1.
Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
2.
Reciprocating engine
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A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
3.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
4.
Cylinder (engine)
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A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block. Cylinders may be sleeved or sleeveless, a sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a parent-bore engine. A cylinders displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-sectional area by the distance the piston travels within the cylinder, the engine displacement can be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders. The rings make near contact with the walls, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil. The first illustration depicts a longitudinal section of a cylinder in a steam engine, the sliding part at the bottom is the piston, and the upper sliding part is a distribution valve that directs steam alternately into either end of the cylinder. Refrigerator and air compressors are heat engines driven in reverse cycle as pumps. Internal combustion engines operate on the inherent volume change accompanying oxidation of gasoline, diesel fuel or ethanol and they are not classical heat engines since they expel the working substance, which is also the combustion product, into the surroundings. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods, as a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle, its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines use two angled cylinder banks, the V configuration is utilized to create a more compact configuration relative to the number of cylinders. For example, there are also rotary turbines, the Wankel engine is a rotary adaptation of the cylinder-piston concept which has been used by Mazda and NSU in automobiles. Rotary engines are relatively quiet because they lack the clatter of reciprocating motion, air-cooled engines generally use individual cases for the cylinders to facilitate cooling. Inline motorcycle engines are an exception, having two-, three-, four-, water-cooled engines with only a few cylinders may also use individual cylinder cases, though this makes the cooling system more complex. The Ducati motorcycle company, which for years used air-cooled motors with individual cylinder cases, in some engines, especially French designs, the cylinders have wet liners. They are formed separately from the casting so that liquid coolant is free to flow around their outsides. Wet-lined cylinders have cooling and a more even temperature distribution. During use, the cylinder is subject to wear from the action of the piston rings
5.
Crankshaft
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A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train, al-Jazari described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, though the device was unnecessarily complex, the Italian physician Guido da Vigevano, planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola. A sound grasp of the motion involved is demonstrated a little later by Pisanello. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser, Leonardo da Vinci and his wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmills circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597, large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as found in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston. A crankshaft is subjected to stresses, potentially equivalent of several tonnes of force. The crankshaft is connected to the fly-wheel, the block, using bearings on the main journals. An engine loses up to 75% of its energy in the form of friction, noise and vibration in the crankcase. The remaining losses occur in the heat and blow by. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in an engine, it must be supported by several such bearings. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds
6.
Camshaft
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A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part. An early cam was built into Hellenistic water-driven automata from the 3rd century BC, the camshaft was later described in Turkey by Al-Jazari in 1206. He employed it as part of his automata, water-raising machines, the cam and camshaft later appeared in European mechanisms from at least the 14th century, or possibly earlier. In internal combustion engines with pistons, the camshaft is used to operate poppet valves and it consists of a cylindrical rod running the length of the cylinder bank with a number of oblong lobes protruding from it, one for each valve. The cam lobes force the valves open by pressing on the valve, or on some intermediate mechanism, Camshafts can be made out of several types of material. These include, Chilled iron castings, Commonly used in volume production. Other elements are added to the iron casting to make the material more suitable for its application. Billet Steel, When a high quality camshaft or low volume production is required, engine builders and this is a much more time consuming process, and is generally more expensive than other methods. However, the product is far superior. CNC lathes, CNC milling machines, and CNC camshaft grinders will be used during production, different types of steel bar can be used, one example being EN40b. When manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft will also be heat treated via gas nitriding and it gives a surface hardness of 55-60 HRC. These types of camshafts can be used in high-performance engines, the relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of the air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, for this reason, the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because of the cost, the frequently reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to cause gear rattle which for an all-metal gear train requires further expense of a cam damper. Rolls-Royce V8 used gear drive as, unlike chain, it could be made silent, where gears are used in cheaper cars, they tend to be made from resilient fibre rather than metal, except in racing engines that have a high maintenance routine. Fibre gears have a life span and must be replaced regularly. In some designs the camshaft also drives the distributor and the oil, some vehicles may have the power steering pump driven by the camshaft. With some early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the fuel injectors, honda redesigned the VF750 motorcycle from chain drive to the gear drive VFR750 due to insurmountable problems with the VF750 Hi-Vo inverted chain drive
7.
