1.
Economy of Turkey
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The economy of Turkey is defined as an emerging market economy by the IMF. Turkey is among the developed countries according to the CIA World Factbook. Turkey has the worlds 18th-largest nominal GDP, and 17th-largest GDP by PPP, Turkey has the worlds 18th-largest nominal GDP, and 17th-largest GDP by PPP. The country is a member of the OECD and the G-20 major economies. Since December 31,1995, Turkey is also a part of the EU Customs Union, Turkey has been meeting the “60 percent EU Maastricht criteria” for public debt stock since 2004. Similarly, from 2002 to 2011, the budget deficit decreased from more than 10 percent to less than 3 percent, the CIA classifies Turkey as a developed country. The World Bank classifies Turkey as an upper-middle income country in terms of the countrys per capita GDP in 2007, mean graduate pay was $10.02 per man-hour in 2010. Turkeys labour force participation rate of 56. 1% is by far the lowest of the OECD states which have a rate of 74%. According to a survey by Forbes magazine, Istanbul, Turkeys financial capital, had a total of 37 billionaires in 2013, ranking 5th in the world behind Moscow, New York City, Hong Kong and London. As a result, the production of consumer goods increased by 7. 2%. The Turkish Stock Market and credit rating agencies have responded positively, according to The Economist, share prices in Turkey nearly doubled over the course of 2009. On 8 January 2010, International credit rating agency Moodys upgraded Turkeys rating one notch, according to Daniel Dombey of the Financial Times, a bit over five years ago, the European Union accounted for much more than half of all Turkey’s exports. Now the figure is heading down toward not much more than a third”, erdem Başçı, Turkey’s central bank governor, predicts that Iraq will eventually become Turkey’s largest export market. The Turkish government is involved in helping to facilitate private sector expansion in emerging markets. The AKP government is seeking to improve economic and political relations with the autonomous Kurdish Regional Government in northern Iraq. In 2013 Turkey had a current account deficit and high external financing need. In 2016 the Turkish Lira lost 20% of its value against the dollar, Turkish economic growth slowed down to 2. 5% in that year. In September 2016, Moodys cut Turkeys sovereign debt to junk status, Turkey has been self-sufficient in food production since the 1980s
2.
Economic history of Turkey
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Turkeys economy recovered remarkably once hostilities ceased. From 1923 to 1926, agricultural output rose by eighty-seven percent, industry and services grew at more than nine percent per year from 1923 to 1929, however, their share of the economy remained quite low at the end of the decade. The government stepped in during the early 1930s to promote economic recovery, growth slowed during the worst years of the depression, except between 1935 and 1939 when it reached six percent per year. After 1950 the country suffered economic disruptions about once a decade, in each case, an industry-led period of rapid expansion, marked by a sharp increase in imports, resulted in a balance of payments crisis. Devaluations of the Turkish lira and austerity programs designed to dampen domestic demand for goods were implemented in accordance with International Monetary Fund guidelines. Debt-servicing costs in that year equaled 33 percent of exports of goods, by the late 1970s, Turkeys economy had perhaps reached its worst crisis since the fall of the Ottoman Empire. It seemed that Turkey would be able to sustain crisis-free development only if major changes were made in the governments approach to development. Many observers doubted the ability of Turkish politicians to carry out the needed reforms, with this strategy, planners hoped Turkey could experience export-led growth over the long run. In July 1982, when Özal left office, many of his reforms were placed on hold, starting in November 1983, however, when he again became prime minister, he was able to extend the liberalization program. The liberalization program overcame the balance of payments crisis, reestablished Turkeys ability to borrow in international capital markets, merchandise exports grew from US$2.3 billion in 1979 to US$8.3 billion in 1985. Özals policies had a positive impact on the services account of the current account. Despite a jump in interest payments, from US$200 million in 1979 to US$1.4 billion in 1985, expanding tourist receipts and pipeline fees from Iraq were the main reasons for this improvement. Stabilizing the current account helped restore creditworthiness on international capital markets, foreign investment, which had been negligible in the 1970s, now started to grow, although it remained modest in the mid-1980s. Also, Turkey was able to borrow on the market, whereas in the late 1970s it could only seek assistance from the IMF. The reduction in expenditures, which was at the heart of the stabilization program, slowed the economy sharply in the late 1970s. Real gross national product declined 1.5 percent in 1979 and 1.3 percent in 1980, the manufacturing and services sectors felt much of the impact of this drop in income, with the manufacturing sector operating at close to 50 percent of total capacity. As the external-payments constraint eased, the economy bounced back sharply, between 1981 and 1985, real GNP grew 3 percent per year, led by growth in the manufacturing sector. The devaluation of the lira also helped make Turkey more economically competitive, as a result, exports of manufactures increased by an average rate of 45 percent per annum during this period
3.
Turkish lira
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The Turkish lira is the currency of Turkey and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The Turkish lira is subdivided into 100 kuruş, the lira, along with the related currencies of Europe and the Middle East, has its roots in the ancient Roman unit of weight known as the libra which referred to the Troy pound of silver. The Roman libra adoption of the currency spread it throughout Europe and the Near East, the Turkish lira, the French livre, the Italian lira, and the British pound are the modern descendants of the ancient currency. The Ottoman lira was introduced as the unit of currency in 1844, with the former currency, kuruş. The Ottoman lira remained in circulation until the end of 1927, historical banknotes from the second, third and fourth issues have portraits of İsmet İnönü on the obverse side. This change was done according to the 12 January 1926 issue of the official gazette, from 1970, a series of hard, then soft pegs to the dollar operated as the value of the Turkish lira began to fall. The Turkish lira had slid in value so far that one original gold lira coin could be sold for 154,400,000 Turkish lira before the 2005 revaluation. In December 2003, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey passed a law allowed for redenomination by the removal of six zeros from the Turkish lira. It was introduced on 1 January 2005, replacing the previous Turkish lira at a rate of 1 second Turkish lira =1,000,000 first Turkish lira, with the revaluation of the Turkish lira, the Romanian leu briefly became the worlds least valued currency unit. At the same time, the Government introduced two new banknotes called TRY100 and TRY50, in the transition period between January 2005 and December 2008, the second Turkish lira was officially called Yeni Türk Lirası. It was officially abbreviated YTL and subdivided into 100 new kuruş, starting in January 2009, the new marking was removed from the second Turkish lira, its official name becoming just Turkish lira again, abbreviated TL. All obverse sides of current banknotes and reverse sides of current coins have portraits of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, also, the center and ring alloys of the 50 kuruş and 1 Turkish lira coins were reversed. A new series of banknotes, the E-9 Emission Group entered circulation on 1 January 2009, the E-9 banknotes refer to the currency as Turkish lira rather than new Turkish lira and include a new 200-Turkish-lira denomination. The new banknotes have different sizes to prevent forgery, the main specificity of this new series is that each denomination depicts a famous Turkish personality, rather than geographical sites and architectural features of Turkey. The dominant color of the 5-Turkish-lira banknote has been determined as purple on the series of the current banknotes. Turkish Lira exchange rates became more stable after 2004, dollar =3.44 Turkish lira The current currency sign of Turkish lira was created by the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey in 2012. The new sign was selected after a country-wide contest, the new symbol, created by Tülay Lale, is composed of the letter L shaped like a half anchor, and embedded double-striped letter T angled at 20 degrees. Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan announced the new symbol on 1 March 2012, at its unveiling, Erdoğan explained the design as the anchor shape hopes to convey that the currency is a safe harbor while the upward-facing lines represent its rising prestige
4.
Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey
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The Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey, CBRT is the central bank of Turkey and is founded as a joint stock company on 11 June 1930. Shares of the CBRT are divided into four classes, Class A shares belong solely to the Turkish Treasury. Class B and Class C shares are allocated to national banks operating in Turkey, banks other than national banks, finally, Class D shares are allocated to Turkish commercial institutions and to real and legal persons of Turkish nationality. The CBRT determines, at its own discretion, the policy to pursue. This implies that the CBRT enjoys instrument independence, in order to attain its objective of price stability, the CBRT has implemented a full-fledged inflation targeting regime since 2006. The preparations to establish a bank of Turkey began in 1926. The Bank had, originally, a privilege of issuing banknotes for a period of 30 years, in 1955, this privilege was extended until 1999. Finally it was prolonged indefinitely in 1994, in this organizational structure that prevailed until the second half of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire minted gold coins on behalf of the Sultan. The Ottoman Empire put cash banknotes into circulation in 1840, as a result, the “Ottoman Bank ”, headquartered in London, was established with English capital in 1856. The fundamental powers of the Bank were limited to lending in small amounts, making payments to the Government. In 1863, the Ottoman Bank was dissolved and restructured as an English-French partnership under the name “Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane ”, the Imperial Ottoman Bank was granted the sole privilege of issuing banknotes for a period of thirty years. The capital of the Imperial Ottoman Bank retained by other nations triggered reactions in time, efforts towards establishing a central bank with domestic capital culminated in the establishment of the “Ottoman National Credit Bank ” on 11 March 1917. However, the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War prevented the bank from becoming a national bank and this issue was first addressed in the 1923 Izmir Economic Congress with a special emphasis on founding a “national state bank”. In 1927, the Minister of Finance Abdülhalik Renda submitted a bill on the establishment of a central bank. Following the enactment of the law, Turkey exchanged views with the banks of other countries’ in establishing the Turkish Central Bank. In 1928, having been invited to Turkey, Dr. G. Leon Morf from the University of Lausanne, following the centralization of duties carried out by various institutions and organizations, the Central Bank started to function on 3 October 1931. The shares of the Bank, which acquired legal status as a joint stock company, - to manifest that ‘it is not a public entity’, and that ‘it is independent’, were divided into, and classes. 1715, the objective of the Central Bank was to support the economic development of the country
5.
