Former Palace. The articles in the consisted of the valuables of the former Imperial family. In 1936, the collection was moved to Nanking after the construction of the storage in the Taoist monastery Chaotian Palace was complete, in 1947, it was shipped back to the Nanjing warehouse. Hang Li-wu, later director of the museum, supervised the transport of some of the collection in three groups from Nanking to the harbor in Keelung, Taiwan between December 1948 and February 1949. By the time the items arrived in Taiwan, the Communist army had seized control of the National Beiping Palace Museum collection so not all of the collection could be sent to Taiwan. For security reasons, the Joint Managerial Office chose the village of Beigou. In the following year, the collection stored in cane sugar mill was transported to the new site in Beigou, with the National Central Librarys reinstatement in 1955, the collection from the National Beiping Library was simultaneously incorporated into the National Central Library. The Joint Managerial Office of the National Beiping Palace Museum and the Preparatory Office of the National Central Museum stayed in Beigou for another ten years, during the decade, the Office obtained a grant from the Asia Foundation to construct a small-scale exhibition hall in the spring of 1956. The exhibition hall, opened in March 1957, was divided into four galleries in which it was possible to more than 200 items. In the autumn of 1960, the Office received a grant of NT$32 million from AID, the Republic of China government also contributed more than NT$30 million to establish a special fund for the construction of a museum in the Taipei suburb of Waishuanxi. The construction of the museum in Waishuanxi was completed in August 1965, the new museum site was christened the Chung-Shan Museum in honor of the founding father of the ROC, Sun Yat-sen, and first opened to the public on the centenary of Sun Yat-sens birthday. Since then, the museum in Taipei has managed, conserved and exhibited the collections of the National Beiping Palace Museum and the Preparatory Office of the National Central Museum. However, relations regarding this treasure have warmed in recent years, the Palace Museum curator Zheng Xinmiao has said that the artifacts in both mainland and Taiwan museums are Chinas cultural heritage jointly owned by people across the Taiwan Strait. Among the artifacts were a white marble tablet from the Tang Dynasty, gold nails and it was not until after Ma died that his wife went to Taiwan in 1971 from America to bring the artifacts to Chiang Kai-shek, who turned them over to the National Palace Museum. The National Palace Museums main building in Taipei was designed by Huang Baoyu, due to the insufficient space to put on display over 600,000 artifacts, the museum underwent expansions in 1967,1970,1984 and 1996
3.
Taipei
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Taipei, officially known as Taipei City, is the capital city and a special municipality of the Republic of China. Sitting at the tip of the island, Taipei City is an enclave of the municipality of New Taipei City. It is about 25 km southwest of the port city Keelung. Since 1949, Taipei has been the capital of the ROC after losing the mainland to the Communists in the Chinese Civil War, the name Taipei can refer either to the whole metropolitan area or the city proper. Taipei is the political, economic, educational, and cultural center of Taiwan, considered to be a global city, Taipei is part of a major high-tech industrial area. Railways, high-speed rail, highways, airports, and bus lines connect Taipei with all parts of the island, the city is served by two airports – Taipei Songshan and Taiwan Taoyuan. Its natural features such as Maokong, Yangmingshan, and hot springs are also known to international visitors. As the capital city, Taipei is sometimes used as a synecdoche for Taiwan, prior to the significant influx of Han Chinese immigrants, the region of Taipei Basin was mainly inhabited by the Ketagalan plains aborigines. The number of Han immigrants gradually increased in the early 18th century under Qing Dynasty rule after the government began permitting development in the area, in 1875, the northern part of the island was incorporated into the new Taipeh Prefecture. The Qing dynasty of China made Taipeh the temporary capital of Fujian-Taiwan Province in 1886 when Taiwan was separated from Fujian Province, Taipeh was formally made the provincial capital in 1894. Japan acquired Taiwan in 1895 under the Treaty of Shimonoseki after the First Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan became a colony of Imperial Japan with Taihoku as its capital, in which the city was administered under Taihoku Prefecture. Taiwans Japanese rulers embarked on a program of advanced urban planning that featured extensive railroad links. A number of Taipei landmarks and cultural institutions date from this period, following the Japanese surrender of 1945, control of Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China. In 1990 Taipei provided the backdrop for the Wild Lily student rallies that moved Taiwanese society from one-party rule to multi-party democracy, the city is today home to Taiwans democratically elected national government. The region known as the Taipei Basin was home to Ketagalan tribes before the eighteenth century, Han Chinese mainly from Fujian Province of Qing dynasty China began to settle in the Taipei Basin in 1709. In 1875, the part of Taiwan was separated from Taiwan Prefecture. From 1875 until the beginning of Japanese rule in 1895, Taipei was part of Tamsui County of Taipeh Prefecture, in 1885, work commenced to create an independent Taiwan Province, and Taipei City was temporarily made the provincial capital. Taipei officially became the capital of Taiwan in 1894, all that remains from the Qing era is the north gate
4.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
5.
Coronation
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The ceremony can also be conducted for the monarchs consort, either simultaneously with the monarch or as a separate event. A ceremony without the placement of a crown on the head is known as an enthronement. Coronations are still observed in the United Kingdom, Tonga, in addition to investing the monarch with symbols of state, Western-style coronations have often traditionally involve anointing with holy oil, or chrism as it is often called. Wherever a ruler is anointed in this way, as in Great Britain and Tonga, some other lands use bathing or cleansing rites, the drinking of a sacred beverage, or other religious practices to achieve a comparable effect. Such acts symbolise the granting of divine favour to the monarch within the relevant spiritual-religious paradigm of the country, in the past, concepts of royalty, coronation and deity were often inexorably linked. Rome promulgated the practice of worship, in Medieval Europe. Coronations were once a direct expression of these alleged connections. Thus, coronations have often been discarded altogether or altered to reflect the nature of the states in which they are held. However, some monarchies still choose to retain an overtly religious dimension to their accession rituals, others have adopted simpler enthronement or inauguration ceremonies, or even no ceremony at all. In non-Christian states, coronation rites evolved from a variety of sources, buddhism, for instance, influenced the coronation rituals of Thailand, Cambodia and Bhutan, while Hindu elements played a significant role in Nepalese rites. The ceremonies used in modern Egypt, Malaysia, Brunei and Iran were shaped by Islam, Coronations, in one form or another, have existed since ancient times. Egyptian records show coronation scenes, such as that of Seti I in 1290 BC, judeo-Christian scriptures testify to particular rites associated with the conferring of kingship, the most detailed accounts of which are found in II Kings 11,12 and II Chronicles 23,11. Following the assumption of the diadem by Constantine, Roman and Byzantine emperors continued to wear it as the symbol of their authority. Although no specific coronation ceremony was observed at first, one gradually evolved over the following century, the emperor Julian was hoisted upon a shield and crowned with a gold necklace provided by one of his standard-bearers, he later wore a jewel-studded diadem. Later emperors were crowned and acclaimed in a manner, until the momentous decision was taken to permit the Patriarch of Constantinople to physically place the crown on the emperors head. Historians debate when exactly this first took place, but the precedent was established by the reign of Leo II. This ritual included recitation of prayers by the Byzantine prelate over the crown, after this event, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the ecclesiastical element in the coronation ceremonial rapidly develop. This was usually performed three times, following this, the king was given a spear, and a diadem wrought of silk or linen was bound around his forehead as a token of regal authority
6.
Emperor Renzong of Song
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Emperor Renzong of Song, personal name Zhao Zhen, was the fourth emperor of the Song dynasty in China. He reigned for about 41 years from 1022 to his death in 1063 and he was the sixth son of his predecessor, Emperor Zhenzong, and was succeeded by his cousins son, Emperor Yingzong, because his own sons died prematurely. His original personal name was Zhao Shouyi but it was changed by decree in 1018 to Zhao Zhen. Compared to other famous Chinese emperors, Emperor Renzong is not widely known and his reign marked the high point of Song influence and power but was also the beginning of its slow disintegration that would persist over the next century and a half. One possible reason behind its weakness is its interpretation of its own foreign policy, the official policy of the Song Empire at the time was one of pacifism and this caused the weakening of its military. The Tangut-led Western Xia state took advantage of this deterioration and waged small scale wars against the Song Empire near the borders, however, these policies involved a heavy price. Taxes were increased severely and the lived in a state of perpetual poverty. This eventually caused organised rebellions to take throughout the country. However, according to the records of History of Song, Renzong was considered to be merciful, tolerant, modest and frugal, one popular folk story of him was about that Emperor Renzong felt hungry one night and was eager to eat mutton. Renzong ordered that officers of government must be cautious to use death penalty. Renzong once said to his ministers that, I have never used the word death to scold others. During Emperor Renzongs reign, the culture of Song Dynasty, especially literature, many most famous litterateurs and poets in Chinese history lived or started their creating careers during his reign, such as Fan Zhongyan, Ouyang Xiu and Mei Yaochen. In the 2nd year of Jiayou, the Imperial Examination enrolled some students who became even world-famous in the future, including Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zeng Gong and so on. They then became the most important litterateurs in Chinese history and began a new era of Chinese literature, Emperor Renzong elevated the 46th-generation descendants of Confucius to the current title of Duke Yansheng. They were previously of lower noble ranks, according to the 14th-century classical novel Water Margin, the first 27 years of Emperor Renzongs reign were known as the Era of Three Abundances. But this was followed by a plague around the year 1048 that decimated the population. It was only the prayers of the priests from the Taoist sect Way of the Celestial Masters that eventually lifted this pestilence. The imperial emissary who had sent to the Taoist monastery recklessly entered the Suppression of Demons Hall
7.