Flat engine
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A flat engine is an internal combustion engine with horizontally-opposed cylinders. Typically, the layout has cylinders arranged in two banks on either side of a crankshaft and is otherwise known as the boxer. The concept was patented in 1896 by engineer Karl Benz, who called it the contra engine, a boxer engine should not be confused with the opposed-piston engine, in which each cylinder has two pistons but no cylinder head. Also, if an engine is canted 90 degrees into the horizontal plane. Horizontal inline engines are common in industrial applications such as underfloor mounting for buses. True boxers have each crankpin controlling only one piston/cylinder while the 180° engines, the 180° engine, which may be thought of as a type of V engine, is quite uncommon as it has all of the disadvantages of a flat engine, and few of the advantages. In 1896, Karl Benz invented the first internal combustion engine with opposed pistons. He called it the engine, as the action of each side opposed the action of the other. This design has since called the boxer engine because each pair of pistons moves in. The boxer engine has pairs of pistons reaching TDC simultaneously and these engines do not require a balance shaft or counterweights on the crankshaft to balance the weight of the reciprocating parts, which are required in most other engine configurations. However, in the case of engines with fewer than six cylinders. Other engine configurations with natural dynamic balance include the straight-six, the straight-eight, the V12, Boxer engines tend to be noisier than other common engines for both intrinsic and other reasons. In cars, valve clatter from the compartment is not damped by air filters or other components. Multi-cylinder boxer layouts have proved to be suited as light aircraft engines, as exemplified by Continental, Lycoming, Rotax, Jabiru. An important factor in aircraft use is the flat engines absence of vibration, general aviation aircraft often use air-cooled flat-four and flat-six engines made by companies such as Lycoming and Continental. Ultralight and microlight aircraft often use such as the Rotax 912. During the Second World War, Boxer engines were used as a motor for the first German jet engines to power up the engine at cranking speed. It was a short stroke design so it could fit in the hub of the turbine compressor
8.
Opposed-piston engine
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An opposed-piston engine is a reciprocating internal combustion engine in which each cylinder has a piston at both ends, and no cylinder head. In 1882 James Atkinson developed the Atkinson cycle, a variant of the four stroke Otto cycle, the first implementation of this was arranged as an opposed piston engine, the Atkinson differential engine. Opposed piston engines using the two stroke cycle are known to have made by Oechelhäuser as early as 1898, when a 600 hp 2-stroke gas engine was installed at the Hoerde ironworks. These engines were made by Deutsche Kraftgas Gesellschaft from 1899, smaller versions of opposed piston engines suitable for motor vehicles probably begin with the French company Gobron-Brillié around 1900. The first diesel engine with opposed pistons, was a prototype built at the Kolomna plant in Russia, the designer, Raymond A. Koreyvo, patented the engine in France, on November 6,1907, then displayed the engine at international exhibitions. After these demonstrations similar engines were produced by other companies, Koreyvo filed a claim against these companies which was rejected by the Kolomna plant as the managing director did not want any quarrels with influential foreigners. In the USSR, the piston engine was used only after meetings with German aircraft makers, Junkers. In the USSR locomotive diesel engines adapted American Fairbanks-Morse designs and these engines were also used in military boats, set out under the world war two Lend-Lease contracts. Opposed piston engines should not be confused with flat engines, which are horizontally opposed with one piston per cylinder, some variations of the opposed piston or OP designs use a single crankshaft. The Gobron-Brillié, and Doxford ship engines used a crankshaft at one end of the cylinders, the crank throws for each end were often unequal giving a shorter motion for the end having the higher reciprocating weight in order to help balance. The Commer TS3 3-cylinder truck engines have a crankshaft beneath the centre of the cylinders with both pistons