Borsa Istanbul
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The Borsa İstanbul is the sole exchange entity of Turkey combining the former Istanbul Stock Exchange, the Istanbul Gold Exchange and the Derivatives Exchange of Turkey under one umbrella. It was established as a company with a founding capital of 423,234,000 on April 3,2013. Its logo is the traditional Ottoman mark for Istanbul, the tulip, shareholders of Borsa İstanbul are, 49% Government of Turkey, 41% IMKB, 5% VOB, 4% IMKB members, 1% IMKB brokers and 0. 3% IAB members. It is planned that all the Government-owned shares will be offered for sale, the ISE was founded as an autonomous, professional organization in early 1986. It is situated in a building complex in the quarter of İstinye, on the European side of Istanbul. ISE is home to 320 national companies, trading hours are 09, 30–12,30 for the first session and 14, 00–17,30 for the second session, on workdays. All ISE members are incorporated banks and brokerage houses, ISE price indices are computed and published throughout the trading session while the return indices are calculated and published at the close of the session only. The ISE National-100 Index contains both the ISE National-50 and ISE National-30 Index and is used as an indicator of the national market. The origin of a securities market in Turkey has its roots in the second half of the 19th century. The first securities market in the Ottoman Empire was established in 1866 under the name of Dersaadet Securities Exchange following the Crimean War, Dersaadet Exchange also created a medium for European investors who were seeking higher returns in the vast Ottoman markets. Following the proclamation of the Turkish Republic, a new law was enacted in 1929 to reorganize the fledgling capital markets under the new name of Istanbul Securities, soon, the Bourse became very active and contributed substantially to the funding requirements of new enterprises across the country. During the industrial drive of the subsequent decades, there was a increase in the number and size of joint stock companies. Those mature shares faced a strong and growing demand from mostly individual investors, in 1981, the Capital Market Law was enacted. The next year, the regulatory body responsible for the supervision and regulation of the Turkish securities market. A new decree was issued in October 1983 foreseeing the setting up of securities exchanges in the country, in October 1984, the Regulations for the Establishment and Functions of Securities Exchanges was published in the Official Gazette. The regulations concerning operational procedures were approved in the parliament and the Istanbul Stock Exchange was formally inaugurated at the end of 1985, there is a magnificent, four-meter high marble statue of the Bull and Bear, in front of the ISE building’s protocol entrance. Created by one of Turkey’s foremost sculptors, Mehmet Aksoy, the statue symbolizes the behavior of the stock markets. Another group of statues, sculptured by Şermin Güner, made in the honor of all existing and deceased brokers, the Istanbul Stock Exchange makes contributions to the arts by organizing exhibitions and concerts as well as sponsoring important artistic events in Istanbul
6.
Nabucco pipeline
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The Nabucco-West pipeline was a proposed natural gas pipeline from the Turkish-Bulgarian border to Austria. It is a modification of the original Nabucco Pipeline project, which was to run from Erzurum in Turkey to Baumgarten an der March in Austria. The aim of the Nabucco pipeline is to diversify the natural gas suppliers and delivery routes for Europe, the original project was backed by several European Union member states and by the United States, and was seen as a rival to the South Stream pipeline project. The main supplier was expected to be Iraq, with supplies from Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan. The main supply for the Nabucco West was to be Shah Deniz gas through the proposed Trans-Anatolian gas pipeline, the project is being developed by a consortium of six companies. Preparations started in 2002 and the agreement between Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Austria was signed on 13 July 2009. After an announcement of the construction of TANAP, the consortium has submitted the Nabucco-West project, construction of Nabucco-West depended on the gas export route decision by the Shah Deniz consortium. After Shah Deniz consortium decision to prefer the Trans-Adriatic Pipeline over Nabucco, the Nabucco project is backed by the European Union and the United States. In the Trans-European Networks - Energy programme, the Nabucco pipeline is designated as a project of strategic importance, an objective of the project is to connect the European Union better to the natural gas sources in the Caspian Sea and the Middle East regions. The project has been driven by the intention to diversify its current energy supplies, the Russia–Ukraine gas disputes have been one of the factors driving the search for alternative suppliers, sources, and routes. South Eastern Europe is important as many of the regions are dependent on Russian gas imports. Nabucco aims to diversify the gas supply to increase competition and security, preparations for the Nabucco project started in February 2002 when first talks took place between Austrian OMV and Turkish BOTAŞ. In June 2002, five signed a protocol of intention to construct the Nabucco pipeline. The protocol followed by the agreement in October 2002. The name Nabucco comes from the famous opera of Giuseppe Verdi. On 28 June 2005, the joint venture agreement was signed by five Nabucco partners, the ministerial statement on the Nabucco pipeline was signed on 26 June 2006 in Vienna. On 12 September 2007, Jozias van Aartsen was nominated by the European Commission as the Nabucco project coordinator, in February 2008, German RWE became a shareholder of the consortium. On 11 June 2008, the first contract to supply gas from Azerbaijan through the Nabucco pipeline to Bulgaria was signed
7.
Southeastern Anatolia Project
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The total cost of the project is 42.1 billion Turkish lira, of which 30.6 billion TL of this investment was realized at the end of 2010. The real investment was 72. 6% for the end of 2010, the project area covers nine provinces which are located in the basins of the Euphrates and Tigris and in Upper Mesopotamia. Current activities under GAP include sectors such as agriculture and irrigation, hydroelectric production, urban and rural infrastructure, forestry, education. Water resources envisages the construction of 22 dams and 19 power plants, seven airports have been finished and active. The GAP cargo airport in Şırnak, which also the biggest in Turkey, has been completed, the initial idea and decision to utilize the waters of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers came from Atatürk, the founder of the Republic. In the 1920s and 1930s, the need for energy was a priority issue. The Electricity Studies Administration was founded in 1936 to investigate how rivers in the country could be utilized for energy production, the Administration began its detailed studies with the Keban Dam Project and established observation stations to assess the flow and other characteristics of the Euphrates. The development program encompassed such sectors as irrigation, hydraulic energy, agriculture, rural and urban infrastructure, forestry, education, tensions between Turkey, Syria and Iraq were raised from time to time due to GAP. Syria and Iraq demanded more water to be released, while Turkey declined so as to form the dam reservoirs, because of this GAP is one of the worlds most well protected dam projects, especially against aircraft. GAP also almost came to a halt in the early 1990s due to the high level of Kurdish guerillas activities in the region. A number of crises also played a very important part in the delays of GAP. The UN embargo on Iraq had negative effects on development efforts and regions trade with Middle Eastern countries, furthermore, imbalances in public financing delayed the financing needs of the project. Finally, a number of questions needed clearing over the flooding of several historical sites as well as local residences as described in the Social effect section. Historically, Southeastern Anatolia was located on the route between East and West. The region had been an important source of cultural diversity, however the changes in the trading routes and the agricultural methods ended the old importance of the region. The 1989 Master Plan had aimed to initiate the revitalization of the economic, the rise in the income of the region was directly transferred to restoration and revitalization of the cultural activities in the region, instead of moving into the national budget. This master plan did not reach its goals because of the issues stated under the introduction section, however, for this negative perspective, with the international community involvement, project added new dimensions and concepts to the definitions. The concerns and concepts of the environment, sustainability and participation, the revised GAP Regional Development Plan with a new understanding is currently in place
8.
