1.
Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
2.
Reciprocating engine
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A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
3.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
4.
Cylinder (engine)
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A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block. Cylinders may be sleeved or sleeveless, a sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a parent-bore engine. A cylinders displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-sectional area by the distance the piston travels within the cylinder, the engine displacement can be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders. The rings make near contact with the walls, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil. The first illustration depicts a longitudinal section of a cylinder in a steam engine, the sliding part at the bottom is the piston, and the upper sliding part is a distribution valve that directs steam alternately into either end of the cylinder. Refrigerator and air compressors are heat engines driven in reverse cycle as pumps. Internal combustion engines operate on the inherent volume change accompanying oxidation of gasoline, diesel fuel or ethanol and they are not classical heat engines since they expel the working substance, which is also the combustion product, into the surroundings. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods, as a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle, its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines use two angled cylinder banks, the V configuration is utilized to create a more compact configuration relative to the number of cylinders. For example, there are also rotary turbines, the Wankel engine is a rotary adaptation of the cylinder-piston concept which has been used by Mazda and NSU in automobiles. Rotary engines are relatively quiet because they lack the clatter of reciprocating motion, air-cooled engines generally use individual cases for the cylinders to facilitate cooling. Inline motorcycle engines are an exception, having two-, three-, four-, water-cooled engines with only a few cylinders may also use individual cylinder cases, though this makes the cooling system more complex. The Ducati motorcycle company, which for years used air-cooled motors with individual cylinder cases, in some engines, especially French designs, the cylinders have wet liners. They are formed separately from the casting so that liquid coolant is free to flow around their outsides. Wet-lined cylinders have cooling and a more even temperature distribution. During use, the cylinder is subject to wear from the action of the piston rings
5.
Crankshaft
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A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train, al-Jazari described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, though the device was unnecessarily complex, the Italian physician Guido da Vigevano, planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola. A sound grasp of the motion involved is demonstrated a little later by Pisanello. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser, Leonardo da Vinci and his wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmills circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597, large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as found in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston. A crankshaft is subjected to stresses, potentially equivalent of several tonnes of force. The crankshaft is connected to the fly-wheel, the block, using bearings on the main journals. An engine loses up to 75% of its energy in the form of friction, noise and vibration in the crankcase. The remaining losses occur in the heat and blow by. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in an engine, it must be supported by several such bearings. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds
6.
Camshaft
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A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part. An early cam was built into Hellenistic water-driven automata from the 3rd century BC, the camshaft was later described in Turkey by Al-Jazari in 1206. He employed it as part of his automata, water-raising machines, the cam and camshaft later appeared in European mechanisms from at least the 14th century, or possibly earlier. In internal combustion engines with pistons, the camshaft is used to operate poppet valves and it consists of a cylindrical rod running the length of the cylinder bank with a number of oblong lobes protruding from it, one for each valve. The cam lobes force the valves open by pressing on the valve, or on some intermediate mechanism, Camshafts can be made out of several types of material. These include, Chilled iron castings, Commonly used in volume production. Other elements are added to the iron casting to make the material more suitable for its application. Billet Steel, When a high quality camshaft or low volume production is required, engine builders and this is a much more time consuming process, and is generally more expensive than other methods. However, the product is far superior. CNC lathes, CNC milling machines, and CNC camshaft grinders will be used during production, different types of steel bar can be used, one example being EN40b. When manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft will also be heat treated via gas nitriding and it gives a surface hardness of 55-60 HRC. These types of camshafts can be used in high-performance engines, the relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of the air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, for this reason, the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because of the cost, the frequently reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to cause gear rattle which for an all-metal gear train requires further expense of a cam damper. Rolls-Royce V8 used gear drive as, unlike chain, it could be made silent, where gears are used in cheaper cars, they tend to be made from resilient fibre rather than metal, except in racing engines that have a high maintenance routine. Fibre gears have a life span and must be replaced regularly. In some designs the camshaft also drives the distributor and the oil, some vehicles may have the power steering pump driven by the camshaft. With some early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the fuel injectors, honda redesigned the VF750 motorcycle from chain drive to the gear drive VFR750 due to insurmountable problems with the VF750 Hi-Vo inverted chain drive
7.
Flat engine
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A flat engine is an internal combustion engine with horizontally-opposed cylinders. Typically, the layout has cylinders arranged in two banks on either side of a crankshaft and is otherwise known as the boxer. The concept was patented in 1896 by engineer Karl Benz, who called it the contra engine, a boxer engine should not be confused with the opposed-piston engine, in which each cylinder has two pistons but no cylinder head. Also, if an engine is canted 90 degrees into the horizontal plane. Horizontal inline engines are common in industrial applications such as underfloor mounting for buses. True boxers have each crankpin controlling only one piston/cylinder while the 180° engines, the 180° engine, which may be thought of as a type of V engine, is quite uncommon as it has all of the disadvantages of a flat engine, and few of the advantages. In 1896, Karl Benz invented the first internal combustion engine with opposed pistons. He called it the engine, as the action of each side opposed the action of the other. This design has since called the boxer engine because each pair of pistons moves in. The boxer engine has pairs of pistons reaching TDC simultaneously and these engines do not require a balance shaft or counterweights on the crankshaft to balance the weight of the reciprocating parts, which are required in most other engine configurations. However, in the case of engines with fewer than six cylinders. Other engine configurations with natural dynamic balance include the straight-six, the straight-eight, the V12, Boxer engines tend to be noisier than other common engines for both intrinsic and other reasons. In cars, valve clatter from the compartment is not damped by air filters or other components. Multi-cylinder boxer layouts have proved to be suited as light aircraft engines, as exemplified by Continental, Lycoming, Rotax, Jabiru. An important factor in aircraft use is the flat engines absence of vibration, general aviation aircraft often use air-cooled flat-four and flat-six engines made by companies such as Lycoming and Continental. Ultralight and microlight aircraft often use such as the Rotax 912. During the Second World War, Boxer engines were used as a motor for the first German jet engines to power up the engine at cranking speed. It was a short stroke design so it could fit in the hub of the turbine compressor
8.