Emperor Shenzong of Song
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Emperor Shenzong of Song, personal name Zhao Xu, was the sixth emperor of the Song dynasty in China. His original personal name was Zhao Zhongzhen but he changed it to Zhao Xu after his coronation and he reigned from 1067 until his death in 1085. During his reign, Emperor Shenzong became interested in Wang Anshis policies, Wang implemented his famous New Policies aimed at improving the situation for the peasantry and unemployed, which some have seen as a forerunner of the modern welfare state. These acts became the hallmark reform of Emperor Shenzongs reign, Emperor Shenzong sent failed campaigns against the Vietnamese ruler Lý Nhân Tông of the Lý dynasty in 1076. Emperor Shenzongs other notable act as emperor was his attempt to weaken the Tangut-led Western Xia state by invading and expelling the Western Xia forces from Gansu Province. The Song army was quite successful at these campaigns, but during the battle for the city of Yongle, in 1082. As a result, Western Xia grew more powerful and subsequently continued to be a thorn in the side of the Song Empire over the ensuing decades and this book records historical events from the Zhou dynasty to the Song dynasty. Aside from the ancient Roman embassies to Han and Three-Kingdoms era China, however, from Chinese records it is known that Michael VII Doukas of Fo lin dispatched a diplomatic mission to Chinas Song dynasty that arrived in 1081, during the reign of Emperor Shenzong. Emperor Shenzong died in 1085 at the age of 36 and was succeeded by his son, Emperor Shenzongs younger sister was married to Wang Shen. Wang Anshi Shen Kuo List of emperors of the Song dynasty Song dynasty
8.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
9.
House of Zhao
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The House of Zhao was the imperial clan of the Song Empire of China. The House of Zhao originated from the Zhao family of Zhuo Commandery and this Zhao family has a long history since the Spring and Autumn period. The Song dynasty Emperors hailed from the Guandong Zhao while the Longxi Li produced the Tang Emperors, the founder of the Song Empire, Zhao Kuangyin, was born in a military family. His father, Zhao Hongyin, moved from Zhuo Commandery to Luoyang, Zhao Kuangyin also had an elder brother Zhao Guangji, two younger brothers Zhao Kuangyi and Zhao Guangmei, and two younger sisters. During the reign of Emperor Zhenzong, the Yellow Emperor was claimed to be as an ancestor of the Song emperors, Zhao Kuangyin started his military career under the Later Han dynasty. However, he changed his stance, and came to serve Chai Rong. He also persuaded his father, who was a Later Han general and this caused the decline and collapse of the Later Han. With Chai Rongs trust, Zhao Kuangyin was assigned to be a guardian for Chai Rongs seven-year-old son, Guo Zongxun, through years of effort, Zhao Kuangyin conquered other rival states in the south and unified them under his newly established Song Empire. In order to prevent a military coup from happening again and to strengthen civilian control over the military, Zhao Kuangyin dismissed his generals. This inadvertently resulted in the Song Empire having a weak military later, Zhao Kuangyin reigned for 17 years and died suddenly and suspiciously in 976 at the age of 49. His younger brother, Zhao Kuangyi became the new emperor and it was suspected that Zhao Kuangyi murdered his brother for the throne, and did the same to his two nephews to prevent them from seizing the throne. The subsequent emperors – Emperor Zhenzong through Emperor Gaozong – were all descendants of Zhao Kuangyi, until Emperor Gaozong passed the throne to Zhao Shen, nevertheless, the Song Empire still thrived under Zhao Kuangyi s reign. But the threats of northern nomadic empires, such as the Khitan-led Liao Empire, Jurchen-led Jin Empire, on 20 March 1127, the Song capital, Bianjing fell to Jin forces during the Jin–Song Wars. After several days looting and raping, the Emperors Huizong and Qinzong, along with most of their members, were captured and taken to the Jin capital, Shangjing. This event is known as the Jingkang Incident. Many of these died from illness, hunger, torture. Some of them committed suicide to avoid being humiliated by the Jurchens, Emperor Huizongs ninth son, Zhao Gou, escaped from Bianjing and fled to southern China, where he reestablished the Song Empire with its capital at Linan and himself as the new emperor. As his only son died prematurely, Emperor Gaozong had to pass his throne to Zhao Shen, the imperial lineage now went back to Zhao Kuangyins line
10.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
11.
Standard Chinese
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Its pronunciation is based on the Beijing dialect, its vocabulary on the Mandarin dialects, and its grammar is based on written vernacular Chinese. Like other varieties of Chinese, Standard Chinese is a language with topic-prominent organization. It has more initial consonants but fewer vowels, final consonants, Standard Chinese is an analytic language, though with many compound words. There exist two standardised forms of the language, namely Putonghua in Mainland China and Guoyu in Taiwan, aside from a number of differences in pronunciation and vocabulary, Putonghua is written using simplified Chinese characters, while Guoyu is written using traditional Chinese characters. There are many characters that are identical between the two systems, in English, the governments of China and Hong Kong use Putonghua, Putonghua Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, and Mandarin, while those of Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia, use Mandarin. The name Putonghua also has a long, albeit unofficial, history and it was used as early as 1906 in writings by Zhu Wenxiong to differentiate a modern, standard Chinese from classical Chinese and other varieties of Chinese. For some linguists of the early 20th century, the Putonghua, or common tongue/speech, was different from the Guoyu. The former was a prestige variety, while the latter was the legal standard. Based on common understandings of the time, the two were, in fact, different, Guoyu was understood as formal vernacular Chinese, which is close to classical Chinese. By contrast, Putonghua was called the speech of the modern man. The use of the term Putonghua by left-leaning intellectuals such as Qu Qiubai, prior to this, the government used both terms interchangeably. In Taiwan, Guoyu continues to be the term for Standard Chinese. The term Putonghua, on the contrary, implies nothing more than the notion of a lingua franca, Huayu, or language of the Chinese nation, originally simply meant Chinese language, and was used in overseas communities to contrast Chinese with foreign languages. Over time, the desire to standardise the variety of Chinese spoken in these communities led to the adoption of the name Huayu to refer to Mandarin and it also incorporates the notion that Mandarin is usually not the national or common language of the areas in which overseas Chinese live. The term Mandarin is a translation of Guānhuà, which referred to the lingua franca of the late Chinese empire, in English, Mandarin may refer to the standard language, the dialect group as a whole, or to historic forms such as the late Imperial lingua franca. The name Modern Standard Mandarin is sometimes used by linguists who wish to distinguish the current state of the language from other northern. Chinese has long had considerable variation, hence prestige dialects have always existed. Confucius, for example, used yǎyán rather than colloquial regional dialects, rime books, which were written since the Northern and Southern dynasties, may also have reflected one or more systems of standard pronunciation during those times
12.
Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
13.
Traditional Chinese characters
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Traditional Chinese characters are Chinese characters in any character set that does not contain newly created characters or character substitutions performed after 1946. They are most commonly the characters in the character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong. Currently, a number of overseas Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between both sets. In contrast, simplified Chinese characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, the debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters has been a long-running issue among Chinese communities. Although simplified characters are taught and endorsed by the government of Mainland China, Traditional characters are used informally in regions in China primarily in handwriting and also used for inscriptions and religious text. They are often retained in logos or graphics to evoke yesteryear, nonetheless, the vast majority of media and communications in China is dominated by simplified characters. Taiwan has never adopted Simplified Chinese characters since it is ruled by the Republic of China, the use of simplified characters in official documents is even prohibited by the government in Taiwan. Simplified characters are not well understood in general, although some stroke simplifications that have incorporated into Simplified Chinese are in common use in handwriting. For example, while the name of Taiwan is written as 臺灣, similarly, in Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese has been the legal written form since colonial times. In recent years, because of the influx of mainland Chinese tourists, today, even government websites use simplified Chinese, as they answer to the Beijing government. This has led to concerns by residents to protect their local heritage. In Southeast Asia, the Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative regarding simplification, while major public universities are teaching simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications like the Chinese Commercial News, World News, and United Daily News still use traditional characters, on the other hand, the Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified. Aside from local newspapers, magazines from Hong Kong, such as the Yazhou Zhoukan, are found in some bookstores. In case of film or television subtitles on DVD, the Chinese dub that is used in Philippines is the same as the one used in Taiwan and this is because the DVDs belongs to DVD Region Code 3. Hence, most of the subtitles are in Traditional Characters, overseas Chinese in the United States have long used traditional characters. A major influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States occurred during the half of the 19th century. Therefore, the majority of Chinese language signage in the United States, including street signs, Traditional Chinese characters are called several different names within the Chinese-speaking world
14.