Land Ownership in Turkey
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Land ownership in Turkey had been constrained by the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. This was to prevent foreigners from competing with natives for desirable property and this policy was continued when Turkey became independent in the early 20th century. The policy was relaxed during the 21st century, in 2003, property purchases were opened to foreign nationals though restrictions were retained for various provinces. When these restrictions were violated in 2005, the law was annulled by Turkish courts, as of 2008,63,085 individual properties have been sold to over 73,103 foreigners. This includes 38,623,661 square metres of land valued at US$10.4 billion, mostly by German, British, as a consequence of these pressures, The Ottoman Land Code of 1858 was passed. An 1858 firman on Reform had announced a grant of permission in this respect and this trend coincided with the influx of refugees from lands lost for the Ottoman Empire, and the migrants often saw themselves having to buy property from foreigners in their own country. A further law in 1913 also allowed foreign legal entities to purchase property in Ottoman lands,5444, now enacted, instead of being a by-law modifying various paragraphs of the 1934 Property Act, is a fully stated legal text. A foreign national cannot purchase more than 25, 000m2 of land in Turkey without special consent from the Turkish Council of Ministers, the council of Ministers is authorised to increase this limit up to 300, 000m2 per person. Foreign national ownership of real estate cannot exceed 10% of land in any designated town, the property also has to be within a designated or zoned area in a municipality. Foreigners can not buy in villages and it was also observed that, during this 2-year period, the districts most favoured by foreign buyers were Alanya, Fethiye, Didim, Bodrum, Kuşadası along the coastline, as well as Ürgüp in Cappadocia. Alanya is a preferred location for Germans and Scandinavians, while the British purchases are at their highest level of concentration in Fethiye. The foreign purchase of real estate is a widely discussed subject in the Turkish media, some of the opinions put forth in this context may not be based on sound facts, while others are results of in-depth studies. Turkeys real estate agents have organised themselves to demarcate the definition and these efforts included professional standards established in 2004. Real estate agents are required to be members of the set up for their region. These regional associations are organised within the framework of the federation, Temfed. As such, a total of seventy four seventy five thousand foreign nationals own an area of 38,623,661 square metres of lands in Turkey, as of 2007, on area basis the provinces of Muğla, Antalya, Aydın came in the lead. On the basis of the number of foreign nationals acquiring property, German nationals came the first in Antalya Province and British citizens in Muğla and Aydın Provinces. Purchases by Greek nationals displayed a striking preeminence in İstanbul and, in a recent trend
9.
Geography of Turkey
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Turkey is situated in Anatolia and the Balkans, bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Georgia, and bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Syria. The geographic coordinates of the lie at, 39°00′N 35°00′E The area of Turkey is 783,562 km2, land,770,760 km2. Turkey extends more than 1,600 km from west to east, the total area consists of about 756,816 km2 in Western Asia and about 23,764 km2 in Southeastern Europe. Anatolia is a large, roughly rectangular peninsula, situated bridge-like between Europe and Asia, the Anatolian part of Turkey accounts for 95% of the countrys area. It is also known as Asia Minor, Asiatic Turkey or the Anatolian Plateau, the European portion of Turkey, known as Thrace, encompasses roughly 5% of the total area but is home to more than 10% of the total population. Istanbul, the largest city of Thrace and Turkey, has a population of 11,372,613. Thrace is separated from Anatolia by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, which collectively form the strategic Turkish Straits that link the Aegean Sea with the Black Sea. Mount Ararat, Turkeys tallest mountain with an elevation of 5,137 m, is the landing place of Noahs Ark and is located in the far eastern portion of the country. Land boundaries,2,627 km border countries, Greece 206 km, Bulgaria 240 km, Georgia 252 km, Armenia 268 km, Nakhchivan 9 km, Iran 499 km, Iraq 331 km, Syria 822 km. Its demarcated land frontiers were settled by treaty early in the century and have since remained stable. The boundary with Greece was confirmed by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, the boundary with Bulgaria was confirmed by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. The boundary with Iran was confirmed by the Treaty of Kasr-ı Şirin in 1639, the boundary with Iraq was confirmed by the Treaty of Angora in 1926. Turkeys two southern neighbors, Iraq and Syria, had part of the Ottoman Empire up to 1918. Turkey and Britain agreed the boundary in the Treaty of Angora, Turkeys boundary with Syria has not been accepted by Syria. As a result of the Treaty of Lausanne, the former Ottoman Sanjak of Alexandretta was ceded to the French which administered it on behalf of the League of Nations. However, in June 1939 the people of Hatay had formed a new independent State and immediately after, since achieving independence in 1946, Syria has harbored a lingering resentment and this issue has continued to be an irritant in Syrian-Turkish relations. The 1st Geography Congress, held in Ankara City between 6–21 June 1941, divided Turkey into seven regions after long discussions and work. These geographical regions were separated according to their climate, location, flora and fauna, human habitat, agricultural diversities, transportation, topography, etc
10.
Telecommunications in Turkey
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Telecommunications in Turkey provides information about television, radio, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet in Turkey. The telecommunications liberalisation process started in Turkey in 2004 after the creation of the Telecommunication Authority, private sector companies operate in mobile telephony, long distance telephony and Internet access. There were 16.5 million fixed lines,62.8 million mobile phone subscribers. Telecommunications liberalisation in Turkey is progressing, but at a slow pace, the Telecommunication Authority, while technically an independent organization, is still controlled by the Ministry of Transport and Communications. While progress is being made, the incumbent has so far managed in many areas to restrict access, for example, wholesale line rental is still not available to alternative operators, making it necessary for subscribers to pay two bills. The incumbent has so far managed to prevent any operator from connecting its own fiber optic cable at local loop unbundling exchanges, the lack of progress by the BTK in ensuring a competitive playing field can be evidenced by the market share the incumbent still holds. In broadband, the incumbents provider still occupies roughly 95% share of the market, the Governmental Audit Office of the President issued a highly critical report of the BTK in February 2010, listing 115 findings to be addressed. For example, the report found #20 points out that the BTK has completed only 50% to 78% of its work plans in each of the years from 2005-2008. Alternative operators are rapidly growing, yet much progress needs to be made by the BTK to improve the competitive landscape, the political authority is Ministry of Transport, Maritime and Communication. But there are also two supreme councils, Radio and Television Supreme Council and Information and Communication Technologies Authority, while internet and point to point telecommunication is controlled by BTK, radio and television broadcast is controlled by RTÜK
11.
Tourism in Turkey
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Tourism in Turkey is focused largely on a variety of historical sites, and on seaside resorts along its Aegean and Mediterranean Sea coasts. Turkey has also become a destination for culture, spa. At its height in 2014, Turkey attracted around 42 million foreign tourists and this number however declined to around 36 million in 2015 and deteriorated further in 2016, due to regional uncertanities, political tension with Russia, and terrorist attacks. Istanbul is one of the most important tourism spots not only in Turkey, there are thousands of hotels and other tourist-oriented industries in the city, catering to both vacationers and visiting professionals. Turkeys largest city, Istanbul, has a number of major attractions derived from its status as capital of the Byzantine. Other attractions include sporting events, museums, and cultural events, in January 2013, the Turkish government announced that it will build the worlds largest airport in Istanbul. The operation has an invested 7 billion euros and will have its first part of a four-part plan completed by 2017, the number of foreign tourists visiting Istanbul declined to 9.2 million in 2016, a 26 percent decrease compared to 2015. Beach vacations and Blue Cruises, particularly for Turkish delights and visitors from Western Europe, are central to the Turkish tourism industry. Most beach resorts are located along the southwestern and southern coast, called the Turkish Riviera, Antalya is also accepted as the tourism capital of Turkey. Major resort towns include Bodrum, Fethiye, Marmaris, Kuşadası, Çeşme, Didim, also Turkey has been chosen second in the world in 2015 with its 436 blue-flagged beaches, according to the Chamber of Shipping. Diyarbakır is also an important historic city, although tourism is on a small level due to waning armed conflicts. Ankara has an old town, and although it is not exactly a tourist city, is usually a stop for travelers who go to Cappadocia. The city enjoys an excellent cultural life too, and has several museums, the Anıtkabir is also in Ankara. It is the mausoleum of Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey, Gallipoli and Anzac Cove - a small cove on the Gallipoli peninsula, which became known as the site of World War I landing of the ANZAC on 25 April 1915. Following the landing at Anzac Cove, the became the main base for the Australian. Foreign tourist arrivals increased substantially in Turkey between 2000 and 2005, from 8 million to 21.2 million, which made Turkey a top-10 destination in the world for foreign visitors. 2005 revenues were US$17.5 billion which also made Turkey one of the top-10 biggest revenue owners in the world, in 2011, Turkey ranked as the 6th most popular tourist destination in the world and 4th in Europe, according to UNWTO World Tourism barometer. At its height in 2014, Turkey attracted around 42 million foreign tourists, in 2016, only around 25 million people visited Turkey
12.