Opposed-piston engine
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An opposed-piston engine is a reciprocating internal combustion engine in which each cylinder has a piston at both ends, and no cylinder head. In 1882 James Atkinson developed the Atkinson cycle, a variant of the four stroke Otto cycle, the first implementation of this was arranged as an opposed piston engine, the Atkinson differential engine. Opposed piston engines using the two stroke cycle are known to have made by Oechelhäuser as early as 1898, when a 600 hp 2-stroke gas engine was installed at the Hoerde ironworks. These engines were made by Deutsche Kraftgas Gesellschaft from 1899, smaller versions of opposed piston engines suitable for motor vehicles probably begin with the French company Gobron-Brillié around 1900. The first diesel engine with opposed pistons, was a prototype built at the Kolomna plant in Russia, the designer, Raymond A. Koreyvo, patented the engine in France, on November 6,1907, then displayed the engine at international exhibitions. After these demonstrations similar engines were produced by other companies, Koreyvo filed a claim against these companies which was rejected by the Kolomna plant as the managing director did not want any quarrels with influential foreigners. In the USSR, the piston engine was used only after meetings with German aircraft makers, Junkers. In the USSR locomotive diesel engines adapted American Fairbanks-Morse designs and these engines were also used in military boats, set out under the world war two Lend-Lease contracts. Opposed piston engines should not be confused with flat engines, which are horizontally opposed with one piston per cylinder, some variations of the opposed piston or OP designs use a single crankshaft. The Gobron-Brillié, and Doxford ship engines used a crankshaft at one end of the cylinders, the crank throws for each end were often unequal giving a shorter motion for the end having the higher reciprocating weight in order to help balance. The Commer TS3 3-cylinder truck engines have a crankshaft beneath the centre of the cylinders with both pistons connected by levers. The levers operating the pistons allowed for a large piston travel with smaller crank throw, a more common layout uses two crankshafts, with the crankshafts geared together, or even three geared crankshafts in the Napier Deltic diesel engines. The Deltic uses three crankshafts, one at each corner, to form the three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle and these were used in railway locomotives and to power fast patrol boats. Both types are now obsolete, although the Royal Navy still maintains some Deltic-powered Hunt-class mine countermeasure vessels. The first opposed-piston diesel engines were developed in the beginning of the 20th century, in 1907, Russian Raymond Koreyvo, the engineer of Kolomna Works, built an opposed-piston two-stroke diesel with two crankshafts connected by gearing. Although Koreyvo patented his engine in France in November 1907, the management would not go on to manufacture opposed-piston engines, the first Junkers engines had one crankshaft, the upper pistons having long connecting rods outside the cylinder. These engines were the forerunner of the Doxford marine engine, later engines, such as the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine and todays Achates Power engine, use two crankshafts, one at either end of a single bank of cylinders. There are efforts to reintroduce the opposed-piston diesel aircraft engine with twin geared crankshafts for general aviation applications, Fairbanks-Morse also used it in diesel locomotives starting in 1944
9.
W engine
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Four banks of cylinders sharing a common crankshaft, also called a double-V Two banks of cylinders with two crankshafts. The classical W engine uses three banks of cylinders, all connected to one crankshaft, one of the first W engines was the Anzani 3-cylinder, built in 1906, to be used in Anzani motorcycles. It is this W3 engine which powered the Blériot XI. Shortly afterward the W3 configuration was changed to a 120°-angle, three-cylinder radial engine configuration as the original W3 engines replacement, the 1917 Napier Lion aircraft engine was an early W12 engine. At the same time the 500 horsepower Farman 12We wa used by many aircraft, a three-bank W12 design was also pursued by Audi, which later abandoned the project. Similar to the W3 built by Anzani in 1906, the Feuling W3 is a 180 horsepower, three-cylinder air-cooled engine for motorcycle cruisers, like radial aircraft engines it has a master connecting rod and two slave rods connected to the three 101.6 millimetres pistons. Motorcycle Cruiser Magazine reviewed Feulingss Warlock powered motorcycle in the October edition of 2000, cory Ness built his chopper using a Feuling W3 engine during a Biker Build Off episode. In 1937 Allison built the V-3420 by combining two of their V-1710s on a common crankcase, early in World War II, Daimler-Benz built the DB 606A/B power system, weighing 1.5 tonnes apiece. Based on the Daimler-Benz DB601 V12 aircraft engine and it was a pair of liquid-cooled inverted V12s coupled to work on a single gear shaft. The inboard rows of cylinders were oriented downward and almost parallel to each other, Volkswagen Group created the first successful automotive W engine, with the introduction of its W8. The W12 combines two narrow-angle VR6 engine cylinder heads around a single crankshaft for a total of four banks of cylinders. For this reason, the configuration is sometimes, and more accurately, referred to as a VV or WR. As a result, it considerably more power than the original version. The narrow angle between bank pairs makes this resemble a V12 engine, in that it has just two cylinder heads and two sets of camshafts, the W12 engine has bore-stroke of 84.0 millimetres and 90.2 millimetres. Volkswagen Group went on to produce a W16 engine prototype which produced 465 kilowatts for the Bentley Hunaudières concept car, a quad-turbocharged version of this engine went into production in 2005 powering the 736 kilowatts Bugatti Veyron EB16.4. The major advantage of these engines is packaging, they contain high numbers of cylinders but are relatively compact in their external dimensions, in 2006, the Volkswagen Group-owned Bugatti produced the Bugatti Veyron EB16.4 with an 8.0 litre W16 engine. This has four turbochargers, and it produces DIN rated motive power output of 736 kilowatts at 6,000 revolutions per minute. It uses four valves per cylinder,64 valves total, with four overhead camshafts arranged in an overhead camshaft layout
10.
Flat-four engine
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A flat-four or horizontally opposed-four is a type of four-cylinder engine, a flat engine with four cylinders arranged horizontally in two banks of two cylinders on each side of a central crankcase. The design is seen with shared crank throws, so flat-four and boxer-four are usually used synonymously. The configuration results in inherently good balance of the parts, a low centre of gravity. The layout also lends itself to efficient air cooling with excellent thermal balance, the low centre of gravity of the engine is an advantage. The shape of the engine suits it better for mid engine or rear engine designs, with a rear engine layout, it allows a low-tail body while in front engine designs the width of the engine often interferes with the maximum front wheel steering angle. Boxer engines tend to be better balanced than other four-cylinder configurations and this problem becomes worse with increased piston speed and weight, effectively limiting the capacity of these engines. Inline-fours larger than 2.0 L usually have balance shafts whilst engines over 3.0 L are seldom used in passenger cars. In contrast, the flat-four has much less secondary imbalance at the expense of larger rocking vibrations and this is because the cylinders cannot be directly opposed, but must be offset so the connecting rods can be on separate crank pins, which results in the forces being slightly off-centre. The rocking vibration is not serious enough to require balance shafts. As the firing order on an ordinary flat-four boxer engine on Left, by counting two characters to the right of each L or R, the cylinders that fire with 360 degree crankshaft rotational angle offset are shown to be located on opposite banks. As a result, most Subaru flat-four engines no longer have the flat-four burble, the Impreza WRX and WRX STI still have unequal length exhaust pipes to feed the turbo sitting in the corner of the engine bay, and still have the characteristic burble. This was changed for the 2015 WRX which feeds a centrally mounted turbo and they are, however, a somewhat popular aftermarket modification. In addition, four-stroke cycle flat-fours have a common to all four-cylinder engines. This results in gaps between strokes and a pulsating delivery of torque to the flywheel, causing a rotational vibration on the entire engine along the crankshaft axis. By contrast, in engines with more cylinders the power strokes overlap, the piston starts its power stroke before the previous one has finished. Luxury performance car manufacturers prefer to use the inline-six, flat-six, or V8 configurations because these designs are much smoother than the flat-four, in 1897 Karl Benz developed the boxer engine. This drive system, in two horizontally opposed cylinders turned a single crankshaft, was given the name “contra engine”. The unit was used from 1899 onwards, principally in passenger, the final evolutionary stage of the Benz racing car equipped with a contra engine was the 20-hp Benz vehicle introduced in 1900
11.