connected by levers. The levers operating the pistons allowed for a large piston travel with smaller crank throw, a more common layout uses two crankshafts, with the crankshafts geared together, or even three geared crankshafts in the Napier Deltic diesel engines. The Deltic uses three crankshafts, one at each corner, to form the three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle and these were used in railway locomotives and to power fast patrol boats. Both types are now obsolete, although the Royal Navy still maintains some Deltic-powered Hunt-class mine countermeasure vessels. The first opposed-piston diesel engines were developed in the beginning of the 20th century, in 1907, Russian Raymond Koreyvo, the engineer of Kolomna Works, built an opposed-piston two-stroke diesel with two crankshafts connected by gearing. Although Koreyvo patented his engine in France in November 1907, the management would not go on to manufacture opposed-piston engines, the first Junkers engines had one crankshaft, the upper pistons having long connecting rods outside the cylinder. These engines were the forerunner of the Doxford marine engine, later engines, such as the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine and todays Achates Power engine, use two crankshafts, one at either end of a single bank of cylinders. There are efforts to reintroduce the opposed-piston diesel aircraft engine with twin geared crankshafts for general aviation applications, Fairbanks-Morse also used it in diesel locomotives starting in 1944
9.
W engine
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Four banks of cylinders sharing a common crankshaft, also called a double-V Two banks of cylinders with two crankshafts. The classical W engine uses three banks of cylinders, all connected to one crankshaft, one of the first W engines was the Anzani 3-cylinder, built in 1906, to be used in Anzani motorcycles. It is this W3 engine which powered the Blériot XI. Shortly afterward the W3 configuration was changed to a 120°-angle, three-cylinder radial engine configuration as the original W3 engines replacement, the 1917 Napier Lion aircraft engine was an early W12 engine. At the same time the 500 horsepower Farman 12We wa used by many aircraft, a three-bank W12 design was also pursued by Audi, which later abandoned the project. Similar to the W3 built by Anzani in 1906, the Feuling W3 is a 180 horsepower, three-cylinder air-cooled engine for motorcycle cruisers, like radial aircraft engines it has a master connecting rod and two slave rods connected to the three 101.6 millimetres pistons. Motorcycle Cruiser Magazine reviewed Feulingss Warlock powered motorcycle in the October edition of 2000, cory Ness built his chopper using a Feuling W3 engine during a Biker Build Off episode. In 1937 Allison built the V-3420 by combining two of their V-1710s on a common crankcase, early in World War II, Daimler-Benz built the DB 606A/B power system, weighing 1.5 tonnes apiece. Based on the Daimler-Benz DB601 V12 aircraft engine and it was a pair of liquid-cooled inverted V12s coupled to work on a single gear shaft. The inboard rows of cylinders were oriented downward and almost parallel to each other, Volkswagen Group created the first successful automotive W engine, with the introduction of its W8. The W12 combines two narrow-angle VR6 engine cylinder heads around a single crankshaft for a total of four banks of cylinders. For this reason, the configuration is sometimes, and more accurately, referred to as a VV or WR. As a result, it considerably more power than the original version. The narrow angle between bank pairs makes this resemble a V12 engine, in that it has just two cylinder heads and two sets of camshafts, the W12 engine has bore-stroke of 84.0 millimetres and 90.2 millimetres. Volkswagen Group went on to produce a W16 engine prototype which produced 465 kilowatts for the Bentley Hunaudières concept car, a quad-turbocharged version of this engine went into production in 2005 powering the 736 kilowatts Bugatti Veyron EB16.4. The major advantage of these engines is packaging, they contain high numbers of cylinders but are relatively compact in their external dimensions, in 2006, the Volkswagen Group-owned Bugatti produced the Bugatti Veyron EB16.4 with an 8.0 litre W16 engine. This has four turbochargers, and it produces DIN rated motive power output of 736 kilowatts at 6,000 revolutions per minute. It uses four valves per cylinder,64 valves total, with four overhead camshafts arranged in an overhead camshaft layout