Transport in Turkey
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This article deals with the system of transport in Turkey, both public and private. The TCDD - Türkiye Devlet Demir Yolları possess 10,984 km of 1,435 mm gauge, there are daily regular passenger trains all through the network. TCDD has started an investment program of building 5.000 km high-speed lines until 2023, by February 2014, three high speed train routes are running. The freight transportation is mainly organized as block trains for domestic routes, in 2004, Marmaray project started on a rail tunnel under the Bosphorus straits. Between Istanbul and Ankara, a high speed line is being constructed now next to the normal speed railroad which is being renovated. When finished, travel time between the two cities will reduce from 6,5 hours to 3 hours and 10 minutes. The high speed line between Ankara and Konya was finished on 3 June 2011 and was put into service on 23 August 2011. Several other high speed and normal railroad projects are currently in the planning stage, because of works connected with the Marmaray and Istanbul-Ankara high speed line there are currently no rail services linking Istanbul with the rest of Anatolia. The suburban services from Haydarpaşa terminate at Pendik where the tracks end. After almost 30 years without any trams, Turkey is experiencing a revival in trams, established in 1992, the tram system of Istanbul earned the best large-scale tram management award in 2005. Another award winning tram network belongs to Eskişehir, a city with a new system opened in 2004. Several other cities are planning or constructing tram lines, usually with modern low-floow trams, by 2014, there have been 12 cities in Turkey using metro, light rail and tram systems. They are Istanbul, Izmir, Ankara, Bursa, Eskisehir, Kayseri, Gaziantep, Konya, Samsun, Adana, Antalya, the total network is more than 500 kilometers and the rolling stock exceeds 1800 by now. Even if they mostly possess dual carriageways and interchanges, they also have some traffic lights, - The second type of roads are controlled-access highways that are officially named Otoyol. But it isnt uncommon that people in Turkey call them Otoban as this types of roads enterred in popular culture by the means of Turks in Germany and they also depend on the General Directorate of Highways except the newest Otoyol 5 that is financed with a BOT model. Total network,426,906 km Paved,177,550 km Motorways,2,080 km Dual carriageways,16,784 km Unpaved,249,356 km As of 2010, there are numerous private bus companies providing connections between cities in Turkey. For local trips to villages there are dolmuşes, small vans that seat about twenty passengers, as of 2010, number of road vehicles is around 15 million. The number of vehicles by type and use is as follows.023 million as of November 2010, total number of motor vehicles was 11,695,611 at the end of 2007
13.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
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Wind farm
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A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. A wind farm can also be located offshore, many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in Germany, China and the United States. For example, the largest wind farm in the world, Gansu Wind Farm in China has a capacity of over 6,000 MW of power in 2012 with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020. The Muppandal Wind farm in Tamil Nadu, India is the largest onshore wind farm outside of China, with a capacity of 1,500 MW. As of April 2013, the 630 MW London Array in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, followed by the 504 MW Greater Gabbard wind farm in the UK. There are many wind farms under construction, including Fosen Vind, Sinus Holding Wind Farm, Lincs Wind Farm, Lower Snake River Wind Project. As a general rule, economic wind generators require windspeed of 4.5 m/s or greater, an ideal location would have a near constant flow of non-turbulent wind throughout the year, with a minimum likelihood of sudden powerful bursts of wind. An important factor of turbine siting is also access to local demand or transmission capacity, usually sites are screened on the basis of a wind atlas, and validated with wind measurements. Meteorological wind data alone is not sufficient for accurate siting of a large wind power project. Collection of site specific data for wind speed and direction is crucial to determining site potential in order to finance the project, local winds are often monitored for a year or more, and detailed wind maps constructed before wind generators are installed. The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the influence of drag. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows a wind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the wind speeds by 10%. In general, a distance of 7D is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind farm, but micrositing optimizes placement, particularly in hilly areas, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage transmission system. Construction of a wind farm requires installation of the collector system and substation. The worlds first wind farm was 0.6 MW, consisting of 20 wind turbines rated at 30 kilowatts each, onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines generally three kilometres or more inland from the nearest shoreline. This is done to exploit the topographic acceleration as the wind accelerates over a ridge, the additional wind speeds gained in this way can increase energy produced because more wind goes through the turbines
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World energy consumption
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World energy consumption is the total energy used by all of human civilization. It does not include energy from food, and the extent to which direct biomass burning has been accounted for is poorly documented, being the power source metric of civilization, World Energy Consumption has deep implications for humanitys social-economic-political sphere. Institutions such as the International Energy Agency, the U. S. Energy Information Administration, and the European Environment Agency record and publish energy data periodically. The IEA estimates that, in 2013, total energy consumption was 9,301 Mtoe, or 3.89 ×1020 joules. From 2000–2012 coal was the source of energy with the largest growth, the use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth, followed by hydro power and renewable energy. Renewable energy grew at a faster than any other time in history during this period. The demand for nuclear energy decreased, possibly due to the accidents at Chernobyl, in 2011, expenditures on energy totalled over 6 trillion USD, or about 10% of the world gross domestic product. Europe spends close to one-quarter of the worlds energy expenditures, North America close to 20%, World final energy consumption refers to the fraction of the worlds primary energy that is used in its final form by humanity. In 2012, world energy supply amounted to 155,505 terawatt-hour or 13,371 Mtoe. World final energy consumption includes products as lubricants, asphalt and petrochemicals which have chemical energy content but are not used as fuel and this non-energy use amounted to 9,404 TWh in 2012. The worlds electricity consumption was 18,608 TWh in 2012 and this figure is about 18% smaller than the generated electricity, due to grid losses, storage losses, and self-consumption from power plants. Cogeneration power stations use some of the energy that is wasted for heating buildings or in industrial processes. The United States Energy Information Administration regularly publishes a report on world consumption for most types of energy resources. The most recent estimate of the energy consumption was 5.67 ×1020 joules, or 157,481 TWh. According to the IEA the total energy consumption was 143,851 TWh in 2008,133,602 TWh in 2005,117,687 TWh in 2000. Total world electricity consumption was 19,504 TWh in 2013,16,503 TWh in 2008,15,105 TWh in 2005, and 12,116 TWh in 2000. In 2013, world consumption by power source was oil 31. 1%, coal 28. 9%, natural gas 21. 4%, biofuels and waste 10. 2%, nuclear 4. 8%, hydro 2. 4%. Oil, coal, and natural gas were the most popular energy fuels, from 2000–2012 renewable energy grew at a rate higher than any other point in history, with a consumption increase of 176.5 million tonnes of oil
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Electricity generation
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Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy. For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers, the other processes as transmission, distribution, energy storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power, the fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. This method is used today, electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire. Central power stations became practical with the development of alternating current power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1882, the use of power-lines and power-poles have been significantly important in the distribution of electricity. There are seven fundamental methods of transforming other forms of energy into electrical energy. Static electricity, form the physical separation and transport of charge and it was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic generator is still used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and MHD generators. In Electromagnetic induction, a generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faradays law and it can be experimented by rotating a magnet within closed loops of a conducting material. Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate. Almost all electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine, driven by wind, water, there are many different methods of developing mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. Most electric generation is driven by heat engines, the combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. The modern steam turbine currently generates about 80% of the power in the world using a variety of heat sources. Power sources include, Steam Water is boiled by coal burned in a power plant. Nuclear fission heat created in a nuclear reactor creates steam, less than 15% of electricity is generated this way. Natural gas, turbines are directly by gases produced by combustion. Combined cycle are driven by steam and natural gas
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Energy policy of Turkey
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The primary aim of the government is to realize its own energy security by diversifying supply, and increasing energy efficiency. In particular the government aims at meeting the forecasted rapid increase in demand for electricity by renewable electricity generation and by building nuclear, with all of its domestic coal reserves tapped, Turkey plans to reach a total installed capacity of 120,000 MWs in 2023. However this focus on coal is a burden for the sustainability of Turkey’s energy systems. There have been protests against coal power plants, even in cities where natural gas is available the government supports poor households with free coal. Current shortcomings in Turkeys regulatory setup and human resources have to be addressed for ensuring a safe, there is an Energy Efficiency Law. Turkeys greenhouse gas inventory is incomplete, the energy policy aim of reducing imports conflicts with the climate change policy aim of reducing emission of greenhouse gases as some local resources emit a lot of CO2. Energy in Turkey List of power companies of Turkey Solar power in Turkey
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Energy policy
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Energy policy is the manner in which a given entity has decided to address issues of energy development including energy production, distribution and consumption. The attributes of energy policy may include legislation, international treaties, incentives to investment, guidelines for energy conservation, taxation, although research is ongoing, the human dimensions of energy use are of increasing interest to business, utilities, and policymakers. Using the social sciences to gain insights into energy consumer behavior can empower policymakers to make decisions about broad-based climate. This could facilitate more efficient energy use, renewable energy commercialization, a national energy policy comprises a set of measures involving that countrys laws, treaties and agency directives. These policies have been consistent since the 1990s, despite changes in governments. The pace and form of industry liberalization and privatization has been highly controversial, with rapid change of global as well as domestic situation, the policy was updated in 2004. Australias energy policy features a combination of power stations and hydro electricity plants. The Australian government has decided not to nuclear power plants. Catherine Wolfram, Robert Gross, Nathan S. Lewis, and M. V, the Frontiers of Energy, Nature Energy, Vol 1,11 January 2016. Climate and Clean Energy Policy, State Institutions and Economic Implications, fouquet, Roger, and Peter JG Pearson. Seven Centuries of Energy Services, The Price and Use of Light in the United Kingdom, north versus South, Energy transition and energy intensity in Europe over 200 years. American Energy Policy in the 1970s 322 pages, Nye, David E. Consuming power, A social history of American energies Pratt, Joseph A. Exxon, Transforming Energy, 1973-2005 600pp Smil, the role of energy in economic growth. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Energy use and economic development, A comparative analysis of useful work supply in Austria, Japan, the United Kingdom and the US during 100 years of economic growth
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Politics of Turkey
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Turkeys political system is based on a separation of powers. Executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers, legislative power is vested in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and its current constitution was adopted on 7 November 1982 after the Turkish constitutional referendum. The function of head of state is performed by the president, a president is elected every five years on the principle of universal suffrage according to the current constitution. The president does not have to be a member of parliament, the current president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was Directly elected in 2014. Executive power rests with the president, the minister and the Council of Ministers. Most ministers are members of Parliament, the prime minister is appointed by the president and approved through a vote of confidence in the parliament. The Prime Minister of Turkey is the head of government of Turkey and he is the leader of a political coalition in the Turkish parliament and the leader of the cabinet. The current holder of the position is Binali Yıldırım of the Justice and Development Party, legislative power is invested in the 550-seat Grand National Assembly of Turkey, representing 81 provinces. The members are elected for a term by mitigated proportional representation with an election threshold of 10%. To be represented in Parliament, a party must win at least 10% of the vote in a national parliamentary election. Independent candidates may run, and to be elected, they must only win enough to get one seat, the threshold is set to be reduced. The political system of Turkey is highly centralized, however, as a member state of the Council of Europe, Turkey is under an obligation to implement the European Charter of Local Self-Government. The freedom and independence of the Judicial System is protected within the constitution, there is no organization, person, or institution which can interfere in the running of the courts, and the executive and legislative structures must obey the courts decisions. The courts, which are independent in discharging their duties, must explain each ruling on the basis of the provisions of the Constitution, the laws, jurisprudence, the Judicial system is highly structured. Turkish courts have no jury system, judges render decisions after establishing the facts in each case based on evidence presented by lawyers and prosecutors, for minor civil complaints and offenses, justices of the peace take the case. This court has a single judge and it has jurisdiction over misdemeanors and petty crimes, with penalties ranging from small fines to brief prison sentences. Three-judge courts of first instance have jurisdiction over major civil suits, any conviction in a criminal case can be taken to a court of Appeals for judicial review
20.