Simplified Chinese characters
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Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters for use in mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of the two character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language. The government of the Peoples Republic of China in mainland China has promoted them for use in printing since the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to increase literacy and they are officially used in the Peoples Republic of China and Singapore. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong, Macau. Overseas Chinese communities generally tend to use traditional characters, Simplified Chinese characters may be referred to by their official name above or colloquially. Strictly, the latter refers to simplifications of character structure or body, character forms that have existed for thousands of years alongside regular, Simplified character forms were created by decreasing the number of strokes and simplifying the forms of a sizable proportion of traditional Chinese characters. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms embodying graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms, some characters were simplified by applying regular rules, for example, by replacing all occurrences of a certain component with a simplified version of the component. Variant characters with the pronunciation and identical meaning were reduced to a single standardized character. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification, and are identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. Some simplified characters are very dissimilar to and unpredictably different from traditional characters and this often leads opponents not well-versed in the method of simplification to conclude that the overall process of character simplification is also arbitrary. In reality, the methods and rules of simplification are few, on the other hand, proponents of simplification often flaunt a few choice simplified characters as ingenious inventions, when in fact these have existed for hundreds of years as ancient variants. However, the Chinese government never officially dropped its goal of further simplification in the future, in August 2009, the PRC began collecting public comments for a modified list of simplified characters. The new Table of General Standard Chinese Characters consisting of 8,105 characters was promulgated by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China on June 5,2013, cursive written text almost always includes character simplification. Simplified forms used in print have always existed, they date back to as early as the Qin dynasty, One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lubi Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China, Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and it was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Fu Sinian, a leader of the May Fourth Movement, called Chinese characters the writing of ox-demons, lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die. Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the problems in China during that time
15.
Chinese name
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Chinese personal names are names used by those from mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and the Chinese diaspora overseas. Prior to the 20th century, educated Chinese also utilized a courtesy name or style name called zi by which they were known among those outside of their family and closest friends. From at least the time of the Shang dynasty, the Han Chinese observed a number of naming taboos regulating who may or may not use a given name. In general, using the given name connoted the speakers authority, peers and younger relatives were barred from speaking it. Owing to this, many historical Chinese figures – particularly emperors – used a half-dozen or more different names in different contexts and those possessing names identical to the emperors were frequently forced to change them. Although some terms in the ancient Chinese naming system, such as xìng and míng, are used today, they were used in different. Commoners possessed only a name, and the modern concept of a surname or family name did not yet exist at any level of society.3 billion citizens. In fact, just the top three – Wang, Li, and Zhang – cover more than 20% of the population. This homogeneity results from the majority of Han family names having only one character. Chinese surnames arose from two separate traditions, the xìng and the shì. The original xìng were clans of royalty at the Shang court, the shì did not originate from families, but denoted fiefs, states, and titles granted or recognized by the Shang court. Apart from the Jiang and Yao families, the original xìng have nearly disappeared, xìng is now used to describe the shì surnames which replaced them, while shì is used to refer to maiden names. The enormous modern clans sometimes share ancestral halls with one another, nonetheless, however tenuous these bonds sometimes are, it remains a minor taboo to marry someone with the same family name. In modern mainland China, it is the norm that a woman keeps her name unchanged. A child usually inherits his/her fathers surname, though the law explicitly states that a child may use either parents or the grandparents. It is also possible, though far less common, for a child to both parents surnames. In the older generations, it was common for a married woman to prepend her husbands surname to her own. This practice is now almost extinct in mainland China, though there are a few such as the name change of Gu Kailai, but survives in some Hong Kong, Macau
16.
Chinese surname
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Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames existed, namely xing or lineage names, and shi or clan names, Chinese family names are patrilineal, passed from father to children. Women do not normally change their surnames upon marriage, except in places with more Western influences such as Hong Kong, traditionally Chinese surnames have been exogamous. The colloquial expressions laobaixing and bǎixìng are used in Chinese to mean ordinary folks, prior to the Warring States period, only the ruling families and the aristocratic elite had surnames. Historically there was also a difference between clan names or xing and lineages names or shi, Xing were surnames held by the noble clans. They generally are composed of a nü radical which has taken by some as evidence they originated from matriarchal societies based on maternal lineages. Another hypothesis has been proposed by sinologist Léon Vandermeersch upon observation of the evolution of characters in oracular scripture from the Shang dynasty through the Zhou, the female radical seems to appear at the Zhou period next to Shang sinograms indicating an ethnic group or a tribe. This combination seems to designate specifically a female and could mean lady of such or such clan, prior to the Qin Dynasty China was largely a fengjian society. In this way, a nobleman would hold a shi and a xing, after the states of China were unified by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC, surnames gradually spread to the lower classes and the difference between xing and shi blurred. Many shi surnames survive to the present day, according to Kiang Kang-Hu, there are 18 sources from which Chinese surnames may be derived, while others suggested at least 24. The following are some of the sources, Xing, These were usually reserved for the central lineage of the royal family. Of these xings, only Jiang and Yao have survived in their form to modern days as frequently occurring surnames. Royal decree by the Emperor, such as Kuang, state name, Many nobles and commoners took the name of their state, either to show their continuing allegiance or as a matter of national and ethnic identity. These are some of the most common Chinese surnames, name of a fief or place of origin, Fiefdoms were often granted to collateral branches of the aristocracy and it was natural as part of the process of sub-surnaming for their names to be used. An example is Di, Marquis of Ouyangting, whose descendants took the surname Ouyang, there are some two hundred examples of this identified, often of two-character surnames, but few have survived to the present. Names of an ancestor, Like the previous example, this was also a common origin with close to 500 or 600 examples,200 of which are two-character surnames, often an ancestors courtesy name would be used. For example, Yuan Taotu took the character of his grandfathers courtesy name Boyuan as his surname. Sometimes titles granted to ancestors could also be taken as surnames, seniority within the family, In ancient usage, the characters of meng, zhong, shu and ji were used to denote the first, second, third and fourth eldest sons in a family
17.
Zhao (surname)
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Zhao is the 1st surname in the famous Hundred Family Surnames – the traditional list of all Chinese surnames – because it was the emperors surname of the Song Dynasty when the list was compiled. The romanized spelling is shared with the much rarer family name Zhào, Zhao is one of the most ancient of Chinese surnames, and its origins are partly shrouded in legend. During the reign of King Mu of Zhou, an officer named Zaofu proved exceptionally adept at training horses and driving chariots and won the respect of King Mu. During a battle with the state of Xu, an ethnically different state which was resisting Zhou rule, Zaofu drove a chariot into the battle. In gratitude, King Mu enfeoffed Zaofu as the lord of Zhao, zaofus descendants took Zhao as a surname to mark their prestigious association with the city. Records such as Sima Qians Records of the Grand Historian say that Zaofu was a descendant of legendary kings Zhuanxu, Shaohao, the town Zhao became part of the state of Jin during the Warring States period, when the Zhou Dynasty began to collapse. In 403 BC, Jin split into three states, one of which was the state of Zhao. During this period, the ancestral name Ying split into 14 clan names, Lian, Xu, Jiang, Qin, Zhao, Huang, Liang, Ma, Ge, Gu, Mou, Zhong, Fei. The Zhao clan rulers of State of Qin and State of Zhao were highly successful, the Zhao name experienced a great revival after Zhao Kuangyin became the first emperor of the Song Dynasty in 960 AD, leading to 300 years of Zhao rule over China. Rimer, J. Thomas and Yamazaki Masakazu trans, on the Art of the Nō Drama, The Major Treatises of Zeami. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, the Ancient Refugees From Religious Persecution in Japan, The Tribe of Hada – Their Religious and Cultural Influence. Shinsen Shōjiroku 出自秦始皇帝三世孫孝武王也 McCullough, William H, the Cambridge History of Japan, Volume 2, Heian Japan. The Cambridge History of Japan, Volume 2, Heian Japan, ben Ami-Shillony, The Jews and the Japanese, The Successful Outsiders, pp. 135–7 Dual origins of the Japanese, common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes
18.
Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279. It succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, coincided with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties and it was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass, the Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods, Northern and Southern. During the Northern Song, the Song capital was in the city of Bianjing. The Southern Song refers to the period after the Song lost control of its half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin–Song Wars. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze, the Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder, in 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and his younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Emperor of China, after two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khans armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279. The Mongol invasion led to a reunification under the Yuan dynasty, the population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and this data is found in the Standard Histories. However, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people and this dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in pre-modern China. The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and the emergence of a national economy led to the withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lower gentry assumed a role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the gentry for their services, sponsorship. Social life during the Song was vibrant, citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the expansion of woodblock printing. Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished over the course of the Song, although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period
19.
