1.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
Public domain
–
Newton's own copy of his
Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition
Public domain
–
L.H.O.O.Q. (1919). Derivative work by the
Dadaist Marcel Duchamp based on the
Mona Lisa.
2.
Horace Everett Hooper
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Horace Everett Hooper was the publisher of Encyclopædia Britannica from 1897 until his death. Born at Worcester, Massachusetts, he left school at the age of 16 and he sold books to the western states making use of the United States Postal Service. He moved to Chicago, Illinois in 1893 to join the firm of James Clark and he marketed their reprint of the Century Dictionary using mail order and credit by installment terms, to great success. He visited England in 1897 and saw that the 9th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica could be marketed in the same way and he also noted that The Times suffered flagging sales, and hit on the idea of using the latter to market the former — to their mutual benefit. He secured the reprint rights to Encyclopædia Britannica and The Times reissued it, within three months 10,000 sets were sold and within five years the total had reached 50,000. Hooper bought the copyright, and set about the production of additional volumes to make the 10th edition. The Times appointed Hooper as advertising manager, and in 1905 he set up the Times Book Club, after the purchase of The Times by Lord Northcliffe, Hooper left the company in 1908. He set about the production of the 11th edition which was published 1910-11 and this was published in two blocks of volumes instead of the volumes appearing serially over a number of years. Hooper established the Britannica Year-Book, the first volume being published in 1913 and he produced the Handy Volume edition specifically for mail-order. This was a reprint of the 11th edition, and was often sold with an accompanying book case. Hooper sold the copyright to Sears Roebuck in 1920 but oversaw the publication in 1922 of the 12th edition - three volumes covering the events of World War I with a reprint of the eleventh edition and it too was issued in the Handy Volume format. Janet E. Courtney, Recollected in Tranquility,1926, chapter XIV concerns Hooper Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition, article Hooper, Horace Everett. Anon, The History of the Times, vol 3,1947, pp 443–449 Alexander Coleman and Charles Simmons, All there is to know,1994, pp 17–24
Horace Everett Hooper
–
Horace Everett Hooper
3.
Hugh Chisholm
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Hugh Chisholm was a British journalist, and editor of the 10th, 11th and 12th editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica. He was born in London, a son of Henry Williams Chisholm, hugh Chisholm was educated at Felsted School and Christ Church, Oxford. He graduated from the latter in 1888 with a first class in Literae Humaniores and he read for the Bar and was called to the Middle Temple in 1892. Chisholm worked for The St Jamess Gazette as assistant editor from 1892 and was appointed editor in 1897. In 1903, he became editor-in-chief for the 11th edition, which was completed under his direction in 1910 and he subsequently planned and edited the Britannica Year-Book. In August 1913 he was appointed a director of the company and he was financial editor throughout World War I, resigning in 1920 when he embarked on the editorship of the three volumes forming the 12th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, published in 1922. The mathematician Grace Chisholm was his sister, the Times,30 September 1924, p 14, Issue 43770, Col d. Janet E. Courtney, An Oxford Portrait Gallery,1931, janet Courtney, née Hogarth, worked for The Times Book Club and was later responsible for the arrangement of the Index volume to the 11th and 12th editions of Encyclopædia Britannica
Hugh Chisholm
–
Hugh Chisholm
4.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
The Times
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Front page of The Times from 4 December 1788
The Times
–
Roy Thomson
The Times
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A wounded British officer reading The Times's report of the end of the
Crimean War, in
John Everett Millais ' painting
Peace Concluded.
The Times
–
John Walter, the founder of The Times
5.
Cambridge University Press
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Cambridge University Press is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII in 1534, it is the worlds oldest publishing house and it also holds letters patent as the Queens Printer. The Presss mission is To further the Universitys mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, Cambridge University Press is a department of the University of Cambridge and is both an academic and educational publisher. With a global presence, publishing hubs, and offices in more than 40 countries. Its publishing includes journals, monographs, reference works, textbooks. Cambridge University Press is an enterprise that transfers part of its annual surplus back to the university. Cambridge University Press is both the oldest publishing house in the world and the oldest university press and it originated from Letters Patent granted to the University of Cambridge by Henry VIII in 1534, and has been producing books continuously since the first University Press book was printed. Cambridge is one of the two privileged presses, authors published by Cambridge have included John Milton, William Harvey, Isaac Newton, Bertrand Russell, and Stephen Hawking. In 1591, Thomass successor, John Legate, printed the first Cambridge Bible, the London Stationers objected strenuously, claiming that they had the monopoly on Bible printing. The universitys response was to point out the provision in its charter to print all manner of books. In July 1697 the Duke of Somerset made a loan of £200 to the university towards the house and presse and James Halman, Registrary of the University. It was in Bentleys time, in 1698, that a body of scholars was appointed to be responsible to the university for the Presss affairs. The Press Syndicates publishing committee still meets regularly, and its role still includes the review, John Baskerville became University Printer in the mid-eighteenth century. Baskervilles concern was the production of the finest possible books using his own type-design, a technological breakthrough was badly needed, and it came when Lord Stanhope perfected the making of stereotype plates. This involved making a mould of the surface of a page of type. The Press was the first to use this technique, and in 1805 produced the technically successful, under the stewardship of C. J. Clay, who was University Printer from 1854 to 1882, the Press increased the size and scale of its academic and educational publishing operation. An important factor in this increase was the inauguration of its list of schoolbooks, during Clays administration, the Press also undertook a sizable co-publishing venture with Oxford, the Revised Version of the Bible, which was begun in 1870 and completed in 1885. It was Wright who devised the plan for one of the most distinctive Cambridge contributions to publishing—the Cambridge Histories, the Cambridge Modern History was published between 1902 and 1912
Cambridge University Press
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The University Printing House, on the main site of the Press
Cambridge University Press
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The
letters patent of Cambridge University Press by
Henry VIII allow the Press to print "all manner of books". The fine initial with the king's portrait inside it and the large first line of script are still discernible.
Cambridge University Press
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The Pitt Building in Cambridge, which used to be the headquarters of Cambridge University Press, and now serves as a conference centre for the Press.
Cambridge University Press
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On the main site of the Press
6.
