1.
Vitreous enamel
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Vitreous enamel, also called porcelain enamel, is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C. The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitreous coating on metal, so in technical terms fired enamelware is an integrated layered composite of glass and metal. Enamelling is an old and widely adopted technology, for most of its history mainly used in jewelry, enamelled and enamelling are the preferred spellings in British English, while enameled and enameling are preferred in American English. The term enamel is most often restricted to work on metal, enamelled glass is also called painted, and overglaze decoration to pottery is often called enamelling. The word enamel comes from the Old High German word smelzan via the Old French esmail, or from a Latin word smaltum, used as a noun, an enamel is usually a small decorative object coated with enamel. Since the 19th century the term also to industrial materials and many metal consumer objects, such as some cooking vessels, dishwashers, laundry machines, sinks. The ancient Egyptians applied enamels to stone objects, pottery, and sometimes jewellery, the ancient Greeks, Celts, Georgians, and Chinese also used enamel on metal objects. Enamel powder could be produced in two ways, either by powdering coloured glass, or by mixing colourless glass powder with pigments such as a metallic oxide, designs were either painted freehand or over the top of outline incisions, and the technique probably originated in metalworking. Once painted, enamelled glass vessels needed to be fired at a high enough to melt the applied powder. Ancient Persians used this method for colouring and ornamenting the surface of metals by fusing over it brilliant colours that are decorated in an intricate design and called it Meenakari. Gold has been used traditionally for Meenakari Jewellery as it holds the enamel better, lasts longer, initially, the work of Meenakari often went unnoticed as this art was traditionally used as a backing for the famous kundan or stone-studded jewellery. This also allowed the wearer to reverse the jewellery as also promised a special joy in the secret of the hidden design, the Byzantine enamel style was widely adopted by the barbarian peoples of Migration Period northern Europe. The Byzantines then began to use cloisonné more freely to create images, the champlevé technique was considerably easier and very widely practiced in the Romanesque period. In Gothic art the finest work is in basse-taille and ronde-bosse techniques, from either Byzantium or the Islamic world, the cloisonné technique reached China in the 13-14th centuries. The first written reference to cloisonné is in a book from 1388, cloisonné remained very popular in China until the 19th century and is still produced today. Starting from the century, the Japanese also produced large quantities of very high technical quality. A resurgence in enamel-based art took place near the end of the 20th century in the Soviet Union, led by artists like Alexei Maximov, in Australia, abstract artist Bernard Hesling brought the style into prominence with his variously sized steel plates. Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in Austria, industrialization increased as the purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased
2.
Luck of Edenhall
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The Luck of Edenhall is a glass beaker that was made in Syria or Egypt in the middle of the 14th century, elegantly decorated with arabesques in blue, green, red and white enamel with gilding. It is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and is 15.8 cm high and 11.1 cm wide at the brim, legend has it that this ancient beaker embodied the continuing prosperity of its owners. The beaker is now known to be a fine and pristine example of 14th-century luxury Islamic glass. Old stories relating to the Luck suggested it found its way to England in the baggage of a returning Crusader, however, recent dating which suggests the Luck was made in the 14th century makes this unlikely as the Crusades ended in the 13th century. The antiquity of the legend surrounding it has not been determined and it was the subject of a German ballad by Ludwig Uhland, later rendered in English by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, this wrongly says the glass was shattered. A number of objects owned by families in the North of England were known as lucks, the glass is first documented. The glass remained intact in the possession of the Musgrave family, in 1926 the glass was loaned to the Victoria and Albert Museum, and in 1958 it was finally acquired for the nation. It remains on permanent view in the Medieval & Renaissance galleries, Eden Hall no longer exists, having been demolished in 1934. The story of the Luck of Edenhall is told in the 2004 manga Bartender and it is also the namesake for the protagonistss bar, Bar Eden Hall. New Light on the Luck of Edenhall
3.