Flat-six engine
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A flat-6 or horizontally opposed-6 is a flat engine with six cylinders arranged horizontally in two banks of three cylinders on each side of a central crankcase. This should not be confused with the Opposed-piston engine, the configuration results in inherently good balance of the reciprocating parts, a low center of gravity, and a very short engine length. The layout also lends itself to air cooling. Only a few auto makers, including Porsche and Subaru, currently use horizontally opposed engines, in the past a number of other manufacturers have used them, notably Preston Tucker in the 1948 Tucker Sedan and Chevrolet in the 1960s Corvair with flat-6 air-cooled engines. The Citroën DS was originally intended to be fitted with an air-cooled flat-6, unlike the V6 but like the inline-6, the flat-6 is a fully balanced configuration which is in perfect primary and secondary balance. The flat-6 is also smoother than the flat-4 or inline-4 because the strokes of the cylinders overlap in a four-stroke cycle engine. In the flat-6, each power stroke begins 120 degrees after the previous one starts, Lycoming is a major US manufacturer of civilian aircraft engines that power over one half of General aviation aircraft. They have developed and currently produce a series of flat-4 and flat-6 aircraft engines, the configuration is expressed in the engines model numbers as the letter O, standing for opposed in reference to the cylinder arrangement. Franklin produced horizontally opposed aircraft engines beginning in the 1930s. The Franklin O-335 was used in Bell 47, Continental Motors produces flat-4 and flat-6 aircraft engines which began in 1931 with the Continental A-40. Flat engines largely replaced the more popular radial engines in small aircraft after World War II because they were less expensive to manufacture. Radial engines have inherently good cooling, but their large frontal area increases drag and it is not difficult to design flat-6 and flat-8 engines from flat-4 designs by adding more cylinder pairs with a new crankshaft. In an air-cooled engine there can be cooling problems with the middle cylinder pairs, the flat-6 is smoother running than a flat-4 design. Possibly the earliest flat-six engined car was the Wilson-Pilcher car in 1900, the engine was conventionally placed with the crankshaft in-line with the chassis and the cylinders between the chassis rails. Reports on this car quote it as being silent and smooth running. The car was produced by Wilson-Pilcher in London until 1904, then by Armstrong Whitworth & Co in Newcastle until c1907. The engine had equal bore and stroke of 95mm, and the cylinders were offset so that each cylinder had its own crank-pin. The engine was mounted to a 4-speed epicyclic gearbox employing helical gears in an oil bath
12.
Subaru
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Subaru is the automobile manufacturing division of Japanese transportation conglomerate Subaru Corporation, the twenty-second largest automaker by production worldwide in 2012. Subaru cars are known for the use of a boxer engine layout in most vehicles above 1500 cc, most Subaru models have used the Symmetrical All Wheel Drive drive-train layout since 1972. The lone exception is the BRZ, introduced in 2012, which uses the boxer engine, Subaru also offers turbocharged versions of their passenger cars, such as the Impreza WRX and the Legacy 2. 5GT. The 2. 5XT trims of the Outback and Forester also include a turbocharged engine, in Western markets, the Subaru brand has traditionally been popular among a dedicated core of buyers. Marketing is targeted towards specific niches centered on those who desire the companys signature drive train, in particular the outdoors enthusiast and affordable sports car markets. Subaru is the Japanese name for the Pleiades star cluster M45, or The Seven Sisters, Fuji Heavy Industries started out as The Aircraft Research Laboratory in 1915, headed by Chikuhei Nakajima. In 1932, the company was reorganized as Nakajima Aircraft Company, Ltd, at the end of the Second World War Nakajima Aircraft was again reorganized, this time as Fuji Sangyo Co, Ltd. In 1946, the created the Fuji Rabbit motor scooter with spare aircraft parts from the war. In 1950, Fuji Sangyo was divided into 12 smaller corporations according to the Japanese Governments 1950 Corporate Credit Rearrangement Act, between 1953 and 1955, four of these corporations and a newly formed corporation decided to merge to form Fuji Heavy Industries. Kenji Kita, CEO of Fuji Heavy Industries at the time, wanted the new company to be involved in car manufacturing, mr. Kita canvassed the company for suggestions about naming the P1, but none of the proposals was appealing enough. In the end he gave the company a Japanese name that he had been cherishing in his heart, Subaru, the first Subaru car was named the Subaru 1500. Only twenty were manufactured owing to supply issues. Subsequently, the designed and manufactured dozens of vehicles including the 1500, the tiny air-cooled 360, the Sambar. Nissan would utilize FHIs bus manufacturing capability and expertise for their Nissan Diesel line of buses, in turn many Subaru vehicles, even today, use parts from the Nissan manufacturing keiretsu. The Subaru automatic transmission, known as the 4EAT, is used in the first generation Nissan Pathfinder. While under this arrangement with Nissan, Subaru introduced the R-2, the Rex and the Leone, the BRAT, Alcyone, the Legacy, the Impreza, upon Nissans acquisition by Renault, its stake in FHI was sold to General Motors in 1999. Troy Clarke, of General Motors served as representative to Fuji Heavy Industries on their corporate board, during that time, Subaru introduced the Baja, and the Tribeca. The Subaru Forester was sold as a Chevrolet Forester in India in exchange for the Opel Zafira being sold as a Subaru Traviq in Japan, also, the Chevrolet Borrego concept was presented in 2002, a crossover coupe/pickup truck being derived from the Japanese-market Legacy Turbo platform
13.
H engine
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An H engine is an engine configuration in which the cylinders are aligned so that if viewed from the front, they appear to be in a vertical or horizontal letter H. An H engine can be viewed as two engines, one atop or beside the other. The two engines each have their own crankshaft, which are geared together at one end for power-take-off. The H configuration allows the building of multi-cylinder engines that are shorter than the alternatives, sometimes delivering advantages on aircraft, the power-to-weight ratio is not as good as simpler configurations employing one crankshaft. There is excellent mechanical balance, especially desirable and otherwise difficult to achieve in a four-cylinder engine, two straight engines can be similarly joined to provide a U engine. Lycoming Lycoming H-2470 H-24 hyper engine Fairey Aviation Fairey Prince -1,500 hp Fairey Monarch - H-242,240 hp Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz DZ720 - H-32,102.9 litres D. Napier & Son, UK. The British Racing Motors H-16 Formula One engine won the 1966 US Grand Prix with Jim Clark in a Lotus 43, the Brough Superior Golden Dream motorcycle, first shown in 1938. A1,000 cc H-4 design and a few units were produced in early 1939, any development planned was interrupted by World War II and subsequent years of austerity. This was replaced by a flat-four engined prototype at the 1953 show, german firm Konig, who specialised in racing outboard motors, built a few 1000cc H-8s c. 1970s, which were two of their VC500 flat fours mounted one above the other, with the direction of rotation reversed on one of them. Both cylinders at each end of each engine fired at the same time, at least one H-8 found its way into a motorcycle & sidecar racing combo. Subaru produces water-cooled flat-four and flat-six Horizontally-opposed engines that are marketed as H4, the naming scheme refers to engine description, similar to inline engines being named I4 or I6, rather than their appearance front-on
14.