Lignite
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Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is a soft brown combustible sedimentary rock formed from naturally compressed peat. It is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its low heat content. It has a carbon content around 60–70 percent and it is mined all around the world and is used almost exclusively as a fuel for steam-electric power generation, but is also mined for its germanium content in China. The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 to 20 MJ/kg on a moist, the energy content of lignite consumed in the United States averages 15 MJ/kg, on the as-received basis. The energy content of lignite consumed in Victoria, Australia, averages 8.4 MJ/kg, lignite has a high content of volatile matter which makes it easier to convert into gas and liquid petroleum products than higher-ranking coals. Unfortunately, its moisture content and susceptibility to spontaneous combustion can cause problems in transportation. However, removing the moisture increases the cost of the final lignite fuel, because of its low energy density and typically high moisture content, brown coal is inefficient to transport and is not traded extensively on the world market compared with higher coal grades. It is often burned in power stations near the mines, such as in Australias Latrobe Valley, the operation of traditional brown-coal plants, particularly in combination with strip mining, can be politically contentious due to environmental concerns. An environmentally beneficial use of lignite can be found in its use in cultivation and distribution of biological control microbes that suppress plant disease causing microbes, lignite begins as an accumulation of partially decayed plant material, or peat. Burial by other sediments results in increasing temperature, depending on the geothermal gradient and tectonic setting. This causes compaction of the material and loss of some of the water and this process, called coalification, concentrates the carbon content, and thus the heat content, of the material. Deeper burial and the passage of time result in expulsion of moisture and volatile matter, eventually transforming the material into higher rank coals such as bituminous. Lignite deposits are younger than higher-ranked coals, with the majority of them having formed during the Tertiary period. The Latrobe Valley in the state of Victoria, Australia, contains estimated reserves of some 65 billion tonnes of brown coal, the deposit is equivalent to 25 percent of known world reserves. The coal seams are up to 100 metres thick, with coal seams often giving virtually continuous brown coal thickness of up to 230 metres. Seams are covered by little overburden. Lignite can be separated into two types, the first is xyloid lignite or fossil wood and the second form is the compact lignite or perfect lignite. Although xyloid lignite may sometimes have the tenacity and the appearance of ordinary wood and it is reducible to a fine powder by trituration, and if submitted to the action of a weak solution of potash, it yields a considerable quantity of humic acid
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Environmental impact of the coal industry
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The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use, waste management, water and air pollution, caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products. There are severe health effects caused by burning coal, according to a report by the World Health Organization in 2008, coal particulates pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 1,000,000 lives annually worldwide. A2004 study commissioned by environmental groups, but contested by the US EPA, coal mining generates significant adverse environmental impacts. Historically, coal mining has been a dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one. Underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse, open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions. In the United States, an average of 26 coal miners per year died in the decade 2005-2014, strip mining severely alters the landscape, which reduces the value of the natural environment in the surrounding land. The land surface is dedicated to mining activities until it can be reshaped and reclaimed, if mining is allowed, resident human populations must be resettled off the mine site, economic activities, such as agriculture or hunting and gathering food and medicinal plants are interrupted. What becomes of the surface after mining is determined by the manner in which the mining is conducted. Usually reclamation of disturbed lands to a land use condition is not equal to the original use, existing land uses are temporarily eliminated mining area. High-value, intensive-land-use areas like urban and transportation systems are not usually affected by mining operations, if mineral values are sufficient, these improvements may be removed to an adjacent area. Adverse impacts on geological features of human interest may occur in a strip mine. Geomorphic and geophysical features and outstanding scenic resources may be sacrificed by indiscriminate mining, paleontological, cultural, and other historic values may be endangered due to the disruptive activities of blasting, ripping, and excavating coal. Stripping of overburden eliminates and destroys archeological and historic features, unless they are removed beforehand, dust degrades air quality in the immediate area, has an adverse impact on vegetative life, and constitutes health and safety hazards for mine workers and nearby residents. Surface mining disrupts virtually all elements of the landscape. Alteration of landforms often imposes unfamiliar and discontinuous configurations, New linear patterns appear as material is extracted and waste piles are developed. Different colors and textures are exposed as vegetative cover is removed, dust, vibration, and diesel exhaust odors are created. Residents of local communities often find such impacts disturbing or unpleasant, in case of mountaintop removal, tops are removed from mountains or hills to expose thick coal seams underneath. The soil and rock removed is deposited in valleys, hollows and depressions
22.
Blue Stream
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Blue Stream is a major trans-Black Sea gas pipeline that carries natural gas from Russia into Turkey. The pipeline has been constructed by the Blue Stream Pipeline B. V. the Netherlands based joint venture of Russian Gazprom, according to Gazprom the pipeline was built with the intent of diversifying Russian gas delivery routes to Turkey and avoiding third countries. Preparations of the project started in 1997. On 15 December 1997, Russia and Turkey signed an agreement on construction of the subsea pipeline. At the same time, Gazprom and BOTAŞ signed a 25-year gas sale contract, in February 1999, Gazprom and Eni signed the Memorandum of Understanding to implement the Blue Stream project. Blue Stream Pipeline B. V. a joint venture of Gazprom, the construction of the Russian land section took place in 2001-2002 and the offshore section in 2001-2002. The offshore section of the pipeline was built by Italian constructor Saipem and the Russian onshore section by Stroytransgaz, the offshore pipe was laid by the pipe-laying vessel Saipem 7000. Gas flows from Russia to Turkey started in February 2003, however, because of the price dispute between Russia and Turkey, the official inauguration ceremony at the Durusu gas metering station took place only on 17 November 2005. Attending the inauguration were Russian President Vladimir Putin, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, by 2010, Blue Stream is expected to be operating at full capacity, delivering 16 billion cubic meters of natural gas per annum. Total length of the pipeline is 1,213 kilometres, the Russias land section is 373 kilometres long from the Izobilnoye gas plant, Stavropol Krai, up to Arkhipo-Osipovka, Krasnodar Krai. The land section consists of the Stavropolskaya and Krasnodarskaya compressor stations, the offshore section is 396 kilometres long laying from the Beregovaya compressor station in Arkhipo-Osipovka to the Durusu terminal locating 60 kilometres from Samsun. Turkeys land section is 444 kilometres long up to Ankara, the pipeline uses pipes with different diameters, mainland section 1,400 millimetres, mountainous section 1,200 millimetres and submarine section 610 millimetres. The gas pressure in submarine section is 25 MPa and it is considered yet one of the deepest pipelines in the world. Gas flows have increased towards the pipelines capacity of 16 bcm per year. From 2010 to 2014, supplies averaged 14.1 bcm per year, the total cost of the Blue Stream pipeline came to US$3.2 billion, including US$1.7 billion for its submarine segment. Blue Stream 2 was first proposed in 2002, in late August 2005, Vladimir Putin and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan discussed building a second line, and an expansion of the Blue Stream by the Samsun-Ceyhan link and by branch to southeast Europe. However, this expansion was replaced by the South Stream project, in 2009, Russian prime minister Putin proposed a line parallel to Blue Stream 1 under the Black Sea, and further from Samsun to Ceyhan. From Ceyhan natural gas would be transported to Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the export to Israel would be conducted through the proposed Ceyhan-Ashkelon subsea pipeline
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South Caucasus Pipeline
