1.
Economy of Turkey
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The economy of Turkey is defined as an emerging market economy by the IMF. Turkey is among the developed countries according to the CIA World Factbook. Turkey has the worlds 18th-largest nominal GDP, and 17th-largest GDP by PPP, Turkey has the worlds 18th-largest nominal GDP, and 17th-largest GDP by PPP. The country is a member of the OECD and the G-20 major economies. Since December 31,1995, Turkey is also a part of the EU Customs Union, Turkey has been meeting the “60 percent EU Maastricht criteria” for public debt stock since 2004. Similarly, from 2002 to 2011, the budget deficit decreased from more than 10 percent to less than 3 percent, the CIA classifies Turkey as a developed country. The World Bank classifies Turkey as an upper-middle income country in terms of the countrys per capita GDP in 2007, mean graduate pay was $10.02 per man-hour in 2010. Turkeys labour force participation rate of 56. 1% is by far the lowest of the OECD states which have a rate of 74%. According to a survey by Forbes magazine, Istanbul, Turkeys financial capital, had a total of 37 billionaires in 2013, ranking 5th in the world behind Moscow, New York City, Hong Kong and London. As a result, the production of consumer goods increased by 7. 2%. The Turkish Stock Market and credit rating agencies have responded positively, according to The Economist, share prices in Turkey nearly doubled over the course of 2009. On 8 January 2010, International credit rating agency Moodys upgraded Turkeys rating one notch, according to Daniel Dombey of the Financial Times, a bit over five years ago, the European Union accounted for much more than half of all Turkey’s exports. Now the figure is heading down toward not much more than a third”, erdem Başçı, Turkey’s central bank governor, predicts that Iraq will eventually become Turkey’s largest export market. The Turkish government is involved in helping to facilitate private sector expansion in emerging markets. The AKP government is seeking to improve economic and political relations with the autonomous Kurdish Regional Government in northern Iraq. In 2013 Turkey had a current account deficit and high external financing need. In 2016 the Turkish Lira lost 20% of its value against the dollar, Turkish economic growth slowed down to 2. 5% in that year. In September 2016, Moodys cut Turkeys sovereign debt to junk status, Turkey has been self-sufficient in food production since the 1980s
2.
Turkish lira
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The Turkish lira is the currency of Turkey and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The Turkish lira is subdivided into 100 kuruş, the lira, along with the related currencies of Europe and the Middle East, has its roots in the ancient Roman unit of weight known as the libra which referred to the Troy pound of silver. The Roman libra adoption of the currency spread it throughout Europe and the Near East, the Turkish lira, the French livre, the Italian lira, and the British pound are the modern descendants of the ancient currency. The Ottoman lira was introduced as the unit of currency in 1844, with the former currency, kuruş. The Ottoman lira remained in circulation until the end of 1927, historical banknotes from the second, third and fourth issues have portraits of İsmet İnönü on the obverse side. This change was done according to the 12 January 1926 issue of the official gazette, from 1970, a series of hard, then soft pegs to the dollar operated as the value of the Turkish lira began to fall. The Turkish lira had slid in value so far that one original gold lira coin could be sold for 154,400,000 Turkish lira before the 2005 revaluation. In December 2003, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey passed a law allowed for redenomination by the removal of six zeros from the Turkish lira. It was introduced on 1 January 2005, replacing the previous Turkish lira at a rate of 1 second Turkish lira =1,000,000 first Turkish lira, with the revaluation of the Turkish lira, the Romanian leu briefly became the worlds least valued currency unit. At the same time, the Government introduced two new banknotes called TRY100 and TRY50, in the transition period between January 2005 and December 2008, the second Turkish lira was officially called Yeni Türk Lirası. It was officially abbreviated YTL and subdivided into 100 new kuruş, starting in January 2009, the new marking was