Emperor Zhenzong
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Emperor Zhenzong of Song, personal name Zhao Heng, was the third emperor of the Song dynasty in China. He reigned from 997 to his death in 1022 and his personal name was originally Zhao Dechang, but was changed to Zhao Yuanxiu in 983, Zhao Yuankan in 986, and finally Zhao Heng in 995. He was the son of his predecessor, Emperor Taizong. Emperor Zhenzongs reign was noted for the consolidation of power and the strengthening of the Song Empire, the empire prospered, and its military might was further reinforced. However, it would mark the beginning of a foreign policy towards the Khitan-led Liao dynasty in the north that would ultimately result in humiliation. In 1004, the Khitans waged war against the Song Empire, Emperor Zhenzong, leading his army, struck back at the Khitans. Despite initial successes, in 1005, Emperor Zhenzong concluded the Shanyuan Treaty, the admission of inferiority would come to plague the foreign affairs of the Song Empire, while the payments slowly depleted the empires coffers. He was responsible for ordering the shipment of 30,000 bushels of quick-maturing rice seed from the Fujian Province to the lower Yangtze basin in 1011–1012, Emperor Zhenzong stressed the importance of Taoism at his imperial court. It was during his reign that the so-called Heavenly Texts, which glorified the Zhao family, were allegedly discovered and this was followed up by imperial sacrificial ceremonies carried out at Mount Tai. From 1013 to 1015, the emperor issued official decrees deifying the Jade Emperor as the highest ruler of Heaven, Champa rice was introduced to China from Champa during Emperor Zhenzongs reign. Among the artifacts were a white marble tablet from the Tang dynasty, gold nails, and bands made out of metal. It was not until after Ma died, that his wife went to Taiwan in 1971 from the United States to bring the artifacts to Chiang Kai-shek, who turned them over to the Taipei National Palace Museum
20.
Empress Gao (Song dynasty)
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Empress Gao was a Chinese Empress consort of the Song Dynasty, married to Emperor Yingzong of Song. She served as the regent of China during the minority of her grandson, Emperor Zhezong of Song, Gao was from Mencheng in Hao province. She was the niece of her predecessor, her maternal aunt Empress Cao and she was chosen as the principal consort of the heir apparent by her aunt, and Empress Cao. She had four sons and four daughters, in 1063, Emperor Yingzong succeeded Emperor Renzong, and Gao became Empress. In 1067, her spouse was succeeded by her son, Emperor Shenzong of Song and her tenure as empress consort and empress dowager was undistinguished, and she had no power or influence during the reign of her spouse or son. During her son Shenzongs reign, she opposed the policy of Wang Anshi. Upon the death of her son Shenzong in 1085, her under age grandson became Emperor Zhezong of Song and she was elevated to Grand Empress Dowager and became regent of China during the minority of her grandson. As Regent, Gao appointed conservatives such as Sima Guang as Chancellor and she was known to be strict toward her own relatives and refused to promote them to official posts during her reign. She has been recommended for her intelligence and good judgement in choosing officials. Her government has been praised for restoring stability and keeping peace to the realm, in 1092, she selected Empress Meng to be the empress of her grandson. Gao was unwilling to retire when the reached the age of seventeen. Her grandson the emperor favored the reformists of his father and resented both the conservatism and domineering ways of his grandmother, Gao kept her position of regent until her death. On her deathbed, she advised her officials to retire, lily Xiao Hong Lee, Sue Wiles, Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women, Volume II, Tang Through Ming 618 -1644
21.
Empress Cao (Song dynasty)
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Empress Cao was a Chinese Empress consort of the Song Dynasty, married to Emperor Renzong of Song. She served as regent of China during the illness of Emperor Yingzong, Cao was born in modern Hebei Province. She was the granddaughter of Cao Bin, one of the generals of the Song Dynasty. In 1033, after the death of Empress Dowager Liu, Renzong, against the advice of his officials, deposed his 1st empress, the childless Empress Guo, in September 1034, he made Cao his 2nd empress. She was fond of gardening, and reared silk worms, Empress Cao was respected by state officials, who did not oppose her to assist the Emperor in governing the state during his illnesses, and attended to state affairs by his side. In 1048, an uprising of the Imperial guards took place in her personal palace against the Emperor, the Emperor initially blamed Cao for the uprising because it had taken place in her palace. However, he accepted the result of the investigation, which concluded that the rumor that Cao had been behind the uprising was slander. Empress Cao had no children, and in 1036, the Emperor adopted his four year old cousin, the future Emperor Yingzong, Cao became the foster mother of the Crown Prince, and she also selected her niece, the future Empress Gao, to become her daughter-in-law. In 1063, her son, Emperor Yingzong, succeeded spouse as Emperor. Shortly after his succession, however, he became ill. Empress Dowager Cao accepted and ruled China as regent for a little over a year and she gave audience to the Councillors behind a lowered screen in a smaller hall rather than in the main throne hall, and she was not given Imperial prerogatives. When the Emperor recovered in 1064, the officials asked her to step down from regency and let him govern by himself, but she refused. Her opponent prime minister Han Qi then removed the screen from the hall while the court was in session. In 1067, Emperor Shenzong succeeded to the throne, and Cao was given the title Grand Empress Dowager, Shenzong was sometimes willing to listen to her advice, and she managed to have the imprisonment of the conservative poet Su Shi transformed to exile
22.
Ouyang Xiu
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Ouyang Xiu, courtesy name Yongshu, was a Chinese statesman, historian, essayist, calligrapher and poet of the Song Dynasty. Ouyang was one of the players in the Qingli Reforms of the 1040s and was in charge of creating the New History of the Tang Dynasty. He was also regarded as one of the masters of prose of the Tang and Song era. He was also a writer of both shi and ci poetry. He was born in Jishui, Jiangxi where his father was a judge, though his family comes from present day Jishui and his family was relatively poor, not coming from one of the old great lineages of Chinese society. Losing his father when he was three, his mother was responsible for much of his early education. He was unable to afford traditional tutoring and was largely self-taught, the writings of Han Yu, a literatus from the late Tang Dynasty were particularly influential in his development. He passed the jinshi exam in 1030 on his third attempt at the age of 22. In his youth, be became somewhat notorious for a personal life, including frequenting pleasure quarters. At the same time, he associated with like-minded scholar officials, with whom he regularly exchanged ideas on philosophy. He preferred guwen from an early age, by the age of thirty, he gave up the impulses of his youth and expressed regret at coming to an understanding of the Way rather late. After passing the exam, he was appointed to a judgeship in Luoyang. While there, he found others with his interest in the ancient prose of Han Yu, politically, he was an early patron of the political reformer Wang Anshi, but later became one of his strongest opponents. At court, he was much loved and deeply resented at the same time. In 1034 he was appointed to be a collator of texts at the Imperial Academy in Kaifeng where he was associated with Fan Zhongyan, Fan was demoted, however, after criticizing the Chief Councillor and submitting proposals for reform in promoting and demoting officials. Ouyang than submitted a critique of Fan’s principle critic at court, while he earned a demotion to Western Hubei for his troubles, he won praise as a principled official and led to his being a central figure in the growing reform faction. Threats from the Liao Dynasty and Xi Xia in the north in 1040 caused Fan Zhongyan to come back into favor and he brought Ouyang with him by offering him a choice position on his staff. Ouyang’s refusal won him praise as a principled public servant who was not willing to take advantage of connections
23.
Emperor Xiaozong of Song
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Emperor Xiaozong of Song, personal name Zhao Shen, courtesy name Yuanyong, was the 11th emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the second emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He started his reign in 1162 when his father and predecessor, Emperor Gaozong. Zhao Shens birth name was Zhao Bocong, in March 1133, after he entered the imperial palace, his name was changed to Zhao Yuan. In April 1160, after he was adopted by Emperor Gaozong, in July 1162, when Zhao Shen became crown prince, his name was changed again to Zhao Shen. Zhao Shen was given the courtesy name Yuangui in May 1160, in July 1162, when he became crown prince, his courtesy name was changed to Yuanyong. Zhao Shen was a descendant of Emperor Taizu, the founder. He was the son of Zhao Zicheng, a sixth cousin of Emperor Gaozong. After the Jingkang Incident in 1127, Emperor Gaozongs father, eldest brother, as Emperor Gaozongs only son, Zhao Fu, died prematurely around the age of two, the emperor ordered his officials to start searching for other living descendants of the imperial family. Zhao Shen was discovered and adopted by Emperor Gaozong in April 1160 as a son, in July 1162, Emperor Gaozong officially designated Zhao Shen as his crown prince and heir apparent. Archery and equestrianism were required for non-military officials at the Military College in 1162 during Emperor Xiaozongs reign, volumes 33–35, Biography of Emperor Xiaozong
24.