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The South Caucasus Pipeline is a natural gas pipeline from the Shah Deniz gas field in the Azerbaijan sector of the Caspian Sea to Turkey. It runs parallel to the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline, on 21 May 2006, the commissioning gas was pumped to the pipeline from the Sangachal Terminal. First deliveries through the pipeline commenced on 30 September 2006, deliveries of gas from Shah Deniz gas field started on 15 December 2006. On 12 August 2008, the pipeline operator BP closed the pipeline for the safety reasons because of the South Ossetia conflict, Gas supplies were resumed on 14 August 2008. The 42-inch diameter gas pipeline runs through the corridor as the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline until Erzurum. It is 692 kilometres long, of which 442 kilometres is in Azerbaijan and 248 kilometres in Georgia, the initial capacity of the pipeline was 8.8 billion cubic metres of gas per year. For the second stage of the Shah Deniz development, the capacity would be increased up to 25 billion cubic metres by adding additional looping, the first aim of the pipeline is to supply Turkey and Georgia. In the longer term, it will supply Europe with Caspian natural gas through the planned Southern Gas Corridor pipelines, such as the Trans Adriatic Pipeline, the pipeline is owned by the South Caucasus Pipeline Company, a consortium led by BP and SOCAR. According to the PSA agreement, the commercial operatorship of the SCP was transferred to SOCAR starting on 1 January 2015 and this will almost triple the current transportation capacity of the pipeline up to 20 bcm/year. This capacity increase would be able to accommodate an additional 16 bcm gas coming from the SD-2 project, nabucco Pipeline Shah Deniz gas field Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline TANAP International Energy Agency, Caspian oil and gas, The supply potential of Central Asia and Transcaucasia. OECD, Paris 1998, ISBN 92-64-16095-7 Charles van der Leeuw, Oil and gas in the Caucasus & Caspian, curzon, Richmond, Surrey 2000, ISBN 0-7007-1123-6 John Roberts, Caspian oil and gas, How far have we come and where are we going. In, Oil, transition and security in Central Asia
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Trans-Anatolian gas pipeline
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The Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline is a natural gas pipeline from Azerbaijan through Georgia and Turkey to Europe. This project is of importance for both Azerbaijan and Turkey. It will allow first Azerbaijani gas exports to Europe, beyond Turkey and it will also strengthen the role of Turkey as a regional energy hub. Construction of the pipeline began formally in March 2015 and is expected to be completed in 2018, the project was announced on 17 November 2011 at the Third Black Sea Energy and Economic Forum in Istanbul. On 26 December 2011, Turkey and Azerbaijan signed a memorandum of understanding establishing a consortium to build, in spring 2012, the process of conducting the technical-economic feasibility study was launched. On 26 June 2012, President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev and then Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan signed a binding agreement on the pipeline. The pipeline is expected to cost US$10-11 billion, the construction is planned to start in 2015 and to be completed by 2018. Its capacity would be increased by adding parallel loops and compressor stations according to the increase of available supplies and it is not decided yet if the pipeline will use 48-or-56-inch pipes. The pipeline will start from Sangachal terminal and in territory of Azerbaijan it will be the expansion of existing South Caucasus Pipeline, from end point of SCPx which is in Erzurum it will be continued to Eskishehir where it will unload 6bcm of gas entitled to Turkish buyers. From Turkey-Greece border it will continue through Greece, Albania and will end in Italy, the exact route of the pipeline is not clear. However, it was announced that one branch from Turkey would go to Greece and it would be connected with Trans Adriatic Pipeline. The Turkish government said in March 2015 that a branch from Greece through Macedonia and Serbia to Hungary was also under consideration, the TANAP will be operated by SOCAR, which currently holds 58% stake in the project. Turkeys pipeline operator BOTAŞ own 30%, while BP acquired 12% in the project on March 13,2015, the TANAP project company will be headquartered in the Netherlands. Initially, Azerbaijan had held an 80% stake, with Turkey owning the remainder, the Turkish stake was divided between the Turkish upstream company TPAO and the Turkish pipeline operator BOTAŞ. The international companies from the Shah Deniz consortium had an option to take up to 29% in TANAP, however, only BP exercised this option in December 2013. The Turkish government decided then that only BOTAŞ will hold a stake in TANAP, the Turkish pipeline operator acquired an additional 10% in May 2014. SOCARs initial plan was to retain 51% and operatorship of the project, several private Turkish companies had been interested in the remaining 7%, but this did not materialize
25.
Liquefied natural gas
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Liquefied natural gas is natural gas that has been converted to liquid form for ease of storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volume of gas in the gaseous state. It is odorless, colorless, toxic and non-corrosive, hazards include flammability after vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia. The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to approximately −162 °C. LNG achieves a reduction in volume than compressed natural gas so that the energy density of LNG is 2.4 times greater than that of CNG or 60 percent that of diesel fuel. This makes LNG cost efficient to transport long distances where pipelines do not exist. Specially designed cryogenic sea vessels or cryogenic road tankers are used for its transport, LNG is principally used for transporting natural gas to markets, where it is regasified and distributed as pipeline natural gas. It can be used in natural gas vehicles, although it is common to design vehicles to use compressed natural gas. Its relatively high cost of production and the need to store it in expensive cryogenic tanks have hindered widespread commercial use, despite these drawbacks, on energy basis LNG production is expected to hit 10% of the global crude production by 2020. The heating value depends on the source of gas that is used, the range of heating value can span +/-10 to 15 percent. A typical value of the heating value of LNG is approximately 50 MJ/kg or 21,500 BTU/lb. A typical value of the heating value of LNG is 45 MJ/kg or 19,350 BTU/lb. For the purpose of comparison of different fuels the heating value may be expressed in terms of energy per volume which is known as the energy density expressed in MJ/liter. The density of LNG is roughly 0.41 kg/liter to 0.5 kg/liter, depending on temperature, pressure, using the median value of 0.45 kg/liter, the typical energy density values are 22.5 MJ/liter or 20.3 MJ/liter. The energy density of LNG is approximately 2.4 times greater than that of CNG which makes it economical to transport natural gas by ship in the form of LNG. The energy density of LNG is comparable to propane and ethanol but is only 60 percent that of diesel and 70 percent that of gasoline, experiments on the properties of gases started early in the seventeenth century. By the middle of the seventeenth century Robert Boyle had derived the relationship between the pressure and the volume of gases
26.
Solar power by country
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Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies, Photovoltaic systems use solar panels, either on rooftops or in ground-mounted solar farms, Concentrated solar power plants use solar thermal energy to make steam, that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine. Worldwide growth of photovoltaics is extremely dynamic and varies strongly by country, as in the year before, the top installers of 2014 were China, followed by Japan and the United States, while the United Kingdom emerged as new European leader ahead of Germany and France. Germany remains for one year the worlds largest producer of solar power with an overall installed capacity of 38.2 GW. The newcomers of the year were Chile and South Africa, which entered straight into the worlds Top 10 ranking of added capacity, there are now 20 countries around the world with a cumulative PV capacity of more than one gigawatt. Thailand, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, all crossed the one gigawatt-mark in 2014, the available solar PV capacity in Italy, Germany and Greece is now sufficient to supply between 7% and 8% of their respective domestic electricity consumption. After an almost two decade hiatus, deployment of CSP resumed in 2007, with significant growth only in the most recent years. However, the design for new projects is being changed to cheaper photovoltaics. Most operational CSP stations are located in Spain and the United States, while large solar farms using photovoltaics are being constructed in an expanding list of geographic regions. As of January 2017, the largest solar plants in the world are the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park in China for PV. This gives solar power the potential to bring energy to any location in Africa without the need for expensive large scale grid level infrastructural developments. The distribution of resources across Africa is fairly uniform, with more than 85% of the continents landscape receiving at least 2,000 kWh/. A recent study indicates that a solar generating facility covering just 0. 3% of the area comprising North Africa could supply all of the energy required by the European Union. Solar power in Morocco is enabled by the country having one of the highest rates of solar insolation among other countries— about 3,000 hours per year of sunshine, Morocco has launched one of the world’s largest solar energy projects costing an estimated $9 billion. The aim of the project is to create 2,000 megawatts of generation capacity by the year 2020. Five solar power stations are to be constructed, including both photovoltaic and concentrated solar power technology, the Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy, a public-private venture, has been established to lead the project. The first plant will be commissioned in 2015, and the project in 2020. Once completed, the project will provide 38% of Morocco’s annual electricity generation
27.
Wind power in Turkey
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Wind power in Turkey is gradually expanding in capacity, mainly in the Aegean and Marmara regions. Turkey has about 3 GW of installed capacity, a total of 1,330 wind turbines are currently in place in Turkey, which saves the country from spending an additional $500 million on natural gas. About 10GW has been licensed to be installed in total, Renewable energy law includes fairly attractive incentives for wind power plants in Turkey. The installed capacity was 51 MW in 2006 and it is increased to the 4498MW in 2015, Wind power in Turkey is increasing tremendously but still the desired level of the installed capacity is not reached because the wind potential is very high in Turkey. List of wind farms in Turkey Wind farms in Turkey Renewable energy in Turkey Solar power in Turkey Geothermal power in Turkey Biofuel in Turkey Hydroelectricity in Turkey Renewable energy by country
28.