removed from the second Turkish lira, its official name becoming just Turkish lira again, abbreviated TL. All obverse sides of current banknotes and reverse sides of current coins have portraits of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, also, the center and ring alloys of the 50 kuruş and 1 Turkish lira coins were reversed. A new series of banknotes, the E-9 Emission Group entered circulation on 1 January 2009, the E-9 banknotes refer to the currency as Turkish lira rather than new Turkish lira and include a new 200-Turkish-lira denomination. The new banknotes have different sizes to prevent forgery, the main specificity of this new series is that each denomination depicts a famous Turkish personality, rather than geographical sites and architectural features of Turkey. The dominant color of the 5-Turkish-lira banknote has been determined as purple on the series of the current banknotes. Turkish Lira exchange rates became more stable after 2004, dollar =3.44 Turkish lira The current currency sign of Turkish lira was created by the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey in 2012. The new sign was selected after a country-wide contest, the new symbol, created by Tülay Lale, is composed of the letter L shaped like a half anchor, and embedded double-striped letter T angled at 20 degrees. Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan announced the new symbol on 1 March 2012, at its unveiling, Erdoğan explained the design as the anchor shape hopes to convey that the currency is a safe harbor while the upward-facing lines represent its rising prestige
3.
Geography of Turkey
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Turkey is situated in Anatolia and the Balkans, bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Georgia, and bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Syria. The geographic coordinates of the lie at, 39°00′N 35°00′E The area of Turkey is 783,562 km2, land,770,760 km2. Turkey extends more than 1,600 km from west to east, the total area consists of about 756,816 km2 in Western Asia and about 23,764 km2 in Southeastern Europe. Anatolia is a large, roughly rectangular peninsula, situated bridge-like between Europe and Asia, the Anatolian part of Turkey accounts for 95% of the countrys area. It is also known as Asia Minor, Asiatic Turkey or the Anatolian Plateau, the European portion of Turkey, known as Thrace, encompasses roughly 5% of the total area but is home to more than 10% of the total population. Istanbul, the largest city of Thrace and Turkey, has a population of 11,372,613. Thrace is separated from Anatolia by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, which collectively form the strategic Turkish Straits that link the Aegean Sea with the Black Sea. Mount Ararat, Turkeys tallest mountain with an elevation of 5,137 m, is the landing place of Noahs Ark and is located in the far eastern portion of the country. Land boundaries,2,627 km border countries, Greece 206 km, Bulgaria 240 km, Georgia 252 km, Armenia 268 km, Nakhchivan 9 km, Iran 499 km, Iraq 331 km, Syria 822 km. Its demarcated land frontiers were settled by treaty early in the century and have since remained stable. The boundary with Greece was confirmed by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, the boundary with Bulgaria was confirmed by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. The boundary with Iran was confirmed by the Treaty of Kasr-ı Şirin in 1639, the boundary with Iraq was confirmed by the Treaty of Angora in 1926. Turkeys two southern neighbors, Iraq and Syria, had part of the Ottoman Empire up to 1918. Turkey and Britain agreed the boundary in the Treaty of Angora, Turkeys boundary with Syria has not been accepted by Syria. As a result of the Treaty of Lausanne, the former Ottoman Sanjak of Alexandretta was ceded to the French which administered it on behalf of the League of Nations. However, in June 1939 the people of Hatay had formed a new independent State and immediately after, since achieving independence in 1946, Syria has harbored a lingering resentment and this issue has continued to be an irritant in Syrian-Turkish relations. The 1st Geography Congress, held in Ankara City between 6–21 June 1941, divided Turkey into seven regions after long discussions and work. These geographical regions were separated according to their climate, location, flora and fauna, human habitat, agricultural diversities, transportation, topography, etc
4.