Edmund Gosse
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Sir Edmund William Gosse CB was an English poet, author and critic. He was strictly brought up in a small Protestant sect, the Plymouth Brethren and his account of his childhood in the book Father and Son has been described as the first psychological biography. His friendship with the sculptor Hamo Thornycroft inspired a career as a historian of late-Victorian sculpture. His translations of Ibsen helped to promote that playwright in England and he also lectured in English literature at Cambridge. Gosse was the son of Philip Henry Gosse and Emily Bowes and his father was a naturalist and his mother an illustrator who published a number of books of poetry. Both were deeply committed to a small Protestant sect, the Plymouth Brethren and his childhood was initially happy as they spent their summers in Devon where his father was developing the ideas which gave rise to the craze for the marine aquarium. Gosse was sent to a school where he began to develop his own interests in literature. His father married in 1860 the deeply religious Quaker spinster Eliza Brightwen and he later gave an account of his childhood in the book Father and Son which has been described as the first psychological biography. At the age of 18 and working in the British Museum in London, Eliza Gosses brother George was the husband of Eliza Elder Brightwen, a naturalist and author, whose first book was published in 1890. H. Chesson, and the book with an introduction. Gosse started his career as assistant librarian at the British Museum from 1867 alongside the songwriter Theo Marzials, an early book of poetry published with a friend John Arthur Blaikie gave him an introduction to the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. He was soon reviewing Scandinavian literature in a variety of publications and he became acquainted with Alfred, Lord Tennyson and friends with Robert Browning, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Thomas Hardy and Henry James. In the meantime, he published his first solo volume of poetry, On Viol and Flute, Gosse and Robert Louis Stevenson first met while teenagers, and after 1879, when Stevenson came to London on occasion, he would stay with Gosse and his family. In 1875 Gosse became a translator at the Board of Trade, from 1884 to 1890, Gosse lectured in English literature at Trinity College, Cambridge, despite his own lack of academic qualifications. Cambridge University gave him an honorary MA in 1886, and Trinity College formally admitted him as a member, by order of the Council, in 1889. He made a successful American lecture tour in 1884 and was much in demand as a speaker and on committees as well as publishing a string of works as well as poetry. He became, in the 1880s, one of the most important art dealing with sculpture with an interest spurred on by his intimate friendship with the sculptor Hamo Thornycroft. Gosse would eventually write the first history of the renaissance of late-Victorian sculpture in 1894 in a series for The Art Journal
Edmund Gosse
–
Edmund Gosse, by
John Singer Sargent, 1886
Edmund Gosse
–
Edmund Gosse in 1857, with father
Philip Henry Gosse
7.
J. B. Bury
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John Bagnell Bury, FBA, known as J. B. Bury, was an Irish historian, classical scholar, Medieval Roman historian and he objected to the label Byzantinist explicitly in the preface to the 1889 edition of his Later Roman Empire. He held the position of Erasmus Smiths Professor of Modern History at Trinity College Dublin, Bury was born and raised in Clontibret, County Monaghan, where his father was Rector of the Anglican Church of Ireland. In 1893 he gained a chair in Modern History at Trinity College, in 1898 he was appointed Regius Professor of Greek, also at Trinity, a post he held simultaneously with his history professorship. In 1902 he became Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge University, at Cambridge, Bury became mentor to the medievalist Sir Steven Runciman, who later commented that he had been Burys first, and only, student. At first the reclusive Bury tried to brush him off, then, when Runciman mentioned that he could read Russian, Bury gave him a stack of Bulgarian articles to edit, Bury was the author of the first truly authoritative biography of Saint Patrick. Bury remained at Cambridge until his death at the age of 65 in Rome and he is buried in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome. He received the honorary Doctor of Laws from the University of Glasgow in June 1901, Burys writings, on subjects ranging from ancient Greece to the 19th-century papacy, are at once scholarly and accessible to the layman. His two works on the philosophy of history elucidated the Victorian ideals of progress and rationality which undergirded his more specific histories and he also led a revival of Byzantine history, which English-speaking historians, following Edward Gibbon, had largely neglected. He contributed to, and was himself the subject of an article in, with Frank Adcock and S. A. Cook he edited The Cambridge Ancient History, launched in 1919. John Bagnell Burys career shows his evolving thought process and his consideration of the discipline of history as a science, from his inaugural lecture as Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge in 1902 comes his public proclamation of history as a science and not as a branch of literature. He stated, I may remind you that history is not a branch of literature, Burys final thoughts during his lecture reiterate his previous statement with a cementing sentence that claims. she is herself simply a science, no less and no more. In his book, History of Freedom of Thought he said the following, some people speak as if we were not justified in rejecting a theological doctrine unless we can prove it false. But the burden of proof does not lie upon the rejecter, some minds would be prepared to accept it, if it were reiterated often enough, through the potent force of suggestion. A. Bury at Project Gutenberg Works by or about J. B, Bury at Internet Archive Works by J. B
J. B. Bury
–
John Bagnell Bury
8.