Glass fusing
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Glass fusing is the technique used to join glass pieces together by partly melting the glass at high temperature. The fusion process requires multiple pieces of glass, with a minimum of two, the heating is commonly undertaken in an electric kiln. It is important to realize that glasses with different coefficients of expansion or viscosity cannot be fused together, upon cooling or after a period of time, the fused piece will crack. Many people who work in glass fusing restrict themselves to one brand of glass which is guaranteed to be compatible with any other fusible glass offered by that particular maker. Molds can also be used in fusion, this is a process called slumping, glass is laid over the mold and forms to it creating pieces such as plates. Glass fusion is used in art therapy. However, Somer and Somer suggest that properties of glass provide metaphors useful in the process, including the clarity of the glass, the act of breaking
4.
Tragacanth
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Tragacanth is a natural gum obtained from the dried sap of several species of Middle Eastern legumes of the genus Astragalus, including A. adscendens, A. gummifer, A. brachycalyx, and A. tragacantha. Some of these species are known collectively under the common names goats thorn, the gum is sometimes called Shiraz gum, shiraz, gum elect or gum dragon. The name derives from the Greek words tragos and akantha, iran is the biggest producer of this gum. Gum tragacanth is a viscous, odorless, tasteless, water-soluble mixture of polysaccharides obtained from sap that is drained from the root of the plant, the gum seeps from the plant in twisted ribbons or flakes that can be powdered. It absorbs water to become a gel, which can be stirred into a paste, the major fractions are known as tragacanthin, highly water soluble as a mucilaginous colloid, and the chemically related bassorin, which is far less soluble but swells in water to form a gel. The gum is used in vegetable-tanned leatherworking as an edge slicking and burnishing compound, the gum has been used historically as a herbal remedy for such conditions as cough and diarrhea. As a mucilage or paste, it has used as a topical treatment for burns. It is used in pharmaceuticals and foods as an emulsifier, thickener, stabilizer and it is the traditional binder used in the making of artists pastels, as it does not adhere to itself the same way other gums do when dry. Gum tragacanth is also used to make a paste used in floral sugarcraft to create lifelike flowers on wires used as decorations for cakes and it enables users to get a very fine, delicate finish to their work. It has traditionally used as an adhesive in the cigar-rolling process used to secure the cap or flag leaf to the finished cigar body. Gum tragacanth is less common in products than other, usually cheaper, gums, however, gums are used in varied circumstances and there are many situations where tragacanth is considered superior. Common substitutions are methyl cellulose, sometimes marketed as substitute gum tragacanth in the food industry, gum karaya, also called Indian tragacanth or simply tragacanth, might be fully or partially substituted for what appears to be genuine tragacanth. Gum tragacanth is also used in incense-making as a binder to hold all the powdered herbs together and its water solubility is ideal for ease of working and an even spread, and it is one of the stronger gums for holding particles in suspension. Only half as much is needed, compared to gum arabic or something similar, in Saudi Arabia, a mixture of hydrated Tragacanth and ground dried Ziziphus spina-christi is used as a natural hair shampoo that is believed to promote hair growth
5.