Transport in Turkey
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This article deals with the system of transport in Turkey, both public and private. The TCDD - Türkiye Devlet Demir Yolları possess 10,984 km of 1,435 mm gauge, there are daily regular passenger trains all through the network. TCDD has started an investment program of building 5.000 km high-speed lines until 2023, by February 2014, three high speed train routes are running. The freight transportation is mainly organized as block trains for domestic routes, in 2004, Marmaray project started on a rail tunnel under the Bosphorus straits. Between Istanbul and Ankara, a high speed line is being constructed now next to the normal speed railroad which is being renovated. When finished, travel time between the two cities will reduce from 6,5 hours to 3 hours and 10 minutes. The high speed line between Ankara and Konya was finished on 3 June 2011 and was put into service on 23 August 2011. Several other high speed and normal railroad projects are currently in the planning stage, because of works connected with the Marmaray and Istanbul-Ankara high speed line there are currently no rail services linking Istanbul with the rest of Anatolia. The suburban services from Haydarpaşa terminate at Pendik where the tracks end. After almost 30 years without any trams, Turkey is experiencing a revival in trams, established in 1992, the tram system of Istanbul earned the best large-scale tram management award in 2005. Another award winning tram network belongs to Eskişehir, a city with a new system opened in 2004. Several other cities are planning or constructing tram lines, usually with modern low-floow trams, by 2014, there have been 12 cities in Turkey using metro, light rail and tram systems. They are Istanbul, Izmir, Ankara, Bursa, Eskisehir, Kayseri, Gaziantep, Konya, Samsun, Adana, Antalya, the total network is more than 500 kilometers and the rolling stock exceeds 1800 by now. Even if they mostly possess dual carriageways and interchanges, they also have some traffic lights, - The second type of roads are controlled-access highways that are officially named Otoyol. But it isnt uncommon that people in Turkey call them Otoban as this types of roads enterred in popular culture by the means of Turks in Germany and they also depend on the General Directorate of Highways except the newest Otoyol 5 that is financed with a BOT model. Total network,426,906 km Paved,177,550 km Motorways,2,080 km Dual carriageways,16,784 km Unpaved,249,356 km As of 2010, there are numerous private bus companies providing connections between cities in Turkey. For local trips to villages there are dolmuşes, small vans that seat about twenty passengers, as of 2010, number of road vehicles is around 15 million. The number of vehicles by type and use is as follows.023 million as of November 2010, total number of motor vehicles was 11,695,611 at the end of 2007
5.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
6.
Wind farm
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A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. A wind farm can also be located offshore, many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in Germany, China and the United States. For example, the largest wind farm in the world, Gansu Wind Farm in China has a capacity of over 6,000 MW of power in 2012 with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020. The Muppandal Wind farm in Tamil Nadu, India is the largest onshore wind farm outside of China, with a capacity of 1,500 MW. As of April 2013, the 630 MW London Array in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, followed by the 504 MW Greater Gabbard wind farm in the UK. There are many wind farms under construction, including Fosen Vind, Sinus Holding Wind Farm, Lincs Wind Farm, Lower Snake River Wind Project. As a general rule, economic wind generators require windspeed of 4.5 m/s or greater, an ideal location would have a near constant flow of non-turbulent wind throughout the year, with a minimum likelihood of sudden powerful bursts of wind. An important factor of turbine siting is also access to local demand or transmission capacity, usually sites are screened on the basis of a wind atlas, and validated with wind measurements. Meteorological wind data alone is not sufficient for accurate siting of a large wind power project. Collection of site specific data for wind speed and direction is crucial to determining site potential in order to finance the project, local winds are often monitored for a year or more, and detailed wind maps constructed before wind generators are installed. The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the influence of drag. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows a wind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the wind speeds by 10%. In general, a distance of 7D is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind farm, but micrositing optimizes placement, particularly in hilly areas, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage transmission system. Construction of a wind farm requires installation of the collector system and substation. The worlds first wind farm was 0.6 MW, consisting of 20 wind turbines rated at 30 kilowatts each, onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines generally three kilometres or more inland from the nearest shoreline. This is done to exploit the topographic acceleration as the wind accelerates over a ridge, the additional wind speeds gained in this way can increase energy produced because more wind goes through the turbines
7.