Algernon Charles Swinburne
–
Algernon Charles Swinburne was an English poet, playwright, novelist, and critic. He wrote several novels and collections of such as Poems and Ballads. A controversial figure at the time, Swinburne was a sado-masochist and alcoholic and was obsessed with the Middle Ages, Swinburne wrote about many taboo topics, such as lesbianism, cannibalism, sado-masochism, and anti-theism. His poems have many common motifs, such as the Ocean, Time, several historical people are featured in his poems, such as Sappho, Anactoria, Jesus and Catullus. Swinburne was born at 7 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, on 5 April 1837 and he was the eldest of six children born to Captain Charles Henry Swinburne and Lady Jane Henrietta, daughter of the 3rd Earl of Ashburnham, a wealthy Northumbrian family. He grew up at East Dene in Bonchurch on the Isle of Wight, as a child, Swinburne was nervous and frail, but was also fired with nervous energy and fearlessness to the point of being reckless. He attended Eton College, where he first started writing poetry, at Eton, he won first prizes in French and Italian. He returned in May 1860, though he never received a degree, Swinburne considered Northumberland to be his native county, an emotion reflected in poems like the intensely patriotic Northumberland, Grace Darling and others. He enjoyed riding his pony across the moors through honeyed leagues of the northland border, in the period 1857–60, Swinburne became one of Lady Pauline Trevelyans intellectual circle at Wallington Hall. After his grandfathers death in 1860, he stayed with William Bell Scott in Newcastle, in 1861, Swinburne visited Menton on the French Riviera to recover from excessive use of alcohol, staying at the Villa Laurenti. From Menton, Swinburne travelled to Italy, where he journeyed extensively, in December 1862, Swinburne accompanied Scott and his guests, probably including Dante Gabriel Rossetti, on a trip to Tynemouth. At Oxford, Swinburne met several Pre-Raphaelites, including Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Swinburne was an alcoholic and algolagniac and highly excitable. Thereafter, he lost his youthful rebelliousness and developed into a figure of social respectability and it was said of Watts that he saved the man and killed the poet. Swinburne died at the Pines on 10 April 1909 at the age of 72 and was buried at St. Boniface Church, Bonchurch on the Isle of Wight. Common gossip of the time reported that he had a crush on the explorer Sir Richard Francis Burton. The English language is poor in rhymes, and most English poets. Swinburnes work was quite popular among undergraduates at Oxford and Cambridge. T. S. Eliot read Swinburnes essays on the Shakespearean and Jonsonian dramatists in The Contemporaries of Shakespeare and The Age of Shakespeare and Swinburnes books on Shakespeare and Jonson
Algernon Charles Swinburne
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Swinburne aged 52
Algernon Charles Swinburne
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Signature
Algernon Charles Swinburne
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Sketch of Swinburne at age 23 by
Dante Gabriel Rossetti
Algernon Charles Swinburne
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Swinburne caricatured by
'Ape' In
Vanity Fair in 1874
9.
John Muir
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His letters, essays, and books describing his adventures in nature, especially in the Sierra Nevada, have been read by millions. His activism has helped to preserve the Yosemite Valley, Sequoia National Park, the Sierra Club, which he founded, is a prominent American conservation organization. The 211-mile John Muir Trail, a trail in the Sierra Nevada, was named in his honor. Other such places include Muir Woods National Monument, Muir Beach, John Muir College, Mount Muir, in Scotland, the John Muir Way, a 130-mile-long route, was named in honor of him. In his later life, Muir devoted most of his time to the preservation of the Western forests and he petitioned the U. S. Congress for the National Park bill that was passed in 1890, establishing Yosemite National Park. The spiritual quality and enthusiasm toward nature expressed in his writings has inspired readers, including presidents and congressmen, today Muir is referred to as the Father of the National Parks and the National Park Service has produced a short documentary about his life. John Muir has been considered an inspiration to both Scots and Americans, Muirs biographer, Steven J. Holmes, believes that Muir has become one of the patron saints of twentieth-century American environmental activity, both political and recreational. As a result, his writings are discussed in books and journals. Muir has profoundly shaped the very categories through which Americans understand and envision their relationships with the natural world, on April 21,2013, the first ever John Muir Day was celebrated in Scotland, which marked the 175th anniversary of his birth, paying homage to the conservationist. John Muirs Birthplace is a stone house in Dunbar, East Lothian. His parents were Daniel Muir and Ann Gilrye and he was the third of eight children, Margaret, Sarah, David, Daniel, Ann and Mary, and the American-born Joanna. His earliest recollections were of taking short walks with his grandfather when he was three, author Amy Marquis notes that he began his love affair with nature while young, and implies that it may have been in reaction to his strict religious upbringing. His father believed that anything that distracted from Bible studies was frivolous, but the young Muir was a restless spirit and especially prone to lashings. As a young boy, Muir became fascinated with the East Lothian landscape and it was during this time that he became interested in natural history and the works of Scottish naturalist Alexander Wilson. Although he spent the majority of his life in America, Muir never forgot his roots in Scotland and he held a strong connection with his birthplace and Scottish identity throughout his life and was frequently heard talking about his childhood spent amid the East Lothian countryside. He greatly admired the works of Thomas Carlyle and poetry of Robert Burns and he returned to Scotland on a trip in 1893, where he met one of his Dunbar schoolmates and visited the places of his youth that were etched in his memory. He also never lost his strong Scottish accent after many years living in America, in 1849, Muirs family immigrated to the United States, starting a farm near Portage, Wisconsin, called Fountain Lake Farm. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark, by age 11, young Muir had learned to recite by heart and by sore flesh all of the New Testament and most of the Old Testament
John Muir
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John Muir, c. 1902
John Muir
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Muir was born in the small house at left. His father bought the adjacent building in 1842, and made it the family home.
John Muir
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Entrance to
Fountain Lake Farm near
Portage, Wisconsin
John Muir
–
Photo of Muir by
Carleton Watkins, circa 1875
10.
Peter Kropotkin
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Prince Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin was a Russian activist, scientist, and philosopher, who advocated anarchism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, he attended a school and later served as an officer in Siberia. He was imprisoned for his activism in 1874 and managed to escape two years later and he spent the next 41 years in exile in Switzerland, France and in England. He returned to Russia after the Russian Revolution in 1917 but was disappointed by the Bolshevik form of state socialism, Kropotkin was a proponent of a decentralised communist society free from central government and based on voluntary associations of self-governing communities and worker-run enterprises. He also contributed the article on anarchism to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Kropotkin was born in Moscow, into the second-highest level of the Russian aristocracy. His mother was the daughter of a Cossack general and his father, Alexei Petrovich Kropotkin, was a prince in Smolensk, of the Rurik dynasty which had ruled Russia before the rise of the Romanovs. Kropotkins father owned large tracts of land and nearly 1,200 male serfs in three provinces, nder the influence of republican teachings, Kropotkin dropped his princely title at age 12, and even rebuked his friends, when they so referred to him. In 1857, at age 14, Kropotkin enrolled in the Corps of Pages at St. Petersburg, Kropotkins memoirs detail the hazing and other abuse of pages for which the Corps had become notorious. In Moscow, Kropotkin developed an interest in the condition of the peasantry, although his work as a page for Tsar Alexander II made Kropotkin skeptical about the tsars liberal reputation, Kropotkin was greatly pleased by the tsars decision to emancipate the serfs in 1861. In St. Petersburg, he read widely on his own account, in 1862, Kropotkin was promoted from the Corps of Pages to the army. The members of the corps had the right to choose the regiment to which they would be attached. For some time, he was aide de camp to the governor of Transbaikalia at Chita, later he was appointed attaché for Cossack affairs to the governor-general of East Siberia at Irkutsk. The expeditions yielded valuable geographical results, in 1866, Kropotkin began reading the works of the French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, and other political thinkers such as John Stuart Mill and Alexander Herzen. These readings, along with his experiences among peasants in Siberia and his departure from a family tradition of military service prompted his father to disinherit him, leaving him a prince with no visible means of support. In 1871, he explored the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden for the Society, accordingly, he refused the offer and returned to St. Petersburg, where he joined the revolutionary party. Kropotkin visited Switzerland in 1872 and became a member of the International Workingmens Association at Geneva, however, he found that he did not like IWAs style of socialism. Instead, he studied the programme of the more radical Jura federation at Neuchâtel and spent time in the company of the leading members, on returning to Russia, Kropotkins friend Dmitri Klements introduced him to the Circle of Tchaikovsky, a socialist/populist group created in 1872. Kropotkin worked to spread propaganda among peasants and workers
Peter Kropotkin
–
Kropotkin c. 1900 (aged 57)
Peter Kropotkin
–
Kropotkin in
Haparanda, 1917
Peter Kropotkin
–
Kropotkin's friend and comrade
Emma Goldman delivers a eulogy before crowds at his funeral, accompanied by
Alexander Berkman.