Mica
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The mica group of sheet silicate minerals includes several closely related materials having nearly perfect basal cleavage. All are monoclinic, with a tendency towards pseudohexagonal crystals, and are similar in chemical composition, the nearly perfect cleavage, which is the most prominent characteristic of mica, is explained by the hexagonal sheet-like arrangement of its atoms. The word mica is derived from the Latin word mica, meaning a crumb, and probably influenced by micare, to glitter. Chemically, micas can be given the general formula X2Y4–6Z8O204 in which X is K, Na, or Ca or less commonly Ba, Rb, or Cs, Y is Al, Mg, or Fe or less commonly Mn, Cr, Ti, Li, etc. Z is chiefly Si or Al, but also may include Fe3+ or Ti, structurally, micas can be classed as dioctahedral and trioctahedral. If the X ion is K or Na, the mica is a common mica, whereas if the X ion is Ca, mica is widely distributed and occurs in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary regimes. Large crystals of mica used for various applications are typically mined from granitic pegmatites, until the 19th century, large crystals of mica were quite rare and expensive as a result of the limited supply in Europe. However, their price dramatically dropped when large reserves were found and mined in Africa, the largest documented single crystal of mica was found in Lacey Mine, Ontario, Canada, it measured 10 ×4.3 ×4.3 m and weighed about 330 tonnes. Similar-sized crystals were found in Karelia, Russia. The British Geological Survey reported that as of 2005, Koderma district in Jharkhand state in India had the largest deposits of mica in the world. China was the top producer of mica with almost a third of the share, closely followed by the US, South Korea. Large deposits of mica were mined in New England from the 19th century to the 1970s. Large mines existed in Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Maine, scrap and flake mica is produced all over the world. In 2010, the producers were Russia, Finland, United States, South Korea, France. The total production was 350,000 t, although no data were available for China. Most sheet mica was produced in India and Russia, flake mica comes from several sources, the metamorphic rock called schist as a byproduct of processing feldspar and kaolin resources, from placer deposits, and from pegmatites. Sheet mica is considerably less abundant than flake and scrap mica, the most important sources of sheet mica are pegmatite deposits. Sheet mica prices vary with grade and can range from less than $1 per kilogram for low-quality mica to more than $2,000 per kilogram for the highest quality, the mica group represents 37 phyllosilicate minerals that have a layered or platy texture
6.
Mosque lamp
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They are oil lamps, usually with a large round bulbous body rising to a narrower waist, above which the top section is flared. There is usually a foot so they can be placed on a surface and they were used to light mosques and other buildings in mosque complexes, in large spaces in groups hanging from a circular metal frame. The circular frames continue to be used in many mosques today, the techniques used are typical of contemporary Islamic glass, with the enamel decoration applied to a pre-fired plain body, and the whole then fired for a second time. Such opaque materials were much less effective as lighting, but the purpose of the lamp was symbolic as well as practical, mosque lamps are often shown in profile at the head of a prayer rug for the same reason. The decoration of the lamps often includes either the name or the symbol from Islamic heraldry of the donor, other types of lighting in mosques were large metal lamp stands, like very wide candlesticks, which were also used in secular buildings. These could be very intricately decorated, the elaborate decorated types were mostly succeeded by plain glass oil lamps with a simple rim at the top, by which they were attached to a circular metal bar. In 2000, three 14th-century Mamluk mosque lamps in pristine condition from the collection of Bethsabée de Rothschild sold at Christies in London for £1,763,750, £993,750 and £641,750. In the second half of the 19th century, a number of forgeries, or expensive glass ornaments in the style of Mamluk lamps were produced in France and Italy
7.
Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
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During the high medieval period, the Islamic world was at its cultural peak, supplying information and ideas to Europe, via Andalusia, Sicily and the Crusader kingdoms in the Levant. These included Latin translations of the Greek Classics and of Arabic texts in astronomy, mathematics, science, other contributions included technological and scientific innovations via the Silk Road, including Chinese inventions such as paper and gunpowder. Many Arabic loanwords in Western European languages, including English, mostly via Old French and this includes traditional star names such as Aldebaran, scientific terms like alchemy, algebra, algorithm, etc. and names of commodities such as sugar, camphor, cotton, etc. Europe and the Islamic lands had multiple points of contact during the Middle Ages, the main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe lay in Sicily and in Spain, particularly in Toledo. The Moroccan Muhammad al-Idrisi wrote The Book of Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands or Tabula Rogeriana, one of the greatest geographical treatises of the Middle Ages, the Crusades also intensified exchanges between Europe and the Levant, with the Italian maritime republics taking a major role in these exchanges. In the Levant, in cities as Antioch, Arab. During the 11th and 12th centuries, many Christian scholars travelled to Muslim lands to learn sciences, notable examples include Leonardo Fibonacci, Adelard of Bath and Constantine the African. From the 11th to the 14th centuries, numerous European students attended Muslim centers of learning to study medicine, philosophy, mathematics, cosmography. These texts were in turn translated into Latin by scholars such as Michael Scot during the Middle Ages, Eastern Christians played an important role in exploiting this knowledge, especially through the Christian Aristotelian School of Baghdad in the 11th and 12th centuries. Later Latin translations of these originated in multiple places. Toledo, Spain and Sicily became the points of transmission of knowledge from the Islamic world to Europe. Burgundio of Pisa discovered lost texts of Aristotle in Antioch and translated them into Latin, from Islamic Spain, the Arabic philosophical literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino. Avicennism and Averroism are terms for the revival of the Peripatetic school in medieval Europe due to the influence of Avicenna and Averroes, Avicenna was an important commentator on the works of Aristotle, modifying it with his own original thinking in some areas, notably logic. The effects of Avicennism in were later submerged by the more influential Averroism. Averroes disagreed with Avicennas interpretations of Aristotle in areas such as the unity of the intellect, Dante Aligheri argues along Averroist lines for a secularist theory of the state in De Monarchia. Averroes also developed the concept of existence precedes essence, al-Ghazali also had an important influence on medieval Christian philosopher along with Jewish thinkers like Maimonides. He notes that dictation was a part of Arabic scholarship. During the Islamic Golden Age, certain advances were made in fields, notably in mathematics and astronomy
8.
Moser (glass company)
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Moser a. s. is a luxury glass manufacturer based in Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic, previously Karlsbad in Bohemia, Austria-Hungary. The company is known for manufacturing stemware, decorative glassware, glass gifts, Moser is one of the most collected of 20th century decorative glass and has been used everywhere from palaces to local restaurants. From its beginnings in 1857, as a polishing and engraving workshop, engraving blanks, from Loetz, Meyrs Neffe and Harrachov was performed by the workshop in the early years. At the Vienna International Exhibition of 1873 he was awarded a medal for merit and he would win numerous other awards in the coming years, including medals at the World Exhibitions in Paris in 1879,1889 and 1900, and the World Exhibition in Chicago in 1893. In 1904 Moser received a warrant to supply the Imperial Court of the Emperor of Austria, Art Nouveau glass pieces were produced Moser with surface decoration with natural themes and simple cameo glass. They also used the Eckentiefgravur technique employing a sharp angular body deeply cut in the form of intaglio flowers and they also exhibited in London, Belgium, Italy and Vienna. The depression of the early 1930s exacted its toll, reducing its staff to 240, later, having sold their company shares in the company in 1938, they fled the county after areas of Czechoslovakia were annexed. The city of Karlovy Vary was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1938 after the Munich Agreement, because of its international reputation, the company was able to retain some independence during the communist era while the rest of the Czech glass industry was nationalised in 1948. The Art Nouveau designs of heavily engraved lilies and the Fipop series from c1914 were some of the most notable pieces, several cheaper lower quality derivatives of the Fipop designs were produced by other companies and between 1927 and 1933 two American glassmakers made copies calling them Woodland and Deerwood. Moser was one of the few Czechoslovakian glassmakers to sign their pieces, the king Luís I of Portugal and his wife, Maria Pia of Savoy. Ludwig Moser developed a lead-free sodium-potassium glass that is ecologically friendly than lead glass yet is extremely hard. Moser still produces some of its classic Fipop designs, a factory museum shows the 150-year story of the company in more than 2,000 pieces on display supplemented by documentaries and audio guides. Besides having four retail outlets in the Czech Republic, two in Prague and two in the companys hometown Karlovy Vary, Moser has a network of retailers. Mosers US distribution company was established in Northern Virginia in 1957, praseodymium Didymium Notes Sources Czech Design Moser glass marks Official website The History of Moser Glass - Andrew Lineham