Geothermal power in Turkey
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Geothermal energy is thermal energy which is derived from the earths internal heat. Geothermal power in Turkey began in the 1970s in a plant following systematic exploration of geothermal fields. In the 1980s, a first power plant has grown up out of the pilot facility. Turkey is ranked seventh richest country in the world in geothermal potential, the small-sized geothermal power plant was expanded to the countrys biggest one in 2013. Currently, two power plants operate in Turkey and its theoretical geothermal potential is 60GW and potential is 4. 5GW In addition to electric power generation, geothermal heat is used directly. The high geothermal potential is due to such as the Western Anatolian Graben systems. In 1965, the state-owned Turkish Mineral Research and Exploration Co. began with the first geological and geophysical surveys in southwestern Turkey. The Kızıldere geothermal reservoir, a field on the branch of Büyük Menderes Graben, was discovered in 1968 as a geothermal field suitable for electricity generation. The first power plant was built as a facility in 1974 with 500 kW intalled capacity. The generated electricity was distributed to the households in the vicinity free of charge, the state-owned Elektrik Üretim A. Ş. enlarged the installed capacity up to 17.4 MW in 1984. However, the actual power was around 10 MW. In 2008, the plant was transferred to Zorlu Energy in the frame of privatization. Zorlu Energy obtained the right of operating lease for 30 years, the company invested US$250 million to expand the facility. In December 2013, the Kızıldere Geothermal Power Plant reached a capacity of 95 MW making it Turkeys biggest. As of 2005, Turkey had the 5th highest direct usage, Turkeys capacity as of 2005 is 1,495 MWt with a usage of 24,839.9 TJ/year or 6,900.5 GWh/year at a capacity factor of 0.53. As of 2006 and 2010, there were two plants generating 8.5 and 11.5 MWe respectively, in Aydın, the direct-use heating has been mostly district heating serving 103,000 residences. There is also individual space heating,800,000 m2 of heated greenhouses and it is stated that at least 1.5 million houses, currently heated by natural gas, can switch to being heated by thermal waters. As of 2005,170 future geothermal prospects had been identified with 95% in the low-to medium enthalpy range suitable for direct-use applications, in 2010 the installed geothermal electricity generation capacity was 100 MWe while direct use installations were approximately 795 MWt. Gümüşköy Geothermal Power Plant, Germencik, Aydın Province Kızıldere Geothermal Power Plant, Sarayköy, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development is investing $275 million in geothermal energy
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International Energy Agency
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The IEA acts as a policy adviser to its member states, but also works with non-member countries, especially China, India, and Russia. The Agencys mandate has broadened to focus on the 3Es of effectual energy policy, energy security, economic development, the latter has focused on mitigating climate change. The IEA has a role in promoting alternate energy sources, rational energy policies. IEA member countries are required to maintain total oil stock levels equivalent to at least 90 days of the previous years net imports, at the end of July 2009, IEA member countries held a combined stockpile of almost 4.3 billion barrels of oil. On 1 September 2015, Fatih Birol took office as the new Executive Director, succeeding in this position former Dutch Minister of Economic Affairs, the IEA was established to meet the industrial countries energy organization needs in the wake of the 1973–1974 oil crisis. In addition, the OECD had adopted recommendations on oil stockpiling in Europe, but due to their limited scope, establishment of the new organization was proposed by United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in his address to the Pilgrims Society in London on 12 December 1973. In so doing they will build on the work of the OECD, however, the OECD has a rule of unanimity, and not all member states were ready to participate. Therefore, instead of an approach, an autonomous approach was chosen. The IEA was created on 18 November 1974 by the Agreement on an International Energy Program, in April 2001, the IEA, in collaboration with five other international organisations launched the Joint Oil Data Exercise, which in 2005 became the Joint Organisations Data Initiative. The reliability and sustainability of our energy system depends on investment. But this wont materialize unless there are credible policy frameworks in place as well as access to long-term sources of finance. Neither of these conditions should be taken for granted, van der Hoeven said in a statement accompanying the report, only the OECD member states can become members of the IEA. Except for Chile, Iceland, Israel, Mexico, and Slovenia, in 2014, Estonia joined the IEA and became its 29th member. In 2017, India joined as the associate member of IEA. According to an unidentified former senior IEA official it was imperative not to anger the Americans. The Guardian also referred to a team of scientists from Uppsala University in Sweden who studied the 2008 World Energy Outlook and concluded the forecasts of the IEA were unattainable. According to their report, oil production in 2030 would not exceed 75 million barrels per day while the IEA forecasts a production of 105 million barrels per day. The lead author of the report, Dr. Kjell Aleklett, has claimed that IEAs reports are political documents, in the past, the IEA has been criticized by environmental groups for underplaying the role of renewable energy technologies in favor of nuclear and fossil-fuels. In 2009, Guy Pearse stated that the IEA has consistently underestimated the potential for renewable energy alternatives, a 2008 EWG report compares IEA projections about the growth of wind power capacity and finds that it has consistently underestimated the amount of energy the wind power industry can deliver
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Energy in Armenia
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Energy in Armenia describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Armenia. Armenia has no reserves of oil or natural gas and currently imports nearly all of it from Russia. Despite a lack of fuel, Armenia has significant domestic electricity generation resources. The Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant provides 42. 9% of the countrys electricity, Armenia has plans to build a new NPP in order to replace the aging Metsamor which was built in 1979. The country also has eleven hydroelectric power plants and has plans to build a power plant in Syunik. Most of the rest of Armenias electricity is generated by the natural gas-fired thermal power plants in Yerevan and Hrazdan, Wind power in Armenia is underdeveloped and as of 2008, Armenia has only one wind power farm located in the Lori marz. The Armenian and Iranian energy sectors are currently constructing the Iran-Armenia Wind Farm which is set to become the countrys largest wind farm. It is estimated that nearly 80 percent of Armenias energy system is under Russian control, most of its oil demands are met through imports from Russia. Armenian oil demand is constrained, in part, due to an economic embargo maintained by Azerbaijan to the East. The embargo began shortly after the secession of Nagorno-Karabakh, an Armenian populated Azerbaijani enclave within Azerbaijan in 1988, Armenian Energy Minister Armen Movsisian has said that the construction will take two years and cost Armenia about $100 million. Irans Oil Minister has said that the 365-kilometer pipeline could go on stream by 2014. Iran plans to export 1.5 million liters of gasoline and diesel fuel a day to Armenia through the pipeline, Natural gas represents a large portion of total energy consumption in Armenia, accounting for 50%. Armenia receives all of its gas from Russia. Armrosgazprom holds a monopoly over the import and distribution of gas in Armenia. Armenias thermal power stations run on gas, making Armenia dependent on imported Russian gas to meeting its electricity needs. Furthermore, natural gas is the means of winter heating in the country. The Russian gas export monopoly Gazprom supplies Armenia with gas through a pipeline that runs through Georgia, in 2007, Gazprom provided Armenia with just under 2 billion cubic meters of natural gas. As a transit fee, Armenia pays Georgia approximately 10% of the gas that was destined to reach Armenia, Russian natural gas supplies to Georgia and Armenia are provided by two main pipelines, the North Caucasus-Transcaucasus pipeline and the Mozdok-Tbilisi pipeline
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Energy in Azerbaijan
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Energy in Azerbaijan describes energy and electricity production, consumption and export in Azerbaijan. Production, -931,990 bbl/d Consumption, -160,000 bbl/d At the turn of the 20th century, Oil wells have been operating in Baku since the 1840s. As of the early 21st century, almost all came from off shore in the Caspian Sea. Azerbaijan was one of four former Soviet republics to be self-sufficient in petroleum. However, production declined following the 1991 breakup of the Soviet Union until foreign investment provided the capital for new development, production rose from 194,000 barrels per day in 1998 to an average of 318,000 barrels per day in 2004. According to industry journals and government sources, proven oil reserves as of 2004 totaled between 7 billion and 13 billion barrels, the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan has planned for joint development of the off shore fields and has entered into several agreements to build oil pipelines. For instance, a project with the Caspian Pipeline Consortium would carry oil from the Caspian Sea to the Russian Black Sea port of Novorossiysk. Another deal with Turkey involved the construction of a 1,760 km pipeline, in 1995 Azerbaijan had 17 offshore oil fields in production. Guneshli, about 96 km off the Azeri coast, currently accounts for more than half the annual production, by the end of 2002,33 companies in 15 foreign countries had signed agreements to develop 21 major oil fields in Azerbaijan. As of 2003 disputes over off shore oil rights in the Caspian Sea continued to hinder development of those reserves, the 2013 report by UK-based Global Witness NGO revealed that companies working in Azerbaijan’s oil industry have no transparency and accountability. It has been documented that millions of dollars of revenue disappear into the hands of obscurely owned private companies cooperate with SOCAR. The report concluded that the opacity of the struck by Socar is systemic and added. Oil and its products are central to the Azerbaijani economy. It is important for Europe that Azerbaijan keeps the oil and gas flowing and maintains a transparent, proven reserves as of late 2004 totaled 1.37 trillion cubic metres. Production of natural gas in 2011 totaled 17.66 billion cubic metres, ukraine and Iran are interested in running a natural gas pipeline through Azerbaijan en route to Eastern Europe. On March 10,2016, Natiq Aliyev, Azerbaijani energy minister, the SGC is an energy project whose goal is to move 10 billion cub meters of gas from Azerbaijan through Georgia and Turkey to Europe. Production,19.44 billion kWh consumption,13.57 billion kWh In 2011, in 2011, consumption of electricity was estimated at 13.57 billion kWh. Total installed capacity at the beginning of 2011 was 6.392 million kW, eight thermal plants supply more than 80% of capacity, and the rest comes from 5 hydroelectric plants