11.
T. H. Huxley
–
Thomas Henry Huxley PC PRS FLS was an English biologist, known as Darwins Bulldog for his advocacy of Charles Darwins theory of evolution. Huxleys famous debate in 1860 with Samuel Wilberforce was a key moment in the acceptance of evolution. Huxley had been planning to leave Oxford on the day, but, after an encounter with Robert Chambers. Wilberforce was coached by Richard Owen, against whom Huxley also debated about whether humans were closely related to apes. Huxley was slow to accept some of Darwins ideas, such as gradualism, and was undecided about natural selection, instrumental in developing scientific education in Britain, he fought against the more extreme versions of religious tradition. Originally coining the term in 1869, Huxley elaborated on agnosticism in 1889 to frame the nature of claims in terms of what is knowable and what is not. Huxley states Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the fundamental axiom of modern science. In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, in matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable. Use of that term has continued to the present day, Huxley had little formal schooling and was virtually self-taught. He became perhaps the finest comparative anatomist of the latter 19th century and he worked on invertebrates, clarifying relationships between groups previously little understood. Later, he worked on vertebrates, especially on the relationship between apes and humans, after comparing Archaeopteryx with Compsognathus, he concluded that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs, a theory widely accepted today. Thomas Henry Huxley was born in Ealing, which was then a village in Middlesex and he was the second youngest of eight children of George Huxley and Rachel Withers. Like some other British scientists of the century such as Alfred Russel Wallace. His father was a teacher at Ealing School until it closed. As a result, Thomas left school at age 10, after two years of formal schooling. Despite this unenviable start, Huxley was determined to educate himself and he became one of the great autodidacts of the nineteenth century. At first he read Thomas Carlyle, James Huttons Geology, in his teens he taught himself German, eventually becoming fluent and used by Charles Darwin as a translator of scientific material in German. He learned Latin, and enough Greek to read Aristotle in the original, later on, as a young adult, he made himself an expert, first on invertebrates, and later on vertebrates, all self-taught
T. H. Huxley
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Woodburytype print of Huxley (1880 or earlier)
T. H. Huxley
–
Huxley, aged 21
T. H. Huxley
–
HMS Rattlesnake by the ship's artist
Oswald Brierly
T. H. Huxley
–
Australian woman: Pencil drawing by Huxley
12.
James Hopwood Jeans
–
Sir James Hopwood Jeans OM FRS was an English physicist, astronomer and mathematician. Born in Ormskirk, Lancashire, the son of William Tulloch Jeans, Jeans was educated at Merchant Taylors School, Northwood, Wilsons Grammar School, Camberwell and Trinity College, Cambridge. He told them that he could not guarantee that they would come out higher than fifteenth in the list of wranglers, but he understood that they would never regret it. They accepted his advice, and went to R. R. Webb, Walker accordingly took Jeans himself, and the result was a triumph. Jeans was bracketed second wrangler with J. F. Cameron. R. W. H. T. Hudson was Senior Wrangler and G. H, Jeans was elected Fellow of Trinity College in October 1901, and taught at Cambridge, but went to Princeton University in 1904 as a professor of applied mathematics. He returned to Cambridge in 1910 and he made important contributions in many areas of physics, including quantum theory, the theory of radiation and stellar evolution. This theory is not accepted today, Jeans, along with Arthur Eddington, is a founder of British cosmology. In 1928 Jeans was the first to conjecture a steady state cosmology based on a continuous creation of matter in the universe. This theory fell out of favour when the 1965 discovery of the microwave background was widely interpreted as the tell-tale signature of the Big Bang. His scientific reputation is grounded in the monographs The Dynamical Theory of Gases, Theoretical Mechanics and these books made Jeans fairly well known as an expositor of the revolutionary scientific discoveries of his day, especially in relativity and physical cosmology. In 1939, the Journal of the British Astronomical Association reported that Jeans was going to stand as a candidate for parliament for the Cambridge University constituency, the election, expected to take place in 1939 or 1940 did not take place until 1945, and without his involvement. He also wrote the book Physics and Philosophy where he explores the different views on reality from two different perspectives, science and philosophy, on his religious views, Jeans was an agnostic Freemason. Jeans married twice, first to the American poet Charlotte Tiffany Mitchell in 1907, one of Jeans major discoveries, named Jeans length, is a critical radius of an interstellar cloud in space. It depends on the temperature, and density of the cloud, Jeans also helped to discover the Rayleigh–Jeans law, which relates the energy density of black-body radiation to the temperature of the emission source. F =8 π c k B T λ4 Jeans is also credited with calculating the rate of escape from a planet due to kinetic energy of the gas molecules. The stream of knowledge is heading towards a non-mechanical reality, the Universe begins to more like a great thought than like a great machine. Mind no longer appears to be an intruder into the realm of matter. We ought rather hail it as the creator and governor of the realm of matter and he replied, I incline to the idealistic theory that consciousness is fundamental, and that the material universe is derivative from consciousness, not consciousness from the material universe
James Hopwood Jeans
–
Sir James Hopwood Jeans
13.