Multi-cylinder engine
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For multiple-cylinder steam engines, see Compound steam engine and Triple-expansion steam engine A multi-cylinder engine is a reciprocating internal combustion engine with multiple cylinders. It can be either a 2-stroke or 4-stroke engine, and can be either Diesel or spark-ignition, the cylinders and the crankshaft which is driven by and co-ordinates the motion of the pistons can be configured in a wide variety of ways. Typically, the more cylinders an engine has, the higher the RPMs it can attain for a displacement and technology level, at a cost of increased friction losses. Peak torque is reduced, but the total horsepower is increased due to the higher RPMs attained. Although there are 1,3 and 5-cylinder engines, almost all other engines are built with even numbers of cylinders. Another form of internal combustion engine is the radial engine. Twin-row or multi-row radials are also built, which is two or more single-row radials connected front-to-back and driving a common crankshaft. In this twin row, or multi-row configuration, the number of cylinders will be an even number. For example, a single row radial such as the Wright Cyclone has 9 cylinders. The twin row Wright Twin Cyclone is based on this engine, configurations of two-cylinder engines include, Straight-twin engine, or parallel twin with two cylinders in parallel sharing a crankshaft. V-twin engine, or V2 engine, two cylinders in V configuration, sharing a crankshaft, flat-twin engine, a flat engine with 2 opposed cylinders on the same crankshaft angled 180° to each other. Configurations of three-cylinder engines include, Straight-three engine, also called the inline-triple, inline-3, or I-3 engine, v3 engine, seen on some two-stroke racing motorcycles. W engine with three cylinders, such as the Anzani 3-cylinder fan engines, configurations of four-cylinder engines include, the most common 4-cylinder engine Inline-four engine, an engine with 4 cylinders in a straight line. V4 engine, an engine with 4 cylinders arranged in a V configuration, flat-four engine, a flat engine with 4 cylinders horizontally opposed to each other at 180° apart. Square four engine, two banks of 2 cylinders, each driving a single crankshaft and geared to an output shaft. Configurations of five-cylinder engines include, Straight-five engine, an engine with 5 cylinders in a straight line, vR5 engine, an engine with 5 cylinders staggered slightly, allowing cylinder bore centerlines to be closer together, reducing overall engine length. Configurations of six-cylinder engines include, V6 engine, a V engine with six cylinders, vR6 engine, a compromise between a V6 and straight-6 engine, shorter than a straight-6 and narrower than a V-6. Straight-six engine, an engine with six cylinders aligned in a straight line, flat-six engine, a flat engine with two banks of 3 cylinders horizontally opposed at 180° apart
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Single-cylinder engine
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A single-cylinder engine is a basic piston engine configuration of an internal combustion engine. It is often seen on motorcycles, auto rickshaws, motor scooters, mopeds, dirt bikes, go-karts, radio-controlled models, some single-cylinder automobiles and tractors have been produced, but are rare today due to developments in engine technology. Single-cylinder engines are simple and compact, and will deliver the maximum power possible within a given envelope. Cooling is simpler than with multiple cylinders, potentially saving further weight, single-cylinder engines require more flywheel than multi-cylinder engines, and the rotating mass is relatively large, restricting acceleration and sharp changes of speed. In the basic arrangement they are prone to vibration - though in cases it may be possible to control this with balance shafts. A variation known as the split-single makes use of two pistons which share a single combustion chamber, single-cylinder engines are simple and economical in construction. The vibration they generate is acceptable in many applications, while less acceptable in others, counterbalance shafts and counterweights can be fitted but such complexities tend to counter the previously listed advantages. The single-cylinder engine will almost inevitably develop a lower ratio than a multi-cylinder engine of similar technology. This can be a disadvantage in mobile operations, although it is of significance in others. Early motorcycles, automobiles and other such as marine engines all tended to be single-cylinder. The bestselling motor vehicle of the world, the Honda Super Cub, has a very fuel-efficient 49 cc single-cylinder engine, almost any scooter in the market has single-cylinder engine. Many motorcycles with strong single-cylinder engines are available as well, small engine Split single List of motorcycles by type of engine Images of several single-cylinder marine engines
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Inline engine (aeronautics)
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Straight or Inline Engines with a single bank of cylinders which can be arranged at any angle but typically upright or inverted. V Engines with two banks of cylinders with less than 180° between them driving a common crankshaft, typically arranged upright or inverted, W Engines with three banks driving a common crankshaft, arranged so that first and last banks are 180°or less apart. X Multiple bank engines with four arranged around a common crankshaft. Fan Engines with more than three banks with 180° or less between first and last bank, akin to W engines, note, Fan engines with single cylinder banks, typically from Anzani, are usually regarded as variants of the Radial engine. U Engines with two banks of cylinders side by side driving separate crankshafts geared to a single output, H Engines with four banks of cylinders driving two crankshafts geared to a single output, in effect, two Opposed engines coupled together and mounted either horizontally or vertically. Multiple bank Engines with more than two banks, arranged around a common axis and/or crankshaft with more than 180° between first and last banks. Star, Multiple bank engines with an number of banks arranged around a common axis and/or driving a common crankshaft with more than 180° between first and last banks
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Straight engine
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The straight or inline engine is an internal-combustion engine with all cylinders aligned in one row and having no offset. In-line engines are smaller in overall physical dimensions than designs such as the radial. Straight configurations are simpler than their V-shaped counterparts, although six-cylinder engines are inherently balanced, the four-cylinder models are inherently off balance and rough, unlike 90-degree V fours and horizontally opposed boxer four cylinders. Some manufacturers, including Acura, Audi, Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, the General Motors Atlas family includes straight-four, straight-five, and straight-six engines. Some small cars have three engines. In the 1930s, Duesenberg used a cylinder made from aluminium alloy, with four valves per cylinder. It was thus a selling point for Pontiac to introduce the cheapest straight-eight in 1933, however, following World War II, the straight-eight was supplanted by the lighter and more compact V8 engine, which allowed shorter engine bays to be used in the design. When a straight engine is mounted at an angle from the vertical it is called a slant engine, chryslers Slant 6 was used in many models in the 1960s and 1970s. Honda also often mounts its straight-four and straight-five engines at a slant, as on the Honda S2000, SAAB initially used the Triumph Slant-4 engine tilted at 45 degrees for the Saab 99, but later versions of the engine were less tilted. Two main factors have led to the recent decline of the straight-six in automotive applications, second, fuel consumption became more important, as cars became smaller and more space-efficient. The engine bay of a small or medium car, typically designed for an inline-four, often does not have room for a straight-six. Straight-6 engines are used in models from BMW, Ford, Jeep, Chevrolet, GMC, Toyota, Suzuki. Some buses and trains with engines have their engines mounted with the row of cylinders horizontal. This differs from an engine because it is essentially an inline engine laid on its side. Underfloor engines for buses and diesel multiple units use this design. Such engines may be based on an upright engine with alterations to make it suitable for horizontal mounting. In aviation, the inline engine is used more broadly. Some straight engines, in the sense, have been produced for aircraft