Ming dynasty
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The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China – then known as the Empire of the Great Ming – for 276 years following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming, described by some as one of the greatest eras of orderly government, although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng, regimes loyal to the Ming throne – collectively called the Southern Ming – survived until 1683. He rewarded his supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia, the rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances, the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade, haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from Japanese pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. The growth of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced an influx of Japanese. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was defeated by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty, consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han Chinese groups revolted, including the Red Turbans in 1351, the Red Turbans were affiliated with the White Lotus, a Buddhist secret society. Zhu Yuanzhang was a peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352. In 1356, Zhus rebel force captured the city of Nanjing, with the Yuan dynasty crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, Chen Youliang, in the Battle of Lake Poyang, arguably the largest naval battle in history. Known for its ambitious use of ships, Zhus force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful Yangtze River Valley, Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or Vastly Martial, as his era name. Hongwu made an effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km long wall around Nanjing, as well as new palaces, Hongwu organized a military system known as the weisuo, which was similar to the fubing system of the Tang dynasty. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the Jinyiwei, some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule
25.
Emperor Taizong of Song
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Emperor Taizong of Song, personal name Zhao Jiong, was the second emperor of the Song dynasty in China. He reigned from 976 to his death in 997 and he was a younger brother of his predecessor, Emperor Taizu. His personal name was originally Zhao Kuangyi but he changed it to Zhao Guangyi in 960, Emperor Taizong is remembered as a hardworking and diligent emperor. He paid great attention to the welfare of his people and made the Song Empire more prosperous and he also reunified China proper by conquering Northern Han, the last kingdom in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Emperor Taizong succeeded the throne in 976 after the death of his brother, Emperor Taizu. It is rather unusual in Chinese history for a rather than the son to succeed the throne. She reportedly asked Emperor Taizu, Do you know why you came to power and it was because Later Zhou had a seven-year-old emperor. The so-called Golden Shelf Promise was also recorded and sealed, by secretary Zhao Pu. Emperor Taizus eldest son, Zhao Dezhao, was already 25 years old in 976, also suspicious is that Zhao Pu, banished in 973 by Emperor Taizu for allegations of corruption, returned to the capital in 976 and was made the chancellor in 977. Wen Ying, a Buddhist monk who lived in the era of Emperor Taizongs grandson, Emperor Renzong, according to this account, he was dining and drinking with Emperor Taizong, then still the Prince of Kaifeng, beside some candles. Palace eunuchs and maids standing in a saw that Emperor Taizongs shadow on the window moved a lot. It was getting late and several inches of snow have fallen on the inside of the hall, then they heard an axe chopping the snow, with Emperor Taizu saying, Do it right. Soon enough Emperor Taizu was heard snoring, several hours later, he was pronounced dead by his brother, who spent the night in his palace. This legend has been referred to as sound of the axe in the shadow of the flickering candle, modern historians were unable to find any concrete evidence suggesting murder, however they generally accept that the Golden Shelf Promise as fraud fabricated by Emperor Taizong and Zhao Pu. Also worth mentioning is the suicide of Zhao Dezhao, Emperor Taizus eldest son, upon hearing that, Emperor Taizong did not award the troops when they returned. When Zhao Dezhao asked him, Emperor Taizong barked back, You do that when you become the new emperor, according to this account, Zhao Dezhao immediately went to his palace and killed himself. Emperor Taizus second son, Zhao Defang, died in 981 from an unidentified illness, just 22, he was unusually young. During the same year, Emperors Taizong and Taizus younger brother, Zhao Tingmei, was stripped of his title Prince of Qi
26.
Architecture of the Song dynasty
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The architecture of the Song dynasty was noted for its towering Buddhist pagodas, enormous stone and wooden bridges, lavish tombs, and extravagant palaces. The professions of architect, master craftsman, carpenter, and structural engineer did not have the status of the Confucian scholar-officials during the dynastic era. Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years, there were also government agencies and schools for construction, building, and engineering. The Song dynastys building manuals aided not only the private workshops. The outer city of ancient Bianjing was built during the reign of Emperor Shenzong to a plan, almost square in proportions. The south wall had three gates, with Nanxun Gate in the center, Chenzhou Gate to the east, and this method of using bracket assemblies to support superstructure was specified in Li Jies 12th-century building manual Yingzao Fashi as pingzuo. The city wall itself was built with rammed earth, a technique also detailed in Yingzao Fashi, vol. III, Standards for Moat, Stronghold and Masonry Work, Foundation, For every square chi, apply two dan of earth, on top of it lay a mixture of brick, tile and crushed stones. Following this, tamp the surface with pestles or stamp with feet randomly to even out the surface, every five-cun layer of earth should be compressed to three cun, every three-cun layer of brick and stone to one and a half cun. Rammed-earth walls during this time were tapered, the thickness of the wall is greatest at the base and decreases steadily with increasing height, as detailed in Li Jies book. During the Song dynasty, the city of Bianjing had three enclosures, the city wall, the inner city wall, and the palace at the center. The inner city was rectangular, with three doors on each side, the palace enclosure was also rectangular, with a watch tower on each of the four corners. It had four gates, Xihua Gate to the west, Donghua Gate to the east, Gongchen Gate to the north. There were also two glazed dragons, each biting an end of the ridge, its tail pointing to the sky. However, they misnamed it sparrow-hawk tail, running southward from Xuande Gate was the Imperial Boulevard, about two hundred paces wide, with the Imperial Corridors on either side. Merchants opened shops in the Corridors until 1112, when they were banned, two rows of black fencing were placed at the center of the boulevard as a barrier to pedestrians and carriages. Along the inner sides of the fences ran the brick-lined Imperial Water Furrows, about 400 m south from Xuande Gate, the Bian River intercepted the Imperial Boulevard, which crossed it over the stone Zhou Bridge, balustraded and flat-decked. This design of a boulevard with a bridge crossing a river was later imitated in the Forbidden City
27.
Culture of the Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty was a culturally rich and sophisticated age for China. There was blossoming of and advancements in the arts, music, literature. Appreciation of art among the gentry class flourished during the Song dynasty, especially in regard to paintings, trends in painting styles amongst the gentry notably shifted from the Northern to Southern Song periods, influenced in part by the gradual embrace of the Neo-Confucian political ideology at court. Chinese painting during the Song dynasty reached a new level of sophistication with further development of landscape painting, the shan shui style painting—shan meaning mountain, and shui meaning river—became prominent features in Chinese landscape art. The making of glazed and translucent porcelain and celadon wares with complex use of enamels was also developed further during the Song period, longquan celadon wares were particularly popular in the Song period. Black and red lacquerwares of the Song period featured beautifully carved artwork of miniature nature scenes, landscapes, by the beginning of the Song dynasty a distinctive landscape style had emerged. Artists mastered the formula of creating intricate and realistic scenes placed in the foreground, while the background retained qualities of vast, distant mountain peaks rise out of high clouds and mist, while streaming rivers run from afar into the foreground. There was a significant difference in painting trends between the Northern Song period and Southern Song period. On the other hand, Southern Song officials were interested in reforming society from the bottom up and on a much smaller scale. This change in attitude from one era to the next stemmed largely from the influence of Neo-Confucian philosophy. During the Song dynasty there were art collectors that would often meet in groups to discuss their own paintings, as well as rate those of their colleagues. The poet and statesman Su Shi and his accomplice Mi Fu often partook in these affairs, borrowing art pieces to study and copy, or if they really admired a piece then an exchange was often proposed. The small round paintings popular in the Southern Song were often collected into albums as poets would write poems along the side to match the theme and they were not to be considered real artists. However, during the Song period, there were many acclaimed court painters and they were esteemed by emperors. Emperor Gaozong of Song once commissioned an art project of numerous paintings for the Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, the Southern Song dynasty court painters included Zhao Mengjian, a member of the Imperial family, known for popularising the Three Friends of Winter. During the Song period Buddhism saw a revival since its persecution during the Tang dynasty. This could be seen in the construction of sculpture artwork at the Dazu Rock Carvings in Sichuan province. Chinese literature during the Song period contained a range of different genres and was enriched by the social complexity of the period
28.
Economy of the Song dynasty
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In north China, the main fuel source for ceramic kilns and iron furnaces shifted from wood to coal. During the Song dynasty, there was also an increase in commercial contacts with global markets. Merchants engaged in trade through investments in trading vessels and trade which reached ports as far away as East Africa. This period also witnessed the development of the worlds first banknote, or printed paper money, combined with a unified tax system and efficient trade routes by road and canal, this meant the development of a truly nationwide market. Regional specialization promoted economic efficiency and increased productivity, although much of the central governments treasury went to the military, taxes imposed on the rising commercial base refilled the coffers and further encouraged the monetary economy. Reformers and conservatives debated the role of government in the economy, the emperor and his government still took responsibility for the economy, but generally made fewer claims than in earlier dynasties. These changes made China a global leader, leading historians to call this an early modern economy many centuries before Western Europe made its breakthrough. Many of these gains were lost, however, in the succeeding Yuan dynasty. There was an expansion of ploughland during the Song dynasty. The government encouraged people to reclaim barren lands and put them under cultivation, anyone who opened up new lands and paid taxes were granted permanent possession of the new land. Under this policy, the land in the Song dynasty is estimated to have reached a peak number of 720 million mu. Irrigation of arable land was greatly fostered during this period. Prominent statesman and economist Wang Anshi issued the Law and Decree on Irrigation in 1069 that encouraged expansion of the system in China. By 1076, about 10,800 irrigation projects were completed, major irrigation projects included dredging the Yellow River at northern China and artificial silt land in the Lake Tai valley. As a result of policy, crop production in China tripled. Agricultural yields were about 2 tan of grain per mu during the Song dynasty, the economic development of China under the Song dynasty was marked by improvements in farm tools, seeds, and fertilizers. The Song inherited the plow innovations described in the Tang dynasty text The Classic of the Plow, the Song improved on the Tang curved iron plough and invented a special steel plough design specifically for reclaiming wasteland. A tool designed to facilitate seedling called seedling horse was invented under the Song, it was made of jujube wood, Song farms used bamboo water wheels to harness the flow energy of rivers to raise water for irrigation of farmland
29.