Ernest Rutherford
–
Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, FRS was a New Zealand-born British physicist who came to be known as the father of nuclear physics. Encyclopædia Britannica considers him to be the greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday and this work was done at McGill University in Canada. Rutherford moved in 1907 to the Victoria University of Manchester in the UK, Rutherford performed his most famous work after he became a Nobel laureate. He conducted research that led to the first splitting of the atom in 1917 in a reaction between nitrogen and alpha particles, in which he also discovered the proton. Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919, after his death in 1937, he was honoured by being interred with the greatest scientists of the United Kingdom, near Sir Isaac Newtons tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical element rutherfordium was named after him in 1997, Ernest Rutherford was the son of James Rutherford, a farmer, and his wife Martha Thompson, originally from Hornchurch, Essex, England. James had emigrated to New Zealand from Perth, Scotland, to raise a little flax, Ernest was born at Brightwater, near Nelson, New Zealand. His first name was mistakenly spelled Earnest when his birth was registered, Rutherfords mother Martha Thompson was a schoolteacher. He studied at Havelock School and then Nelson College and won a scholarship to study at Canterbury College, University of New Zealand, in 1898 Thomson recommended Rutherford for a position at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. He was to replace Hugh Longbourne Callendar who held the chair of Macdonald Professor of physics and was coming to Cambridge, in 1901 he gained a DSc from the University of New Zealand. In 1907 Rutherford returned to Britain to take the chair of physics at the Victoria University of Manchester, during World War I, he worked on a top secret project to solve the practical problems of submarine detection by sonar. In 1916 he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal, in 1919 he returned to the Cavendish succeeding J. J. Thomson as the Cavendish professor and Director. Between 1925 and 1930 he served as President of the Royal Society, in 1933, Rutherford was one of the two inaugural recipients of the T. K. Sidey Medal, set up by the Royal Society of New Zealand as an award for outstanding scientific research. For some time before his death, Rutherford had a hernia, which he had neglected to have fixed. Despite an emergency operation in London, he died four days afterwards of what physicians termed intestinal paralysis, after cremation at Golders Green Crematorium, he was given the high honour of burial in Westminster Abbey, near Isaac Newton and other illustrious British scientists. At Cambridge, Rutherford started to work with J. J. Thomson on the effects of X-rays on gases. Hearing of Becquerels experience with uranium, Rutherford started to explore its radioactivity, continuing his research in Canada, he coined the terms alpha ray and beta ray in 1899 to describe the two distinct types of radiation. He then discovered that thorium gave off a gas which produced an emanation which was itself radioactive and he found that a sample of this radioactive material of any size invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay – its half-life
Ernest Rutherford
–
The Right Honourable The Lord Rutherford of Nelson
OM FRS
Ernest Rutherford
–
Signature
Ernest Rutherford
–
Rutherford aged 21
Ernest Rutherford
–
A plaque commemorating Rutherford's presence at the
Victoria University, Manchester
14.
Bertrand Russell
–
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, social critic, political activist and Nobel laureate. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist and he was born in Monmouthshire into one of the most prominent aristocratic families in the United Kingdom. In the early 20th century, Russell led the British revolt against idealism and he is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, colleague G. E. Moore, and protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is widely held to be one of the 20th centurys premier logicians, with A. N. Whitehead he wrote Principia Mathematica, an attempt to create a logical basis for mathematics. His philosophical essay On Denoting has been considered a paradigm of philosophy, Russell mostly was a prominent anti-war activist, he championed anti-imperialism. Occasionally, he advocated preventive nuclear war, before the opportunity provided by the monopoly is gone. He went to prison for his pacifism during World War I, in 1950 Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought. Bertrand Russell was born on 18 May 1872 at Ravenscroft, Trellech, Monmouthshire and his parents, Viscount and Viscountess Amberley, were radical for their times. Lord Amberley consented to his wifes affair with their childrens tutor, both were early advocates of birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous. Lord Amberley was an atheist and his atheism was evident when he asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russells secular godfather, Mill died the year after Russells birth, but his writings had a great effect on Russells life. His paternal grandfather, the Earl Russell, had asked twice by Queen Victoria to form a government. The Russells had been prominent in England for several centuries before this, coming to power, Lady Amberley was the daughter of Lord and Lady Stanley of Alderley. Russell often feared the ridicule of his grandmother, one of the campaigners for education of women. Russell had two siblings, brother Frank, and sister Rachel, in June 1874 Russells mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachels death. In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis following a period of depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly Victorian paternal grandparents and his grandfather, former Prime Minister Earl Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kindly old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, the Countess Russell, was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russells childhood, the countess was from a Scottish Presbyterian family, and successfully petitioned the Court of Chancery to set aside a provision in Amberleys will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Her favourite Bible verse, Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil, the atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression, and formality, Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings
Bertrand Russell
–
Russell as a four year-old
Bertrand Russell
–
Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Russell
–
Childhood home,
Pembroke Lodge
Bertrand Russell
–
Russell in 1907
15.
British Museum
–
The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
British Museum
–
British Museum
British Museum
–
The centre of the museum was redeveloped in 2001 to become the
Great Court, surrounding the original
Reading Room.
British Museum
–
Sir
Hans Sloane
British Museum
–
Montagu House, c. 1715
16.