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U engine
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A U engine is a piston engine made up of two separate straight engines joined by gears or chains. It is similar to the H engine which couples two flat engines, the design is also sometimes described as a twin bank or double bank engine, although these terms are sometimes used also to describe V engines. This configuration is uncommon, as it is heavier than a V design, the main interest in this design is its ability to share common parts with straight engines. However, V engines with offset banks can also share straight engine parts, however this was not a true U engine, as the cylinder banks were to have been independent, each separately driving its own crankshaft and four-speed gearbox. Neither the tank nor the engine were ever made, the first U engine known to have been built was the 16-cylinder 24.3 litre displacement Bugatti U-16 aero engine designed and patented by Ettore Bugatti in 1915–1916. Bugatti later used the engine layout in the Bugatti Type 45 of 1928. Starting in 1925, FIAT began preparing an engine and car for the new 19261.5 litre racing formula, adopted in both Europe and the USA. For the engine, designated the type 406, FIAT chose to mount two 750 cc six-cylinder banks side by side on an aluminium crankcase, with their crankshafts geared to a common output shaft. A single Roots-type supercharger driven from the nose of the right-hand crankshaft delivered mixture to a pair of intake manifolds located between the blocks at 13 psi boost. The left-hand crankshaft drove the water pump. Twin Bosch magnetos were driven from the tail of the central camshaft, the engine weighed 381 lbs, not excessive for the time. On test the unit delivered 187 bhp at 8,500 rpm at maximum boost, the type 406 powered the Type 806 car to wins in the heats and the final of the 1926 Milan Grand Prix. However, opposition in the FIAT management to further racing, matra developed a high-end Bagheera prototype powered by a 2. 6-litre U8 engine made of two Simca 1000 Rallye 2 straight-4s connected by chains around 1974. However, because of the crisis this car was never put in production. Several types of U-form diesel engine have been produced, by companies such as Lister Blackstone. A twin bank diesel engine for use is described in US Patent 4167857. However, no documentation has been found for any ship or marine application of such an engine. Sulzer Brothers developed an engine for rail traction of this type, the LD series, in the 1930s
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V engine
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A V engine, or Vee engine is a common configuration for an internal combustion engine. The cylinders and pistons are aligned, in two planes or banks, so that they appear to be in a V when viewed along the axis of the crankshaft. The Vee configuration generally reduces the engine length, height and weight compared to an equivalent inline configuration. The first V-type engine, a 2-cylinder vee twin, was built in 1889 by Daimler, by 1903 V8 engines were being produced for motor boat racing by the Société Antoinette to designs by Léon Levavasseur, building on experience gained with in-line four-cylinder engines. In 1904, the Putney Motor Works completed a new V12 marine racing engine – the first V12 engine produced for any purpose. Usually, each pair of corresponding pistons from each bank of cylinders share one crankpin on the crankshaft, however, some V-twin engine designs have two-pin cranks, while other V configurations include split crank-pins for more even firing. V-engines are generally more compact than straight engines with cylinders of the same dimensions, various cylinder bank angles of Vee are used in different engines, depending on the number of cylinders, there may be angles that work better than others for stability. Some Vee configurations are well-balanced and smooth, while others are less smoothly running than their equivalent straight counterparts, v8s with crossplane crankshaft can be easily balanced with the use of counterweights only. V12s, being in effect two straight-6 engines married together, are balanced, if the V-angle is 60° for 4-stroke or 30° for 2-stroke. Others, such as the V2, V4, V6, flatplane V8, V10, V14 and V18 engine show increased vibration, certain types of Vee engine have been built as inverted engines, most commonly for aircraft. Advantages include better visibility in an airplane, and lower centre of gravity. Examples include World War II German Daimler-Benz DB601, Junkers Jumo, and Argus Motoren piston engines
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Delta engine
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Unusually, the cylinders were disposed in a three bank triangle, with a crankshaft at each corner of the triangle. The term Deltic is used to refer to both the Deltic E, a single half-sized, turbocharged Deltic power unit also featured in the English Electric-built Type 2 locomotive, designated as the Class 23. Both locomotive and engine became known as the Baby Deltic. The Deltic story began in 1943 when the British Admiralty set up a committee to develop a high-power, hitherto in the Royal Navy, such boats had been driven by petrol engines, but their highly flammable fuel made them vulnerable to fire, unlike the opposing diesel-powered E-boats. Until this time, Diesel engines had poor power-to-weight ratio and low speed, before the war, Napier had been working on an aviation Diesel design known as the Culverin after licensing versions of the Junkers Jumo 204. The Culverin was an opposed-piston two-stroke design and this negates the need for a heavy cylinder head, as the opposing piston filled this role. On the downside, the layout required separate crankshafts on each end of the engine that must be coupled through gearing or shafts, the primary advantages of the design were uniflow breathing and a rather flat engine, originally intended to be buried in the wings of large aircraft. The Admiralty required a more powerful engine, and knew about Junkers designs for multi-crankshaft engines of straight six. The Admiralty felt that these would be a starting point for the larger design which it required. The result was a triangle, the cylinder forming the sides. The Deltic could be produced with varying numbers of cylinders—nine and eighteen were the most common, in 1946, the Admiralty placed a contract with the English Electric Company, parent of Napier, to develop this engine. One feature of the engine was the way that crankshaft-phasing was arranged to allow for exhaust port lead and these engines are called uniflow designs, because the flow of gas into and out of the cylinder is one way, assisted by blowers to improve cylinder exhaust scavenging. The inlet/outlet port order is In/Out/In/Out/In/Out going around the triangular ring and this would have led the firing in each bank of cylinders to be 60 degrees apart. However, it was decided to arrange that each cylinders exhaust piston would lead its inlet piston by 20 degrees of crankshaft rotation and this required the firing events for adjacent cylinders to be 40 degrees apart. For the 18 cylinder design, it was possible for firing events to be interlaced over all six banks. This led to the even, buzzing exhaust note of the Deltic, with a charge ignition every 20 degrees of crankshaft revolution, and it should be noted that the 9 cylinder design, having three banks of cylinders, has its crankshafts rotating in the opposite direction. The exhaust lead of 20 degrees is added to the 60 degrees between banks giving firing events for adjacent cylinders in the same bank 80 degrees apart, although the engine was cylinder-ported and required no poppet valves, each bank had a camshaft, driven at crankshaft speed. This was used solely to drive the fuel pumps, each cylinder having its own injector and pump
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X engine