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Energy in Belarus
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Energy in Belarus describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Belarus. Belarus is a net energy importer, according to IEA, the energy import exceeded the energy use in 2008. Primary energy use in Belarus was 327 TWh or 34 TWh per million persons in 2008, primary energy use per capita in Belarus in 2009 was slightly more than in Portugal and about half of the use in Belgium or Sweden. ¨ Druzhba pipeline 2004 Russia–Belarus gas dispute 2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute
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Energy in Belgium
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Energy in Belgium describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Belgium. It is governed by the policy of Belgium, which is split over several levels of government. For example, the level is responsible for awarding green certificates. As a member country of the European Union Belgium also complies to its energy policy, primary energy is the amount of extractable energy present in fuels as they are found in nature. It is often expressed in tonnes of oil equivalent or watt-hour, unless stated otherwise the lower heating value is used in the remainder of this text. In recent years own production is about 25%, however this is mostly due to nuclear power generation, which by convention is counted as domestic production despite the uranium being imported. Renewable energy sources account for the rest of own production, historically, up until 1992, coal was mined in Belgium. Since 2000 the quantities of Coalbed methane have been researched and these show that a concession of Limburgse Reconversie Maatschappij would contain 7 billion cubic meters of mine gas. In 2012 a deal was made with the Australian Dart Energy to investigate the practical extraction of this mine gas, in 2010, crude oil was imported mainly from Russia, and OPEC countries. Norway was the largest supplier of natural gas followed by The Netherlands, while 39% of coal was imported from the United States and 22% from Australia. At the end of 2011 Belgium had a distillation capacity 41 Mt and that year 72% of the capacity was used. Electrabel is main producer of electricity, followed by EDF Luminus, with the exception of 2009 Belgium has been a net importer in recent years. Short term trading is done via the Belpex energy exchange, which is now part of APX-ENDEX, the Belgian transmission grid, operated by Elia System Operator, has a central position in the Synchronous grid of Continental Europe. This allows Belgium to trade electricity with its neighbours, though currently there are only physical connections with the Netherlands and France. Direct links with Germany and The United Kingdom are planned, currently a maximum of 3500 MW can be imported. In comparison, the net installed capacity in Belgium is estimated to be 19,627 MW. In 2010, Belgium produced 95 TWh of electricity, after subtraction of the electricity used in the production process and losses and addition of the net import 84 TWh was consumed by end users. According to the GEMIX report the potential of energy sources is 17 TWh per year
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Energy in Bulgaria
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Energy in Bulgaria describes energy and electricity production, consumption and trade in Bulgaria. Nuclear power produces 36% of Bulgarias power, Bulgaria is a major producer and exporter of electricity in the region and plays an important role in the energy balance on the Balkans. The countrys strategic location makes it a major hub for transit and distribution of oil and gas from Russia to Western Europe. The state holds a 100% stake in the holding company, the country has extensive deposits of coal but these are mostly lignite. The reserves of coal are estimated to 4.5 billion tons and they are located in the Maritsa Iztok Coal Basin, Sofia Coal Basin. The reserves of coal are 800 million tons with major deposits near Pernik, Bobov Dol. The reserves of anthracite are slightly more than 1.2 billion tons but more than 95% of these are located in the Dobruja Coal Basin at depth of some 1.5 km, there are several minor oil and gas deposits in Northern Bulgaria. The production of electricity was 38.07 billion kWh in 2006, for comparison, Romania, which has a population nearly three times larger than that of Bulgaria, produced 51.7 billion kWh in the same year. In production per capita, the country is in place in Eastern Europe. Bulgaria has the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant with six reactors, out of only two are online, with a combined capacity of 3,760 MW and covering 36% of countrys energy demand. Thermal power plants are also of importance with most of the capacity concentrated in the Maritsa Iztok Complex. Other minor TPPs are, Republika in Pernik -180 MW, Sofia-130 MW, Sofia Iztok-120 MW, Plovdiv-60 MW, Pleven-40 MW, Pernik-30 MW, Sliven-30 MW, due to the limited hydro-potential of the country, the importance of hydro power is not so big. There are currently 87 hydro power plants with a capacity of 1,980 MW. The largest hydro cascades are, Belmeken-Sestrimo-700 MW, Dospat-Vacha-670 MW, important HPPs on the Arda river are, Kardzhali-106 MW, Ivailovgrad -104 MW and Studen Kladenets -60 MW. There is €65 million project for their modernization, three major hydroelectric power plants are under construction, Gorna Arda -160 MW, Sreden Iskar –93 MW, €60 million, Tsankov Kamak –90 MW, €220 million. Large-scale prospects for energy development have spurred the construction of numerous wind farms. However, the country has added very little new wind energy capacity since 2012, several major energy transportation routes are to be passed through Bulgaria. Bulgaria is a country for Russian natural gas to Turkey, Greece
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Energy in Croatia
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Energy in Croatia describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Croatia. Hrvatska elektroprivreda is the energy company charged with production, transmission and distribution of electricity. In 2009, electricity consumption totaled 17.5 terawatt-hours, which is about 1% less than in 2008, total installed capacity of generating objects built in Croatia amounts to 3745 MW,2079 MW of which is hydropowers share, and 1666 MW comes from thermal power plants. There are 25 hydroelectric power plants, most of which are located on the coast, also,338 MW is available from the co-owned Krško nuclear power plant, and 210 MW from the privately owned Plomin 2 thermal power plant. In 2009, domestic production amounted to 12015 GWh, which was 67. 9% of total domestic demand, remaining 32. 1% was covered through trade. Total consumption equaled 17697 GWh, a 1% decrease from 2008, Croatian transmission grid consists of lines on three different rated voltage levels, namely 400,220 and 110 kV. Total length of lines is 7,315 km. The grid was often the target of attacks during Croatian War of Independence, since then, the grid has been repaired, and reconnected to synchronous grid of Continental Europe synchronous zones 1 and 2, making it an important transit system again. Under the 2004 Energy law, customers in Croatia are allowed to choose their preferred distributor of electricity, however, HEP Operator distribucijskog sustava or HEP-ODS remains the largest distributor to both industry and households. Its distribution grid is 132,938 km long, with 26764 transformers installed, in 2009 there were 2310811 customers,90. 8% of which were households
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Energy in Cyprus
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Energy in Cyprus describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Cyprus. Energy policy will describe the politics of Cyprus related to more in detail. Cyprus is a member of European Union and non-OECD country, on 11 July 2011 the main power station of Cyprus producing 60% of electricity was damaged in an explosion of stored 98 gunpowder containers at a naval base. The power station needs repair before full operation, about 97% of the primary energy use was imported in 2008. However, the European Union RES target for Cypus is 13% giving Cyprus an opportunity to promote its own energy production, according to the national action plan Cyprus expects it will also meet this target. According to the IEA key ststistics 2010 the Cypriotic energy import in 2008 was 5 TWh higher than the energy use. If correct, this corresponds about 18% storage capacity of the energy use. There was equal imbalance in 2007, with feed-in tariff for large wind power plants the Cypriot National Renewable Energy Action Plan targets the largest renewable electricity share from wind power by 2020. Development has been fast, In 2005 there was no wind energy, the national target is 6. 8% of electricity by 2020. The EU countries average target by 2020 is 14%, a recent scientific article published in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews in 2014 by Prof. The authors reports evidence that international tourism is a catalyst for energy consumption, the Cypriot target of solar power including both photovoltaics and concentrated solar power is combined 7% of electricity by 2020, which will be one of the top ones in the European Union markets. Respective target is in Spain 8%, Germany 7%, Greece 5%, Portugal 4%, solar heating is the usage of solar energy to provide space or water heating. Solar heating per capita in 2010 was the highest in Cyprus of all European countries,611 W per capita, corresponding value was in other top EU countries, Austria 385, Greece 253 and Germany 120. In 2010 this capacity was the lowest in the EU, with high unused domestic energy opportunities, in Finland 4, Latvia 3, Estonia 1, correspondingly the value was in a Scandinavian country Denmark 68. The Cypriot Energy Regulatory Authority announced a number of steps, aimed at facilitating development of Photovoltaics in Cyprus, among them is the large-scale application of Net metering. CERA aims to reduce electricity prices for the households where net metering is applied, via fuel saving, Cyprus introduced net metering as pilot program in 2012. The program concerns selected governmental buildings and a few communities only and its goal was to gain significant experience and knowledge on how to run the electricity grid using net metering. The UoC will also lead an EU-funded European research program on promoting net metering policies, the university has signed a memorandum of co-operation with the Bishopric of Tamasos and Orini of the Church of Cyprus, to develop a photovoltaic park in the Cypriot capital of Nicosia
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