Letterpress printing
–
A worker composes and locks movable type into the bed or chase of a press, inks it, and presses paper against it to transfer the ink from the type which creates an impression on the paper. With certain letterpress units it is possible to join movable type with slugs cast using hot metal typesetting. In theory, anything that is high or.918 inches can be printed using letterpress. All forms of data collection were affected by the invention of printing, as were many careers such as teachers, preachers, physicians and surgeons. More recently, letterpress printing has seen a revival in an artisanal form, johannes Gutenberg is credited with the development in the western hemisphere, in about 1440, of modern movable type printing from individually cast, reusable letters set together in a form. Movable type was first invented in China using ceramic type in 1040 AD and it was Gutenburgs screw press or hand press that was used to print 180 copies of the Bible. At 1,282 pages, it took him and his staff of 20 almost 3 years to complete and this form of presswork gradually replaced the hand copied manuscripts of scribes and illuminators as the most prevalent form of printing. Printers workshops, previously unknown in Europe before the century, were found in every important metropolis by 1500. Later metal presses used a knuckle and lever arrangement instead of the screw, Ink rollers made of composition made inking faster and paved the way for further automation. Meanwhile, a sheet of paper slid against a hinged platen, which then rapidly pressed onto the type and swung back again as the sheet was removed, as the fresh sheet of paper replaced the printed paper, the now freshly-inked rollers ran over the type again. Fully automated 20th-century presses, such as the Kluge and Original Heidelberg Platen, incorporated pneumatic sheet feed, rotary presses were used for high-speed work. In a newspaper press, a mixture called a flong used to make a mould of the entire form of type, then dried and bent. The plates were clipped to a drum and could print against a continuous reel of paper at the enormously high speeds required for overnight newspaper production. This invention helped aid the high demand for knowledge during this time period, Letterpress printing was introduced in Canada in 1752 in Halifax, Nova Scotia by John Bushell in the newspaper format. This paper was named the Halifax Gazette and became Canadas first newspaper, Bushell apprenticed under Bartholomew Green in Boston. Green moved to Halifax in 1751 in hopes of starting a newspaper, two weeks and a day after the press he was going to use for this new project arrived in Halifax, Green died. Upon receiving word about what happened, Bushell moved to Halifax, the Halifax Gazette was first published on March 23,1752, making Bushell the first letterpress printer in Halifax, and eventually Canada. There is only one surviving copy which was found in Massachusetts Historical Society
Letterpress printing
–
A printer inspecting a large form of type on a cylinder press. Each of the islands of text represents a single page, the darker blocks are images. The whole bed of type is printed on a single sheet of paper, which is then folded and cut to form many individual pages of a book.
Letterpress printing
–
Printer operating a Gutenberg-style screw press
Letterpress printing
–
1917 press room, using a
line shaft power system. At right are several small platen
jobbing presses, at left, a
cylinder press.
Letterpress printing
–
Proof press, 1850
17.
Galley proof
–
In printing and publishing, proofs are the preliminary versions of publications meant for review by authors, editors, and proofreaders, often with extra-wide margins. Galley proofs may be uncut and unbound, or in some cases electronically published and they are created for proofreading and copyediting purposes, but may be used for promotional and review purposes also. The printer would then receive the edits, re-arrange the type, proofs in electronic form are rarely offered for advance reading. Proofs issued in the proofreading and copy-editing review phase are called galleys or galley proofs, proofs created in a version for editing and checking purposes are called page proofs. In the page-proof stage, mistakes are supposed to have been corrected, to correct a mistake at this stage is expensive, page layouts are examined closely in the page proof stage. Page proofs also have the final pagination, which facilitates compiling the index, uncorrected proof describes the penultimate proof version yet to receive final author and publisher approval, the term appearing on the covers of advance reading copies
Galley proof
–
First galley proof of A la recherche du temps perdu: Du côté de chez Swann with handwritten revision notes by
Marcel Proust
Galley proof
–
Pulling a galley proof
18.
Stielers Handatlas
–
Published by Justus Perthes of Gotha it went through ten editions from 1816 to 1944. As with many 19th century publications, an edition was issued in parts, for example, the first edition, by Stieler and Christian Gottlieb Reichard was first published in 1817. The editions fifty maps were completed in 1823, after Stielers death Friedrich von Stülpnagel edited the second and third editions containing 83 maps, a fourth edition appeared 1862-64, a fifth 1866-68, both with 84 maps. A seventh edition was issued 1879-82, an eighth 1888-91 under the direction of Hermann Berghaus, Vogel,16 maps hereof were exclusively translated to English, transferred to Imperial units and became part the 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Hermann Haack edited the tenth edition, with an index to 320,000 entries being the most comprehensive atlas of modern times. English versions of the ninth and tenth editions appeared as Stielers Atlas of Modern Geography, an international edition remained with 84 of the 114 maps planned incomplete due to wartime circumstances. The work was engraved on 432 copper plates which have been preserved, davidRumsey. com The 1875 6th Edition Handatlas, and many other maps and atlases, are viewable online maproom. org 1891 8th Edition Handatlas handatlas. de Web archive of the great German Hand-Atlases. Köhler, F, Gothaer Wege in Geographie und Kartographie Suchy, G, Gothaer Geographen und Kartographen
Stielers Handatlas
–
Map of
India and
Asia, printed in
Stieler's Atlas.
Stielers Handatlas
–
Map of
Iran and
Turan in
Qajar dynasty drawn by
Adolf Stieler
19.
Imperial units
–
The system of imperial units or the imperial system is the system of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act of 1824, which was later refined and reduced. The Imperial units replaced the Winchester Standards, which were in effect from 1588 to 1825, the system came into official use across the British Empire. The imperial system developed from what were first known as English units, the Weights and Measures Act of 1824 was initially scheduled to go into effect on 1 May 1825. However, the Weights and Measures Act of 1825 pushed back the date to 1 January 1826, the 1824 Act allowed the continued use of pre-imperial units provided that they were customary, widely known, and clearly marked with imperial equivalents. Apothecaries units are mentioned neither in the act of 1824 nor 1825, at the time, apothecaries weights and measures were regulated in England, Wales, and Berwick-upon-Tweed by the London College of Physicians, and in Ireland by the Dublin College of Physicians. In Scotland, apothecaries units were unofficially regulated by the Edinburgh College of Physicians, the three colleges published, at infrequent intervals, pharmacopoeiae, the London and Dublin editions having the force of law. The Medical Act of 1858 transferred to The Crown the right to publish the official pharmacopoeia and to regulate apothecaries weights, Metric equivalents in this article usually assume the latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the imperial Standard Yard was 0.914398416 metres, in 1824, the various different gallons in use in the British Empire were replaced by the imperial gallon, a unit close in volume to the ale gallon. It was originally defined as the volume of 10 pounds of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the standing at 30 inches of mercury at a temperature of 62 °F. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 switched to a gallon of exactly 4.54609 l and these measurements were in use from 1826, when the new imperial gallon was defined, but were officially abolished in the United Kingdom on 1 January 1971. In the USA, though no longer recommended, the system is still used occasionally in medicine. The troy pound was made the unit of mass by the 1824 Act, however, its use was abolished in the UK on 1 January 1879, with only the troy ounce. The Weights and Measures Act 1855 made the pound the primary unit of mass. In all the systems, the unit is the pound. For the yard, the length of a pendulum beating seconds at the latitude of Greenwich at Mean Sea Level in vacuo was defined as 39.01393 inches, the imperial system is one of many systems of English units. Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes. The distinctions between these systems are not drawn precisely. One such distinction is that between these systems and older British/English units/systems or newer additions, the US customary system is historically derived from the English units that were in use at the time of settlement
Imperial units
–
The former Weights and Measures office in
Seven Sisters, London.