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An X engine is a piston engine comprising twinned V-block engines horizontally opposed to each other. Thus, the cylinders are arranged in four banks, driving a common crankshaft, viewed head-on, this would appear as an X. X engines were often coupled engines derived from existing powerplants and this configuration is extremely uncommon, primarily due its weight and complexity as compared to a radial engine. It was more compact than a V-engine, however, shorter crankshafts relative to an inline or V design also appealed to early 20th-century engineers like Henry Ford, given the less developed metallurgical technology of the time. Most examples of X engines are from the World War II era, the majority of these are X-24s based on existing V-12s. The following are examples of engine type, Ford, as an X-8 prototype during the 1920s that led the way to the companys eventual Flathead V-8. Daimler-Benz DB604, developed for the Luftwaffe’s Bomber B program, 24/60, developed for the Caproni Vizzola F. 6Z fighter, but never fully completed before Italy’s surrender in 1943. Rolls-Royce Vulture, based on two Peregrines and the powerplant of the ill-fated Avro Manchester bomber and the Hawker Tornado fighter, rolls-Royce Exe, an air-cooled sleeve valve prototype engine. Napier Cub, a water-cooled X-16 engine of the 1920s, which powered the prototype Blackburn Cubaroo torpedo bomber, honda is said to have experimented with an X-32 engine configuration in the 1960s for their Formula One racing efforts, but abandoned the design as being too complex and unreliable. Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant T-14 X12 engine 12Н360
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Radial engine
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The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders radiate outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel. It resembles a star when viewed from the front, and is called a star engine in some languages. The radial configuration was very commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant, instead, the pistons are connected to the crankshaft with a master-and-articulating-rod assembly. One piston, the uppermost one in the animation, has a rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their connecting rods attachments to rings around the edge of the master rod, extra rows of radial cylinders can be added in order to increase the capacity of the engine without adding to its diameter. Four-stroke radials have an odd number of cylinders per row, so that a consistent every-other-piston firing order can be maintained, for example, on a five-cylinder engine the firing order is 1,3,5,2,4 and back to cylinder 1. Moreover, this leaves a one-piston gap between the piston on its combustion stroke and the piston on compression. The active stroke directly helps compress the next cylinder to fire, if an even number of cylinders were used, an equally timed firing cycle would not be feasible. The radial engine normally uses fewer cam lobes than other types, as with most four-strokes, the crankshaft takes two revolutions to complete the four strokes of each piston. The camshaft ring is geared to spin slower and in the direction to the crankshaft. The cam lobes are placed in two rows for the intake and exhaust, for the example, four cam lobes serve all five cylinders, whereas 10 would be required for a typical inline engine with the same number of cylinders and valves. C. M. Manly constructed a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine in 1901, manlys engine produced 52 hp at 950 rpm. This was installed in his triplane and made a number of short free-flight hops, another early radial engine was the three-cylinder Anzani, originally built as a W3 fan configuration, one of which powered Louis Blériots Blériot XI across the English Channel. Georges Canton and Pierre Unné patented the engine design in 1909, offering it to the Salmson company. It was similar in concept to the radial, the main difference being that the propeller was bolted to the engine. The problem of the cooling of the cylinders, a factor with the early stationary radials, was alleviated by the engine generating its own cooling airflow. Most German aircraft of the time used water-cooled inline 6-cylinder engines, in the early 1920s Le Rhône converted a number of their rotary engines into stationary radial engines. By 1918 the potential advantages of air-cooled radials over the inline engine
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Rotary engine
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Its main application was in aviation, although it also saw use before its primary aviation role, in a few early motorcycles and automobiles. This type of engine was used as an alternative to conventional inline engines during World War I. It has been described as an efficient solution to the problems of power output, weight. The rotating mass of the engine also caused significant gyroscopic precession, depending on the type of aircraft, in the most common form, the crankshaft was fixed solidly to the airframe, and the propeller was simply bolted to the front of the crankcase. Improved cooling, when the engine was running the rotating crankcase/cylinder assembly created its own fast-moving cooling airflow, weight advantage, many conventional engines had to have heavy flywheels added to smooth out power impulses and reduce vibration. Rotary engines gained a substantial power-to-weight ratio advantage by having no need for an added flywheel, like radial engines, rotaries were generally built with an odd number of cylinders, so that a consistent every-other-piston firing order could be maintained, to provide smooth running. Rotary engines with an number of cylinders were mostly of the two row type. Rotary and radial engines look strikingly similar when they are not running and can easily be confused, unlike the rotary engine, however, radial engines use a conventional rotating crankshaft in a fixed engine block. The Musee de lAir in Paris has on display a special and it alternates between rotary and radial modes to demonstrate the difference between the internal motions of the two types of engine. It is often asserted that rotary engines had no carburetor and hence power could only be reduced by cutting the ignition using a blip switch. This was almost literally true of the Monosoupape type, which took most of the air into the cylinder through the exhaust valve, thus the richness of the mixture in the cylinder could not be controlled via the crankcase intake. The throttle of a monosoupape provided only a limited degree of speed regulation, as opening it made the mixture too rich. Early models featured a form of variable valve timing in an attempt to give greater control. Most rotaries however, had normal inlet valves, so that the fuel was taken into the already mixed with air - as in a normal four-stroke engine. The pilot needed to set the throttle to the desired setting, after starting the engine with a known setting that allowed it to idle, the air valve was opened until maximum engine speed was obtained. Throttling a running back to reduce revs was possible by closing off the fuel valve to the required position while re-adjusting the fuel/air mixture to suit. This process was also tricky, so that throttling back, especially when landing, was accomplished by intermittently cutting the ignition using the blip switch. Cutting cylinders using ignition switches had the drawback of letting fuel continue to pass through the engine, oiling up the spark plugs, also, the raw oil-fuel mix could collect in the cowling
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Wankel engine
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The Wankel engine is a type of internal combustion engine using an eccentric rotary design to convert pressure into rotating motion. The engine is referred to as a rotary engine, although this name applies also to other completely different designs. All parts rotate moving in one direction, as opposed to the reciprocating piston engine which has pistons violently changing direction. The design was conceived by German engineer Felix Wankel, Wankel received his first patent for the engine in 1929. He began development in the early 1950s at NSU, and completed a prototype in 1957. NSU subsequently licensed the design to companies around the world, who have continually added improvements, the engines produced are of spark ignition, with compression ignition engines only in research projects. The Wankel engine has the advantages of compact design and low weight over the most commonly used internal combustion engine employing reciprocating pistons, the point of power to weight has been reached of under one pound weight per horsepower output. In 1951, NSU Motorenwerke AG in Germany began development of the engine, the first, the DKM motor, was developed by Felix Wankel. The second, the KKM motor, developed by Hanns Dieter Paschke, was adopted as the basis of the modern Wankel engine, so the Wankel engine design used today was not designed by Felix Wankel, and the Paschke engine could be a more apt title. The basis of the DKM type of motor was that both the rotor and the housing spun around on separate axes, the DKM motor reached higher revolutions per minute and was more naturally balanced. However, the engine needed to be stripped to change the spark plugs, the KKM engine was simpler, having a fixed housing. The first working prototype, DKM54, produced 21 hp and ran on February 1,1957, at the NSU research and development department Versuchsabteilung TX. The KKM57 was constructed by NSU engineer Hanns Dieter Paschke in 1957 without the knowledge of Felix Wankel, in 1960, NSU, the firm that employed the two inventors, and the US firm Curtiss-Wright, signed a joint agreement. Curtiss-Wright recruited Max Bentele to head their design team, many manufacturers signed license agreements for development, attracted by the smoothness, quiet running, and reliability emanating from the uncomplicated design. Amongst them were Alfa Romeo, American Motors, Citroen, Ford, General Motors, Mazda, Mercedes-Benz, Nissan, Porsche, Rolls-Royce, Suzuki, in the United States in 1959, under license from NSU, Curtiss-Wright pioneered improvements in the basic engine design. In Britain, in the 1960s, Rolls Royces Motor Car Division pioneered a two-stage diesel version of the Wankel engine, Citroën did much research, producing the M35, GS Birotor and RE-2 Helicopter using engines produced by Comotor, a joint venture of Citroën and NSU. General Motors seemed to have concluded the Wankel engine was more expensive to build than an equivalent reciprocating engine. General Motors claimed to have solved the fuel issue