History of the Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty of China was a ruling dynasty that controlled China proper and southern China from the middle of the 10th century into the last quarter of the 13th century. However, it was also a period of political and military turmoil, with opposing and often aggressive political factions formed at court, the frontier management policies of the Chancellor Wang Anshi exacerbated hostile conditions along the Chinese-Vietnamese border, sparking a border war with the Lý dynasty. It was there that new naval strength was developed to combat the Jurchens Jin dynasty formed in the north, the Later Zhou was the last of the Five Dynasties that had controlled northern China after the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907. Zhao Kuangyin, later known as Emperor Taizu, usurped the throne from the Zhou with the support of commanders in 960. Upon taking the throne, his first goal was the reunification of China after half a century of political division. This included the conquests of Nanping, Wu-Yue, Southern Han, Later Shu, and Southern Tang in the south as well as the Northern Han and the Sixteen Prefectures in the north. With capable military officers such as Yang Ye, Liu Tingrang, Cao Bin and Huyan Zan, consolidation in the south was completed in 978, with the conquest of Wu-Yue. Song military forces then turned north against the Northern Han, which fell to Song forces in 979, however, efforts to take the Sixteen Prefectures were unsuccessful and they were incorporated into the Liao state based in Manchuria to the immediate north instead. Although the Song state was evenly matched against the Liao dynasty, after political consolidation through military conquest, Emperor Taizu held a famous banquet inviting many of the high-ranking military officers that had served him in Songs various conquests. As his military officers drank wine and feasted with Taizu, he spoke to them about the potential of a coup against him like those of Five Dynasties era. His military officers protested against this notion, and insisted that none were as qualified as him to lead the country, the passage of this account in the Song Shi follows as such, The emperor said, The life of man is short. Happiness is to have the wealth and means to enjoy life and this system of civilian rule led to a greater concentration of power in the central government headed by the emperor than had been possible during the previous dynasties. Although new municipal governments were established, the same number of prefectures and provinces were in existence as before the Song came to power. In 971, he ordered Lu Duosun to update and re-write all the Tu Jing in the world, nonetheless, he traveled throughout the provinces to collect illustrative gazetteers and as much data as possible. With the aid of Song Zhun, the work was completed in 1010. The later Song Shi historical text stated, Yuan Hsieh was Director-General of governmental grain stores. In pursuance of his schemes for the relief of famines he issued orders that each pao should prepare a map which would show the fields and mountains, the rivers and the roads in fullest detail. The maps of all the pao were joined together to make a map of the tu, and these in turn were joined with others to make a map of the hsiang, Taizu also displayed a strong interest in science and technology
30.
Society of the Song dynasty
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The inhabitants of rural areas were mostly farmers, although some were also hunters, fishers, or government employees working in mines or the salt marshes. In many ways, scholar-officials of the Song period differed from the more aristocratic scholar-officials of the Tang dynasty, civil service examinations became the primary means of appointment to an official post as competitors vying for official degrees dramatically increased. Frequent disagreements amongst ministers of state on ideological and policy issues led to political strife and this undermined the marriage strategies of the professional elite, which broke apart as a social group and gave way to a multitude of families which provided sons for civil service. The military also provided a means for advancement in Song society for those who became officers, although certain domestic and familial duties were expected of women in Song society, they nonetheless enjoyed a wide range of social and legal rights in an otherwise patriarchal society. Womens improved rights to property came gradually with the value of dowries offered by brides families. Daoism and Buddhism were the dominant religions of China in the Song era, ironically, Buddhism came under heavy criticism by staunch Confucian advocates and philosophers of the time. The Song justice system was maintained by policing sheriffs, investigators, official coroners, Song magistrates were encouraged to apply both their practical knowledge as well as the written law in making judicial decisions that would promote societal morality. Chinese cities of the Song period became some of the largest in the world, owing to technological advances and an agricultural revolution. Kaifeng, which served as the capital and seat of government during the Northern Song, had half a million residents in 1021. By 1100, the population within the city walls was 1,050,000. During the 13th century, the population soared to approximately a million people. With a thriving shipbuilding industry and new mining facilities, Fujian became the powerhouse of China during the Song period. The great seaport of China, Quanzhou, was located in Fujian, the inland Fujianese city of Jiankang was also very large at this time, with a population of about 200,000. From the 8th to 11th centuries the lower Yangzi Valley experienced modest population growth in comparison to other regions of South China, Chinas newly commercialized society was evident in the differences between its northern capital and the earlier Tang capital at Changan. A center of wealth, Changans importance as the political center eclipsed its importance as a commercial entrepôt. On the other hand, Kaifengs role as a center in China was as important as its political role. Shopkeepers and peddlers in Kaifeng began selling their goods at dawn, along the wide avenue of the Imperial Way, breakfast delicacies were sold in shops and stalls and peddlers offered hot water for washing the face at the entrances of bathhouses. Lively activity in the markets did not begin to wane until about the meal of the day, while noodle shops remained open all day
31.
Science and technology of the Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty provided some of the most significant technological advances in Chinese history, many of which came from talented statesmen drafted by the government through imperial examinations. The ingenuity of advanced mechanical engineering had a tradition in China. The application of movable type printing advanced the already widespread use of printing to educate and amuse Confucian students. Notable advances in engineering, nautics, and metallurgy were made in Song China. These advances, along with the introduction of paper-printed money, helped revolutionize, polymath geniuses – that is, people knowledgeable across an encyclopaedic range of topics – such as Shen Kuo and Su Song embodied the spirit of early empirical science and technology in the Song era. This allowed sailors to navigate the seas more accurately with the magnetic needle compass, Shen was made famous for his written description of Bi Sheng, the inventor of movable type printing. Shen was also interested in geology, as he formulated a theory of geomorphology, along with his colleague Wei Pu in the Bureau of Astronomy, Shen used cosmological hypotheses when describing the variations of planetary motion, including retrogradation. One of Shens greatest achievements, aided by Wei Pu, was correcting the error by diligently recording and plotting the moons orbital path three times a night over a period of five years. Unfortunately Shen had many political rivals at court who were determined to sabotage his work, the court fully accepted their corrections to lunar and solar error, but only partially adopted Shen and Weis corrected plotting of the planetary orbital paths and various speeds. This treatise included many medicinal applications, including the use of ephedrin as a pharmaceutical drug, however, Su was most famous for his hydraulic-powered astronomical clock tower, crowned with a mechanically driven armillary sphere, which was erected in the capital city of Kaifeng in the year 1088. Sus clock tower employed the escapement mechanism two centuries before it was applied in clocks of Europe, sus clock tower also featured the earliest known endless power-transmitting chain drive in the world, as outlined in his horological treatise of 1092. On a court mission to inspect a frontier region, Shen Kuo once made a map of wood and glue-soaked sawdust to show the mountains, roads, rivers. Shen Kuo also experimented with camera obscura, only a few decades after the first to do so, there were many other important figures in the Song era besides Shen Kuo and Su Song, many of whom contributed greatly to the technological innovations of the time period. The Song Shi states, The odometer. is painted red, with pictures of flowers and birds on the four sides, and constructed in two storeys, handsomely adorned with carvings. At the completion of every li, the figure of a man in the lower storey strikes a drum, at the completion of every ten li. The carriage-pole ends in a phoenix-head, and the carriage is drawn by four horses, the escort was formerly of 18 men, but in the 4th year of the Yongxi reign period the emperor Taizong increased it to 30. When the upper horizontal wheel has made 1 revolution, the carriage will have gone 10 li, the number of wheels used, great and small, is 8 inches in all, with a total of 285 teeth. Thus the motion is transmitted as if by the links of a chain, in the Song period, the odometer device was combined with the south-pointing chariot device, which was probably first invented by the ancient Chinese mechanical engineer Ma Jun
32.
Julian calendar
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The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on 1 January 45 BC, by edict, the Julian calendar gains against the mean tropical year at the rate of one day in 128 years. For the Gregorian the figure is one day in 3,030 years, the difference in the average length of the year between Julian and Gregorian is 0. 002%. The Julian calendar has a year of 365 days divided into 12 months. A leap day is added to February every four years, the Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. It was intended to approximate the tropical year, as a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582, consequently, the Julian calendar is currently 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar. Egypt converted on 20 December 1874/1 January 1875, turkey switched on 16 February/1 March 1917. Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918, Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923 - the national day, which was a religious holiday, was to remain on the old calendar. Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian as the basis for their liturgical calendars. However, most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church still use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, some Orthodox churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while other Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes. The Julian calendar is used by the Berbers of the Maghreb in the form of the Berber calendar. In the form of the Alexandrian calendar, it is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, during the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems. In contemporary as well as texts that describe events during the period of change. The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, in addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, some say the mensis intercalaris always had 27 days and began on either the first or the second day after the Terminalia. According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. In this system, the average Roman year would have had 366 1⁄4 days over four years, Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days
33.