Imperial units
–
Imperial standards of length 1876 in
Trafalgar Square, London.
Imperial units
–
A baby bottle that measures in three measurement systems—metric, imperial (UK), and US customary.
Imperial units
–
A one US gallon gas can purchased near the US-Canada border. It shows equivalences in imperial gallons and litres.
20.
Gotha
–
Gotha is the fifth-largest city in Thuringia, Germany, located 20 kilometres west of Erfurt and 25 km east of Eisenach with a population of 44,000. The city is the capital of the district of Gotha and was also a residence of the Ernestine Wettins from 1640 until the end of monarchy in Germany in 1918. The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha originating here spawned many European rulers, including the houses of England, Belgium, Portugal. The first duke, Ernest the Pious was famous for his wise rule, in the 18th century, the Almanach de Gotha was first published in the city. The cartographer Justus Perthes and the encyclopedist Joseph Meyer made Gotha a leading centre of German publishing around 1800, in the early 19th century, Gotha was a birthplace of the German insurance business. The SPD was founded in Gotha in 1875 by merging two predecessors, in that period Gotha became an industrial centre, with companies such as the Gothaer Waggonfabrik, a producer of trams and later aeroplanes. Gotha lies in the part of the Thuringian Basin in a flat. Gotha has existed at least since the 8th century, when it was mentioned in a document signed by Charlemagne as Villa Gotaha in 775, the first settlement was probably located around todays Hersdorfplatz outside the north-eastern edge of the later city centre. During the 11th century, the nearby Ludowingians received the village and established the city in the late 12th century, as Gotha became their second most important city after Eisenach. One of the oldest pieces of evidence of trade in the city is the Gotha cache of coins with nearly 800 Bracteates. In 1180, Gotha was first mentioned as a city, when the area between Brühl and Jüdenstraße became the core of urban development, highlighting the early presence of Jews in this old trading town. The parish church of this first urban settlement was St. Marys Church at Schlossberg, the castle was first mentioned in 1217. As the Ludowingians died out in 1247, Gotha became part of the Wettins territories, the new town east of Querstraße was established in the early 15th century. The monastery was founded before 1251 and abandoned in 1525, until 1665, the bourse of Gotha was located in the centre of Hauptmarkt square inside the Renaissance building, which hosts the town hall today. The medieval town hall was located on the edge of Hauptmarkt. Water supply was a big problem, because Gotha is not located on a river, in 1369, Landgrave Balthasar had the Leinakanal built. This channel, over 25 kilometres long, brought water from the Thuringian Forest to the city. The main businesses of medieval Gotha were cloth-making and the woad trade, the Reformation was introduced in Gotha in 1524 and the castle was rebuilt as a larger fortress between 1530 and 1541
Gotha
–
Top left: St Margarethen, Top right: Marstall, Middle left:
Water feature in front of Friedenstein Castle, Middle right: Rathaus Gotha in Hauptmarkt, Bottom left: View of Christmas illumination event in Hauptmarkt, Bottom centre: Porch in St Margarethen Church, Bottom right: Bruhl Street
Gotha
Gotha
–
A Gotha coin from the 13th century
Gotha
–
Memorial to Ernest the Pious in front of Friedenstein Castle
21.
Justus Perthes
–
Johann Georg Justus Perthes was a German publisher and founder of the publishing house that bears his name. He was born in the Thuringian town of Rudolstadt, the son of a Schwarzburg court physician, from 1778 he worked as a bookseller in nearby Gotha, where he founded the cartographic publishing firm Justus Perthes Geographische Anstalt Gotha in 1785. In this, he was joined in 1814 by his son Wilhelm Perthes and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Perthes, Johan Georg Justus. See an 1872 map by August Petermann, published by Justus Perthes, hosted by the Portal to Texas History. The 1875 Stieler Hand-Atlas, and many maps and atlases, are viewable online at DavidRumsey. de More information about Almanach de Gotha online at perthes. de
Justus Perthes
–
Justus Perthes
22.
Geography
–
Geography is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the phenomena of Earth. The first person to use the word γεωγραφία was Eratosthenes, Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of the Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. It is often defined in terms of the two branches of geography and physical geography. Geography has been called the world discipline and the bridge between the human and the physical sciences, Geography is a systematic study of the Earth and its features. Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names, although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the space and the temporal database distribution of phenomena, processes, because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and its spatial patterns. Names of places. are not geography. know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself and this is a description of the world—that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause, just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography. Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main fields, human geography and physical geography. The former largely focuses on the environment and how humans create, view, manage. The latter examines the environment, and how organisms, climate, soil, water. The difference between these led to a third field, environmental geography, which combines physical and human geography. Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science and it aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns. Physical geography can be divided into broad categories, including, Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns. It encompasses the human, political, cultural, social, and it requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, as well as the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment. Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge between the human and the geography, as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Examples of areas of research in the environmental geography include, emergency management, environmental management, sustainability, geomatics is concerned with the application of computers to the traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography
Geography
–
Map of the
Earth
Geography
–
Biogeography
Geography
Geography
23.
Science
–
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
Science
–
Maize, known in some English-speaking countries as corn, is a large
grain plant domesticated by
indigenous peoples in
Mesoamerica in
prehistoric times.
Science
–
The scale of the universe mapped to the branches of science and the hierarchy of science.
Science
–
Aristotle, 384 BC – 322 BC, - one of the early figures in the development of the
scientific method.
Science
–
Galen (129—c.216) noted the optic chiasm is X-shaped. (Engraving from
Vesalius, 1543)
24.