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Crankpin
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In a reciprocating engine, the crankpins, also known as crank journals are the journals of the big end bearings, at the ends of the connecting rods opposite to the pistons. If the engine has a crankshaft, then the crankpins are the journals of the bearings of the crankshaft. In a beam engine, the single crankpin is mounted on the flywheel, In a steam locomotive, big end bearings are commonly bushings or plain bearings, but less commonly may be roller bearings. In a multi-cylinder engine, a crankpin can serve one or many cylinders, for example, In a straight or flat engine, in a V engine, each crankpin usually serves two cylinders, one in each cylinder bank. In a radial engine, each serves a entire row of cylinders. There are three common configurations of big end bearing, If a crankpin serves only one cylinder, then the big end is a simple design. This design is the cheapest to produce, and is used in, If a crankpin serves more than one cylinder, then the corresponding cylinders may have an offset, to simplify the design of the big end bearing. This design is used in, Most V engines, If more than one cylinder is served by a single crankpin but there is no offset, then some or all of the connecting rods must be forked at the big end. Any extra weight added to the big end itself also carries a penalty of adding vibration, as the number of cylinders grows, the effect of the offset on balance becomes less important, and forked connecting rods become less common. They are mainly used in, Single-row radial engines, some V-twin engines, notably including motorcycle engines. Connecting rod Crankshaft Crankshaft deep rolling
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Volkswagen Group
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Volkswagen Group, or Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft, shortly VW AG, is a German multinational automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. It designs, manufactures and distributes passenger and commercial vehicles, motorcycles, engines, in 2016, it was the largest automaker in the world with sales of 10.3 million units, overtaking Toyota. It has maintained the largest market share in Europe for over two decades and it ranked seventh in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds largest companies. It is divided into two divisions, the Automotive Division and the Financial Services Division, and has approximately 340 subsidiary companies. VW also has two major joint-ventures in China, the company has operations in approximately 150 countries and operates 100 production facilities across 27 countries. Volkswagen was founded in 1937 to manufacture the car which would become known as the Beetle, the companys production grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, and in 1965 it acquired Auto Union, which subsequently produced the first post-war Audi models. Volkswagen launched a new generation of front-wheel drive vehicles in the 1970s, including the Passat, Polo and Golf, the companys operations in China have grown rapidly in the past decade with the country becoming its largest market. It has been traded in the United States via American depositary receipts since 1988, Volkswagen delisted from the London Stock Exchange in 2013. The state of Lower Saxony holds 12. 7% of the companys shares, Volkswagen held a 19. 9% non-controlling shareholding in Suzuki between 2009 and 2015. An international arbitration court ordered Volkswagen to sell the back to Suzuki. Suzuki paid $3. 8bn to complete the stock buy-back just hours prior to a scandal about emissions violations engulfing Volkswagen. Volkswagen was founded on 28 May 1937 in Berlin as the Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des Deutschen Volkswagens mbH by the National Socialist Deutsche Arbeitsfront. The purpose of the company was to manufacture the Volkswagen car, originally referred to as the Porsche Type 60, then the Volkswagen Type 1 and this vehicle was designed by Ferdinand Porsches consulting firm, and the company was backed by the support of Adolf Hitler. On 16 September 1938, Gezuvor was renamed Volkswagenwerk GmbH, only a small number of Type 60 Volkswagens were made during this time. The Fallersleben plant also manufactured the V-1 flying bomb, making the plant a major bombing target for the Allied forces, however, no British car manufacturer was interested, the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car. It is quite unattractive to the average buyer, to build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise. In 1948, the Ford Motor Company of USA was offered Volkswagen, but Ernest Breech, as part of the Industrial plans for Germany, large parts of German industry, including Volkswagen, were to be dismantled. Total German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers
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VR6 engine
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Volkswagens VR6 engines, and the later VR5 variants, are a family of internal combustion engines, characterised by a narrow-angle V engine configuration. Developed by the manufacturer in the late 1980s, evolutions of engines are still produced by them. When containing six cylinders, a VR-engines cylinder block consists of two cylinder banks while there is only a single cylinder head covering both rows of cylinders. The name VR6 comes from a combination of V engine, and it shares a common cylinder head for the two offset banks of cylinders. It has a sound that is unique and different than either inline or V engines. The engine is currently in use in a variety of VW models and this engine configuration was also adopted for the Horex VR6 Motorbike. The Volkswagen VR6 was specifically designed for transverse engine installations in front-wheel drive vehicles, the narrow angle of 15° between the two rows in the VR6 engine is a more compact size than a wider angle V6 design. This made it possible for Volkswagen to install six-cylinder engines in existing four-cylinder cars, the wider configuration of a wider angle V6 engine would have required an extensive redesign of the vehicles to enlarge the engine compartment. The VR6 is also able to use the order of a straight-six engine. The narrow angle between cylinders allows the use of just one cylinder head - whereas wider angle Vee engines require two separate cylinder heads, one for each cylinder bank. The VR6 arrangement needs two overhead camshafts to drive all the valves, regardless of whether the engine has two valves per cylinder, or four per cylinder and this simplifies engine construction and reduces costs. In early VR6 engines with 12 valves two overhead camshafts were used, the forward camshaft has six cam lobes to control the three intake and three exhaust valves of the front cylinder bank, without using rockers. The rear camshaft is designed the way, but controls the rear cylinder bank. The operating principle of design is comparable to a single overhead camshaft design with intake. This operating principle is akin to a double overhead camshaft design, with one camshaft for intake valves. There are several different variants of the VR6 engine, the original VR6 engine displaced 2.8 litres and featured a 12 valve design. These engines produced a DIN-rated power output of 128 kW, and 240 N·m of torque, Volkswagen Group identifies the original VR6 by the chassis AAA engine ID code. It operates on the cycle, and has an engine displacement of 2.8 litres
28.