Emperor Taizu of Song
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Emperor Taizu of Song, personal name Zhao Kuangyin, courtesy name Yuanlang, was the founder and first emperor of the Song dynasty in China. He reigned from 960 until his death in 976, to strengthen his control, he lessened the power of military generals and relied on civilian officials in administration. He was succeeded by his brother, Zhao Kuangyi. Born in Luoyang to military commander Zhao Hongyin, Zhao Kuangyin grew up excelling in mounted archery, in the mid-940s, he married Lady He on his fathers arrangement. After wandering around for a few years, in 949 he joined the army of Guo Wei, a jiedushi of the Later Han dynasty, in 951, Guo Wei rebelled and created the Later Zhou dynasty. Because of his brilliant combat skills, Zhao Kuangyin was promoted to a guard commander. Chai Rong frequently met Guo Wei and noticed Zhao Kuangyins potential, under his command, Zhao Kuangyin was made into a commander of the cavalry units. Under Chai Rong, Zhao Kuangyins rise to power had begun, Zhao Kuangyins career started at the Battle of Gaoping, against the alliance of the Northern Han and Liao dynasties. This rivalry started when Chai Rong ascended the throne and Liu Chong decided to work with the Liao dynasty, in the initial confrontation, the armys right flank, led by Fan Aineng and He Wei, was defeated. Looking at the situation, Zhao Kuangyin and Zhang Yongde led 4000 elite Palace troops to counter the Liao army, Zhao Kuangyins exhortation for the loyalty to the emperor quickly strengthened morale. The small force held off the larger Liao army until reinforcements arrived, in the end, the successful counter repelled the Northern Han back to Taiyuan. The victory raised Zhao Kuangyin up to the post of the commander of the palace guards. Within a few years, Zhao Kuangyin completely controlled the palace guards, soon, he was promoted to a jiedushi, controlling most of the military power under Chai Rong. Nevertheless, he still had two rivals – Zhang Yongde and Li Chongjin, who were both Guo Weis sons-in-law, in 959, after a trap set by Zhao Kuangyin, Zhang Yongde was demoted. As a result, Zhao Kuangyin was able to use his influence to transfer Li Chongjin to Yang Prefecture as a jiedushi, in 960, word reached the chancellor Fan Zhi that Northern Han and Liao dynasties were once again allied to invade them again. Without verifying the reliability of the hearsay, Fan Zhi sent Zhao Kuangyin to combat the alliance, after traveling 40 li, there was a clamour that a prophet saw two suns fighting, and that this meant the transfer of the Mandate of Heaven to Zhao Kuangyin. The story effectively spread around the army, there came discontent of the command of the young emperor, a few days later, when Zhao Kuangyin was drunk in his tent, all the troops had not slept the whole night, they got their weapons and started yelling. Zhao Pu and Zhang Kuangyi, who were guarding the tent, saw the situation, when Zhao Kuangyin came out, all the troops yelled, The army is without a master, we are willing to make the general the new emperor
34.
Emperor Zhezong
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Emperor Zhezong of Song, personal name Zhao Xu, was the seventh emperor of the Song dynasty in China. His original personal name was Zhao Yong but he changed it to Zhao Xu after his coronation and he reigned from 1085 until his death in 1100, and was succeeded by his younger brother, Emperor Huizong, because his son died prematurely. Emperor Zhezong was the son of Emperor Shenzong. He ascended the throne at the age of nine under the supervision of his grandmother, as the young emperors regent, Grand Empress Dowager Gao appointed conservatives such as Sima Guang as Chancellor, who halted the New Policies set forth by Wang Anshi. Emperor Zhezong was powerless and it was not until Grand Empress Dowager Gaos death in 1093 that the emperor was able to reinstate Wang Anshis reforms and reduce Sima Guangs influence. However, Emperor Zhezong was unable to stop fighting between members of his government and the more liberal members who supported Wang Anshis reforms. This split would eventually contribute to the Northern Song dynastys demise in the 12th century, Emperor Zhezong died in 1100 in Kaifeng at the age of 24 and was succeeded by his younger brother, Emperor Huizong. Volume 17–18, Biography of Emperor Zhezong
35.
Emperor Huizong of Song
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Emperor Huizong of Song, personal name Zhao Ji, was the eighth emperor of the Song dynasty in China. Born as the 11th son of Emperor Shenzong, he ascended the throne in 1100 upon the death of his brother and predecessor, Emperor Zhezong. He lived in luxury, sophistication and art in the first half of his life, the following year, the Song capital, Bianjing, was conquered by Jin forces in an event historically known as the Jingkang Incident. Emperor Huizong, along with Emperor Qinzong and the rest of their family, were taken captive by the Jurchens and brought back to the Jin capital, the Jurchen ruler, Emperor Taizong, gave the former Emperor Huizong a title, Duke Hunde, to humiliate him. Emperor Huizong died in Wuguocheng after spending nine years in captivity. Despite his incompetence in rulership, Emperor Huizong was known for his promotion of Taoism and talents in poetry, painting, calligraphy and he sponsored numerous artists at his imperial court, and the catalogue of his collection listed over 6,000 known paintings. Emperor Huizong, besides his partaking in state affairs that favoured the reformist party that supported Wang Anshis New Policies, was a leader who spent much of his time admiring the arts. He was a collector of paintings, calligraphy, and antiques of previous dynasties and he wrote poems of his own, was known as an avid painter, created his own calligraphy style, had interests in architecture and garden design, and even wrote treatises on medicine and Taoism. He assembled an entourage of painters that were first pre-screened in an examination to enter as official artists of the imperial court, and made reforms to court music. Like many learned men of his age, he was quite a polymath personality, however, his reign would be forever scarred by the decisions made on handling foreign policy, as the end of his reign marked a period of disaster for the Song Empire. When the Jurchens founded the Jin dynasty and attacked the Khitan-led Liao dynasty to the north of the Song and this succeeded in destroying the Liao, a longtime enemy of the Song. However, an enemy of the more formidable Jin dynasty was now on the northern border. Stricken with panic, Emperor Huizong abdicated on 18 January 1126 in favour of his son, now known as Emperor Qinzong, and departed the capital. The Song Empire, however, had to sign a treaty with the Jin Empire, agreeing to pay a colossal war indemnity. From 1126 until 1138, refugees from the Song Empire migrated south towards the Yangtze River valley, but even such humiliating terms could not save the Song dynasty. Within a matter of months, the troops of both Jurchen vice-marshals, Wolibu and Nianhan, were back again, and this time they were determined to overcome the walls of Bianjing. After a bitter siege, the Jurchens eventually entered Bianjing on 9 January 1127, and many days of looting, rapes, emperors Huizong and Qinzong were demoted to the rank of commoners by the Jurchens on 20 March 1127. Then on 10 May 1127, Emperor Huizong was deported to Heilongjiang, in a humiliating episode, in 1128 the two former Song emperors had to venerate the Jin ancestors at their shrine in Shangjing, wearing mourning dress
36.
Emperor Qinzong
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Emperor Qinzong of Song, personal name Zhao Huan, was the ninth emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the last emperor of The Northern Song Dynasty. Emperor Qinzong was the eldest son and heir apparent of Emperor Huizong and his mother was Emperor Huizongs empress consort, Empress Wang. Left to deal with the Jin invasion, Emperor Qinzong appointed the general Li Gang to lead the Song military to fend off the invaders, however, the emperor was not a decisive leader and often made poor judgments. Eventually, he removed Li Gang from his appointment in the hope of starting peace talks with the Jin Empire, however, Jin forces eventually breached the walls of the Song capital, Bianjing, in 1127 and occupied the city in an event historically known as the Jingkang Incident. Emperor Qinzong, along with his father Emperor Huizong and the rest of their family, were taken prisoner by Jin forces and this event also marked the end of the Northern Song dynasty. One of Emperor Huizongs sons managed to escape to southern China, Emperor Qinzong and his father were demoted to the status of commoners on 20 March 1127 and deported to Huining Prefecture, the Jin capital, on 13 May 1127. In 1128, the two former Song emperors were forced to wear mourning dress and pay homage to the ancestors of the Jin emperors at their temple in Huining Prefecture. A few months later, the emperor started receiving a stipend due to his nobility status. He lived the rest of his life as a captive in the Jin Empire, Emperor Qinzong died as a sick and broken man in 1161. His temple name means Esteemed Ancestor, alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
37.