Electricity generation
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Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy. For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers, the other processes as transmission, distribution, energy storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power, the fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. This method is used today, electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire. Central power stations became practical with the development of alternating current power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1882, the use of power-lines and power-poles have been significantly important in the distribution of electricity. There are seven fundamental methods of transforming other forms of energy into electrical energy. Static electricity, form the physical separation and transport of charge and it was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic generator is still used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and MHD generators. In Electromagnetic induction, a generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faradays law and it can be experimented by rotating a magnet within closed loops of a conducting material. Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate. Almost all electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine, driven by wind, water, there are many different methods of developing mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. Most electric generation is driven by heat engines, the combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. The modern steam turbine currently generates about 80% of the power in the world using a variety of heat sources. Power sources include, Steam Water is boiled by coal burned in a power plant. Nuclear fission heat created in a nuclear reactor creates steam, less than 15% of electricity is generated this way. Natural gas, turbines are directly by gases produced by combustion. Combined cycle are driven by steam and natural gas
8.
Lignite
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Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is a soft brown combustible sedimentary rock formed from naturally compressed peat. It is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its low heat content. It has a carbon content around 60–70 percent and it is mined all around the world and is used almost exclusively as a fuel for steam-electric power generation, but is also mined for its germanium content in China. The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 to 20 MJ/kg on a moist, the energy content of lignite consumed in the United States averages 15 MJ/kg, on the as-received basis. The energy content of lignite consumed in Victoria, Australia, averages 8.4 MJ/kg, lignite has a high content of volatile matter which makes it easier to convert into gas and liquid petroleum products than higher-ranking coals. Unfortunately, its moisture content and susceptibility to spontaneous combustion can cause problems in transportation. However, removing the moisture increases the cost of the final lignite fuel, because of its low energy density and typically high moisture content, brown coal is inefficient to transport and is not traded extensively on the world market compared with higher coal grades. It is often burned in power stations near the mines, such as in Australias Latrobe Valley, the operation of traditional brown-coal plants, particularly in combination with strip mining, can be politically contentious due to environmental concerns. An environmentally beneficial use of lignite can be found in its use in cultivation and distribution of biological control microbes that suppress plant disease causing microbes, lignite begins as an accumulation of partially decayed plant material, or peat. Burial by other sediments results in increasing temperature, depending on the geothermal gradient and tectonic setting. This causes compaction of the material and loss of some of the water and this process, called coalification, concentrates the carbon content, and thus the heat content, of the material. Deeper burial and the passage of time result in expulsion of moisture and volatile matter, eventually transforming the material into higher rank coals such as bituminous. Lignite deposits are younger than higher-ranked coals, with the majority of them having formed during the Tertiary period. The Latrobe Valley in the state of Victoria, Australia, contains estimated reserves of some 65 billion tonnes of brown coal, the deposit is equivalent to 25 percent of known world reserves. The coal seams are up to 100 metres thick, with coal seams often giving virtually continuous brown coal thickness of up to 230 metres. Seams are covered by little overburden. Lignite can be separated into two types, the first is xyloid lignite or fossil wood and the second form is the compact lignite or perfect lignite. Although xyloid lignite may sometimes have the tenacity and the appearance of ordinary wood and it is reducible to a fine powder by trituration, and if submitted to the action of a weak solution of potash, it yields a considerable quantity of humic acid
9.