History
–
History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory and it is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians and their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In Asia, a chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries, the modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, the word history comes ultimately from Ancient Greek ἱστορία, meaning inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι, the ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions. History was borrowed from Latin into Old English as stær, and it was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time the loan stuck. In Middle English, the meaning of history was story in general, the restriction to the meaning the branch of knowledge that deals with past events, the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs arose in the mid-fifteenth century. With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the sixteenth century. For him, historia was the knowledge of objects determined by space and time, in an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are synthetic and highly inflected. The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669, Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is attested from 1531. Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, in the words of Benedetto Croce, All history is contemporary history. History is facilitated by the formation of a discourse of past through the production of narrative. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record, the task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents
History
–
Historia by
Nikolaos Gysis (1892)
History
–
History by
Frederick Dielman (1896)
History
–
The title page to
The Historians' History of the World
History
–
The title page to"La Historia d'Italia"
25.
Fine art
–
Historically, the five main fine arts were painting, sculpture, architecture, music and poetry, with performing arts including theatre and dance. Today, the fine arts commonly include additional forms, such as film, photography, video production/editing, design, sequential art, conceptual art, and printmaking. However, in some institutes of learning or in museums, fine art, in that sense, there are conceptual differences between the fine arts and the applied arts. The word fine does not so much denote the quality of the artwork in question and this definition originally excluded the applied or decorative arts, and the products of what were regarded as crafts. According to some writers the concept of a category of fine art is an invention of the early modern period in the West. Larry Shiner in his The Invention of Art, A Cultural History locates the invention in the 18th century, There was a traditional “system of the arts” in the West before the eighteenth century. ”Similar ideas have been expressed by Paul Oskar Kristeller, Pierre Bourdieu, and Terry Eagleton, though the point of invention is often placed earlier, in the Italian Renaissance. The separation of arts and crafts that often exists in Europe, in Japanese aesthetics the activities of everyday life are depicted by integrating not only art with craft but man-made with nature. Traditional Chinese art distinguished within Chinese painting between the mostly landscape painting of scholar gentlemen and the artisans of the schools of court painting. A high status was given to many things that would be seen as craft objects in the West, in particular ceramics, jade carving, weaving. Drawing is a form of expression and is one of the major forms of the visual arts. Common instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, chalk, pastels, markers, stylus, There are a number of subcategories of drawing, including cartooning. Mosaics are images formed with pieces of stone or glass. They can be decorative or functional, an artist who designs and makes mosaics is called a mosaic artist or a mosaicist. Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print is considered an original, as opposed to a copy, the reasoning behind this is that the print is not a reproduction of another work of art in a different medium — for instance, a painting — but rather an image designed from inception as a print. An individual print is also referred to as an impression, prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix. But there are other kinds, discussed below. Multiple nearly identical prints can be called an edition, in modern times each print is often signed and numbered forming a limited edition
Fine art
–
Self-Portrait with Two Circles, oil on canvas,
Rembrandt, c. 1665–1669.
Fine art
–
Black Square, oil on canvas,
Kazimir Malevich, 1923–29
Fine art
–
History of art
Fine art
–
Mosaic of
Christ Pantocrator from
Hagia Sophia
26.
Social science
–
Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
Social science
–
Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in
Chichicastenango Market,
Guatemala.
Social science
–
A depiction of world's oldest university, the
University of Bologna, in Italy
Social science
–
This article is about the science studying social groups. For the integrated field of study intended to promote civic competence, see
Social studies.
Social science
–
A trial at a criminal court, the
Old Bailey in
London
27.
Psychology
–
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
Psychology
–
Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind.
Psychology
–
MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the
hypothalamus.
Psychology
–
Skinner's
teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of
programmed instruction
Psychology
–
Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.
28.
Sears Roebuck
–
Sears, Roebuck & Company, also known simply as Sears, is an American chain of department stores founded by Richard Warren Sears and Alvah Curtis Roebuck in 1886. Formerly based at the Sears Tower in Chicago and currently headquartered in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, it began as a mail ordering catalog company and began opening retail locations in 1925. The company was bought by the American big box chain Kmart in 2005, in terms of domestic revenue, Sears was the largest retailer in the United States until October 1989, when Walmart surpassed the record. It is currently the fifth-largest American department store company by sales as of October 2013, Sears operates divisions in Canada and Mexico, as well as several other subsidiaries within its brand. Richard Warren Sears was a station agent in North Redwood, Minnesota. Sears purchased them, then sold the watches for a profit to other station agents. Soon he started a business selling watches through mail order catalogs, the next year, he moved to Chicago, Illinois, where he met Alvah C. Roebuck, who joined him in the business, farmers did business in small rural towns. Before the Sears catalog, farmers typically bought supplies from local general stores with narrow selections of goods, prices were negotiated, and depended on the storekeepers estimate of a customers creditworthiness. Sears took advantage of this by publishing catalogs offering customers a selection of products at clearly stated prices. The first Sears catalog was published in 1888, in 1893, Richard Sears and Alvah Roebuck renamed their watch company Sears, Roebuck & Company and began to diversify. By 1894, the Sears catalog had grown to 322 pages, featuring sewing machines, bicycles, sporting goods, automobiles, by 1895, the company was producing a 532-page catalog. Sales were greater than $400,000 in 1893 and more than $750,000 two years later, by 1896, dolls, stoves and groceries had been added to the catalog. The company had sales of $800,000 in 1895, but the national Panic of 1893—a full scale depression—caused a cash squeeze and large quantities of unsold merchandise. Sears offered Roebucks half of the company to Chicago businessman Aaron Nusbaum, in August 1895, they bought Roebucks half of the company for $75,000. The new Sears, Roebuck and Company was re-incorporated in Illinois with a stock of $150,000 in August 1895. The transaction was handled by Albert Henry Loeb of the Chicago Law Firm of Loeb & Adler, copies of the transaction documents are now displayed on the walls of the Law Firm. Sears and Rosenwald got along well with other, but not with Nusbaum
Sears Roebuck
–
Richard Warren Sears
Sears Roebuck
–
Sears
Sears Roebuck
–
The exterior of the
Sears Merchandise Building Tower.
Sears Roebuck
–
Sears Tower
29.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
30.
British Empire
–
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
British Empire
–
A replica of The Matthew,
John Cabot 's ship used for his second voyage to the
New World.
British Empire
–
Flag
British Empire
–
African slaves working in 17th-century
Virginia, by an unknown artist, 1670.
British Empire
–
Fort St. George was founded at
Madras in 1639.
Chapter 1.