Emperor Gaozong of Song
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Emperor Gaozong of Song, personal name Zhao Gou, courtesy name Deji, was the tenth emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the first emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He was the son of Emperor Huizong and a younger brother of Emperor Qinzong. In 1127, during the wars between the Song dynasty and Jurchen-led Jin dynasty, the Song capital Bianjing fell to Jin forces in an event historically known as the Jingkang Incident. Emperors Huizong and Qinzong were taken prisoner by the Jurchens, while Zhao Gou managed to escape to southern China and he reestablished the Song dynasty in Linan and was proclaimed emperor. He reigned from 1127 until 1162, when he abdicated the throne in favour of his adopted son Zhao Shen, Emperor Gaozong was the ninth son of Emperor Huizong and a younger brother of Emperor Qinzong. His mother, whose family name was Wei, was a concubine of Emperor Huizong. She was posthumously honoured as Empress Xianren, Emperor Gaozong was originally a prince during the reigns of his father and brother. The Great Chu, a state created by the Jin Empire, was abolished when Zhang Bangchang submitted to Emperor Gaozong. During Emperor Gaozongs reign, the Jurchens often attacked his realm, initially, he employed military leaders such as Li Gang, Zong Ze, Yue Fei, Han Shizhong, and Yu Yunwen to lead the Song forces to hold off the Jurchens. However, after years of fighting and significant military success, Emperor Gaozong settled on a pacifist stance, as a result, Emperor Gaozong and Qin Hui plotted to frame Yue Fei for some ambiguous offence and had him put to death. Han Shizhong was also dismissed from his military duties, Emperor Gaozong was also a notable poet and had significant influence on other Chinese poets. Among his surviving works is the Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain, Emperor Gaozong abdicated in 1162 after reigning for more than 35 years, and passed the throne to his adopted son Zhao Shen, because his only son, Zhao Fu, died prematurely around the age of two. Emperor Gaozong then assumed the title of Taishang Huang but remained the de facto ruler until his death in 1187
38.
Emperor Guangzong of Song
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Emperor Guangzong of Song, personal name Zhao Dun, was the 12th emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the third emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He was the son of his predecessor, Emperor Xiaozong. His mother was Emperor Xiaozongs first wife, Lady Guo, who was honoured as Empress Chengmu. Emperor Guangzong gave the city of Chongqing its present-day name, which means double celebration, according to Xu Wei, the Nanxi style of theatre began in Emperor Guangzongs reign. He listened to some officials and dismissed the popular military leader Xin Qiji. He was forced to give up his throne in 1194 by his grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Wu, as he refused to attend the procession of his father. He died in 1200 near Shaoxing, Zhejiang, volume 36, Biography of Emperor Guangzong
39.
Emperor Ningzong
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Emperor Ningzong of Song, personal name Zhao Kuo, was the 13th emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the fourth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1194 until his death in 1224 and he was noted for the cultural and intellectual achievements made during his reign. In particular, Zhu Xi wrote some of his most famous Neo-Confucianist works during this period, however, Emperor Ningzong was known for his aversion towards the spread of Neo-Confucianism in his imperial court. Volumes 37–40, Biography of Emperor Ningzong
40.
Emperor Lizong
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Emperor Lizong of Song, personal name Zhao Yun, was the 14th emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1224 to 1264, shi Miyuan, who was the chancellor for many years, collaborated with Empress Dowager Yang and brought Zhao Yun to the throne. Emperor Lizongs long reign of 40 years did little to improve the predicament of the Song Empire in his time and it was said that the emperor frequented brothels and invited prostitutes into the palace, which was vehemently opposed by his ministers. Notable events during Emperor Lizongs reign included the demise of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1234, the Jurchens had fought multiple wars with the Song Empire decades before it was conquered by the Mongols. However, in 1259, the Mongols turned against the Song Empire, the Song government was forced to capitulate and cede all territories north of the Yangtze River to the Mongols. In 1279, the Mongols would eventually conquer the rest of the Song Empire, Emperor Lizong died childless and was succeeded by his nephew, Zhao Qi. Wuzhun Shifan Jin–Song Wars History of the Song dynasty Toqtoa, ed, volumes 41–45, Biography of Emperor Lizong
41.
Emperor Duzong
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Emperor Duzong of Song, personal name Zhao Qi, was the 15th emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the sixth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He was a nephew of his predecessor, Emperor Lizong, and his birth name was Zhao Mengqi but his name was changed to Zhao Zi in 1251 and finally to Zhao Qi in 1253 after he was designated as Emperor Lizongs heir apparent. Emperor Duzongs reign was plagued with rebellions, warfare and upheaval, the Mongols had spent decades harassing the Song Empires borders and were on the verge of conquering the whole of China. Emperor Duzong ignored his duties and instead delegated all state and military affairs to the hands of Jia Sidao, at first, he told the officials to be straightforward and tell him the problems in the countries, but this was all an act. Soon, he neglected his duties. Furthermore, he had a high sexual appetite. Under Song laws, any woman who had relations with the emperor had to pay respects to the emperor every morning. At one point, there were as many as 30 women paying their respects to Emperor Duzong in one morning, the decisive Battle of Xiangyang was fought in 1274 when the Mongols succeeded in capturing and destroying the last Song stronghold. The loss of Xiangyang sealed the fate of the Song dynasty, Emperor Duzong died shortly thereafter and was succeeded by his sixth son, Zhao Xian, who was then only four years old. Volume 46, Biography of Emperor Duzong
42.
Emperor Gong of Song
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Emperor Gong of Song, personal name Zhao Xian, was the 16th emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the seventh emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. The sixth son of his predecessor, Emperor Duzong, Zhao Xian came to the throne around the age of four and he was succeeded by his fifth brother, Zhao Shi. His sixth son, Zhao Xian, who was then four years old, was enthroned as the new emperor with assistance from the chancellor Jia Sidao. In the following year, Zhao Xians grandmother and mother became regents for the emperor, although state. They were heading towards the Song capital at Linan, Grand Empress Dowager Xie pursued a dual-strategy to the pending destruction of the Song dynasty, On one hand, she ordered the people to rally behind their emperor and save the Song Empire. On the other hand, she tried to make peace with the Mongols, the Mongol army advanced further and captured Song territories and took control of various prefectures along the middle stretches of the Yangtze River. In early 1275, Jia Sidao led an army of 30,000 to engage the Mongols at Wuhu, the Song army suffered defeat and not long afterward, bowing to public pressure, Grand Empress Dowager Xie ordered Jia Sidaos execution. However, the move too late and the fall of the Song dynasty loomed closer. By the middle of 1275, the Mongol army had controlled most of the Jiangdong region, on 18 January 1276, the Mongol general Bayan showed up with his army outside Linan. The Song imperial court sent Lu Xiufu to negotiate for peace with the enemy, later that year, Grand Empress Dowager Xie brought the five-year-old Zhao Xian with her to the Mongol camp to surrender. Remnants of the Song Empire fled southwards to Fujian and Guangdong provinces, Zhao Xians fifth brother, Zhao Shi, was enthroned as the new emperor. Zhao Shi died of illness in 1278 and was succeeded by his seventh brother, in 1279, after the Battle of Yamen, Lu Xiufu brought Zhao Bing with him to Yashan, where they committed suicide by drowning themselves at sea. The death of Zhao Bing marked the end of the Song dynasty, after the fall of the Song dynasty, Zhao Xian was relocated to the Mongol capital at Dadu then later to Shangdu. Some sources also claim that he lived in Qianzhou and his sojourns made him one of the most well-travelled Han Chinese emperors in Chinese history. Soon after Zhao Xian surrendered, the Mongol general Bayan urged him to north for an audience with the Mongol emperor. As a result, in March 1276, Zhao Xian left Linan, the former emperors entourage also included Weng Zhongde, Wang Yuanliang, and other palace officials. After they crossed the Yangtze River, two generals, Li Tingzhi and Miao Zaicheng, planned to hijack a transport to carry them all. The group arrived in Dadu in May, and then proceeded to Shangdu, the Khan conferred the title Duke of Ying on Zhao Xian and a princess title on Zhao Xians Mongol wife, Lady Borjigin
43.
Emperor Duanzong
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Emperor Duanzong of Song, personal name Zhao Shi, was the 17th emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the eighth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He was the son of Emperor Duzong and an elder brother of his predecessor, Emperor Gong. Emperor Gong surrendered to the Mongol Empire in 1276 after the fall of the Song capital, Zhao Shi and his seventh brother, Zhao Bing, managed to escape southward to Fujian Province, where the new Song capital was established. Zhao Shi was enthroned as the new emperor, however, in 1278, the Mongols broke through the Song dynastys last lines of defence, forcing Zhao Shi to flee again. Accompanied by ministers such as Lu Xiufu, Zhao Shi boarded a ship, thereafter, he stayed temporarily in Hong Kong. The historical relic Sung Wong Toi in present-day Hong Kongs Kowloon City commemorates Zhao Shis escape to Hong Kong, in March 1278, while fleeing from the Mongols, Zhao Shi fell from a boat and almost drowned. After his rescue, he became ill and died a few months later in Gangzhou and he was succeeded by his seventh brother, Zhao Bing