Environmental impact of the coal industry
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The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use, waste management, water and air pollution, caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products. There are severe health effects caused by burning coal, according to a report by the World Health Organization in 2008, coal particulates pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 1,000,000 lives annually worldwide. A2004 study commissioned by environmental groups, but contested by the US EPA, coal mining generates significant adverse environmental impacts. Historically, coal mining has been a dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one. Underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse, open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions. In the United States, an average of 26 coal miners per year died in the decade 2005-2014, strip mining severely alters the landscape, which reduces the value of the natural environment in the surrounding land. The land surface is dedicated to mining activities until it can be reshaped and reclaimed, if mining is allowed, resident human populations must be resettled off the mine site, economic activities, such as agriculture or hunting and gathering food and medicinal plants are interrupted. What becomes of the surface after mining is determined by the manner in which the mining is conducted. Usually reclamation of disturbed lands to a land use condition is not equal to the original use, existing land uses are temporarily eliminated mining area. High-value, intensive-land-use areas like urban and transportation systems are not usually affected by mining operations, if mineral values are sufficient, these improvements may be removed to an adjacent area. Adverse impacts on geological features of human interest may occur in a strip mine. Geomorphic and geophysical features and outstanding scenic resources may be sacrificed by indiscriminate mining, paleontological, cultural, and other historic values may be endangered due to the disruptive activities of blasting, ripping, and excavating coal. Stripping of overburden eliminates and destroys archeological and historic features, unless they are removed beforehand, dust degrades air quality in the immediate area, has an adverse impact on vegetative life, and constitutes health and safety hazards for mine workers and nearby residents. Surface mining disrupts virtually all elements of the landscape. Alteration of landforms often imposes unfamiliar and discontinuous configurations, New linear patterns appear as material is extracted and waste piles are developed. Different colors and textures are exposed as vegetative cover is removed, dust, vibration, and diesel exhaust odors are created. Residents of local communities often find such impacts disturbing or unpleasant, in case of mountaintop removal, tops are removed from mountains or hills to expose thick coal seams underneath. The soil and rock removed is deposited in valleys, hollows and depressions
10.
Solar power by country
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Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies, Photovoltaic systems use solar panels, either on rooftops or in ground-mounted solar farms, Concentrated solar power plants use solar thermal energy to make steam, that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine. Worldwide growth of photovoltaics is extremely dynamic and varies strongly by country, as in the year before, the top installers of 2014 were China, followed by Japan and the United States, while the United Kingdom emerged as new European leader ahead of Germany and France. Germany remains for one year the worlds largest producer of solar power with an overall installed capacity of 38.2 GW. The newcomers of the year were Chile and South Africa, which entered straight into the worlds Top 10 ranking of added capacity, there are now 20 countries around the world with a cumulative PV capacity of more than one gigawatt. Thailand, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, all crossed the one gigawatt-mark in 2014, the available solar PV capacity in Italy, Germany and Greece is now sufficient to supply between 7% and 8% of their respective domestic electricity consumption. After an almost two decade hiatus, deployment of CSP resumed in 2007, with significant growth only in the most recent years. However, the design for new projects is being changed to cheaper photovoltaics. Most operational CSP stations are located in Spain and the United States, while large solar farms using photovoltaics are being constructed in an expanding list of geographic regions. As of January 2017, the largest solar plants in the world are the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park in China for PV. This gives solar power the potential to bring energy to any location in Africa without the need for expensive large scale grid level infrastructural developments. The distribution of resources across Africa is fairly uniform, with more than 85% of the continents landscape receiving at least 2,000 kWh/. A recent study indicates that a solar generating facility covering just 0. 3% of the area comprising North Africa could supply all of the energy required by the European Union. Solar power in Morocco is enabled by the country having one of the highest rates of solar insolation among other countries— about 3,000 hours per year of sunshine, Morocco has launched one of the world’s largest solar energy projects costing an estimated $9 billion. The aim of the project is to create 2,000 megawatts of generation capacity by the year 2020. Five solar power stations are to be constructed, including both photovoltaic and concentrated solar power technology, the Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy, a public-private venture, has been established to lead the project. The first plant will be commissioned in 2015, and the project in 2020. Once completed, the project will provide 38% of Morocco’s annual electricity generation
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