Poppet valve
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A poppet valve is a valve typically used to control the timing and quantity of gas or vapour flow into an engine. It consists of a hole, usually round or oval, the portion of the hole where the plug meets with it is referred to as the seat or valve seat. The shaft guides the plug portion by sliding through a valve guide, in exhaust applications a pressure differential helps to seal the valve and in intake valves a pressure differential helps open it. Poppet valves date from at least the 1770s, when James Watt used them on his steam engines, the word poppet shares etymology with puppet, it is from the Middle English popet, from Middle French poupette, which is a diminutive of poupée. The use of the poppet to describe a valve comes from the same word applied to marionettes. In the past, puppet valve was a synonym for poppet valve, however, the main advantage of the poppet valve is that it has no movement on the seat, thus requiring no lubrication. In most cases it is beneficial to have a balanced poppet in a direct-acting valve, less force is needed to move the poppet because all forces on the poppet are nullified by equal and opposite forces. However, they are most well known for their use in combustion and steam engines. Presta and Schrader valves used on pneumatic tyres are examples of poppet valves, the Presta valve has no spring and relies on a pressure differential for opening and closing while being inflated. Poppet valves are employed extensively in the launching of torpedoes from submarines, poppet valves are used in most piston engines to open and close the intake and exhaust ports in the cylinder head. The valve is usually a disk of metal with a long rod known as the valve stem attached to one side. The stem is used to push down on the valve to open it, at high revolutions per minute, the inertia of the spring means it cannot respond quickly enough to return the valve to its seat between cycles, leading to valve float. The engine normally operates the valves by pushing on the stems with cams, the shape and position of the cam determines the valve lift and when and how quickly the valve is opened. The cams are normally placed on a camshaft which is then geared to the crankshaft. On high-performance engines, the camshaft is movable and the cams have a height so, by axially moving the camshaft in relation with the engine RPM. For certain applications the valve stem and disk are made of different steel alloys, or the stem may be hollow and filled with sodium to improve heat transport. Although a better conductor, an aluminium cylinder head requires steel valve seat inserts. Such a condition occurs when changing gear, five valve designs are also in use
29.
Sleeve valve
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The sleeve valve is a type of valve mechanism for piston engines, distinct from the usual poppet valve. Sleeve valve engines saw use in a number of pre-World War II luxury cars and in the United States in the Willys-Knight car, a sleeve valve takes the form of one or more machined sleeves. It fits between the piston and the wall in the cylinder of an internal combustion engine where it rotates and/or slides. Ports in the side of the sleeves come into alignment with the cylinders inlet, the first successful sleeve valve was patented by Charles Yale Knight, and used twin alternating sliding sleeves. It was used in luxury automobiles, notably Willys, Daimler, Mercedes-Benz, Minerva, Panhard, Peugeot. Mors adopted double sleeve-valve engines made by Minerva. The higher oil consumption was heavily outweighed by the quietness of running, early poppet-valve systems required decarbonization at very low mileages. A small number of used a cuff sleeve in the cylinder head instead of the cylinder proper. This design also had the advantage of not having the piston within the sleeve, on the downside, this arrangement limited the size of the ports to that of the cylinder head, whereas in-cylinder sleeves could have much larger ports. The main advantages of the engine are, High volumetric efficiency due to very large port openings. Sir Harry Ricardo also demonstrated better mechanical and thermal efficiency, the size of the ports can be readily controlled. Good exhaust scavenging and controllable swirl of the inlet air/fuel mixture in single-sleeve designs, when the intake ports open, the air/fuel mixture can be made to enter tangentially to the cylinder. A problem with high-speed engines that use poppet valves is that as engine speed increases, the speed at which the valve moves also has to increase. This in turn increases the loads involved due to the inertia of the valve, large poppet valves that allow good air-flow have considerable mass and require a strong spring to overcome their inertia when closing. At higher engine speeds, the spring may be unable to close the valve before the next opening event. This effect, called valve float can result in the valve being struck by the top of the rising piston. In addition, camshafts, push-rods, and valve rockers can be eliminated in a sleeve valve design, in an aircraft engine, this provided desirable reductions in weight and complexity. Longevity, as demonstrated in early applications of the Knight engine. Prior to the advent of leaded gasolines, poppet-valve engines typically required grinding of the valves, Sleeve valves did not suffer from the wear and recession caused by the repetitive impact of the poppet valve against its seat
30.
Flathead engine
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A flathead engine is an internal combustion engine with valves placed in the engine block beside the piston, instead of in the cylinder head, as in an overhead valve engine. As the cylinder cross-section has the shape of an upside-down L, the sidevalves poppet valves are usually sited on one side of the cylinder. A recess in the head creates a corridor connecting the valves. The valve gear comprises a camshaft which operates the valves via simple tappets, indian, however, employs both rocker arms and pushrods to transmiit motion from the cam lobes to the valve stems. Flathead designs are commonly built new for many small engine applications of one. The main advantages of an engine are simplicity, reliability, low cost, compactness, responsive low-speed power, low mechanical engine noise. The absence of an overhead valve valvetrain allows a compact engine that is less expensive to manufacture. Even today, flatheads are common in lawnmowers and basic farm machinery, if a valve head breaks off, it may become lodged between the piston and the head causing severe damage. At top dead centre, the piston gets very close to the portion of the cylinder head above. The typical flathead engine has its valves adjacent, but the T-head variant acts as a cross-flow head, the main disadvantages of a sidevalve engine are poor gas flow, poor combustion chamber shape, and low compression ratio, all of which result in a low power output. The sidevalve configuration makes intake and exhaust gases follow a route, with low volumetric efficiency. Although a sidevalve engine can operate at high speed, its volumetric efficiency swiftly deteriorates. High volumetric efficiency was important for early cars because their engines rarely sustained extended high speeds. A compromise used by Willys, Rover and Rolls-Royce in the 1950s was the F-head, in there is one side valve. An advance in technology resulted from experimentation in the 1920s by Sir Harry Ricardo. Because the exhaust follows a path to leave the engine. In a T-head engine, the pairs have a crossflow configuration. American LaFrance powered their fire engines with T-head engines from the 1920s to the 1950s, the Cleveland Motorcycle Manufacturing Company produced a T-head four-cylinder in-line motorcycle engine in the 1920s, and early Stutz engines were T heads
31.
Overhead valve engine
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An overhead valve engine is an engine in which the valves are placed in the cylinder head. This was an improvement over the flathead engine, where the valves were placed in the block next to the piston. Overhead camshaft engines, while overhead valve by definition, are usually categorized apart from other OHV engines. Lifters or tappets are located in the block between the camshaft and pushrods. By contrast, overhead camshaft design avoids the use of pushrods by putting the camshaft directly above the valves in the cylinder head, in 1900, Marr was hired as chief engineer at the Buick Auto-Vim and Power Company in Detroit, where he worked until 1902. Marr said he got the idea of overhead valves when making the small tricycle engine, marrs engine employed pushrod-actuated rocker arms, which in turn pushed valves parallel to the pistons, and this is still in use today. This contrasts with previous designs which use of side valves. Marr left Buick briefly to start his own company in 1902, the Marr Auto-Car. The OHV engine was patented in 1902 by Buicks second chief engineer Eugene Richard, at the Buick Manufacturing Company, precursor to the Buick Motor Company. The worlds first production overhead valve engine was put into the first production Buick automobile, the 1904 Model B, the engine was designed by Marr and David Buick. Eugene Richard of the Buick Manufacturing Company was awarded US Patent #771,095 in 1904 for the valve in head engine. Arthur Chevrolet was awarded US Patent #1,744,526 for an adapter that could be applied to an existing engine, in 1949, Oldsmobile introduced the Rocket V8. It was the first high-compression I-head design, and is the archetype for most modern pushrod engines, general Motors is the worlds largest pushrod engine producer, producing both I4, V6 and V8 pushrod engines. Nowadays, automotive use of side-valves has virtually disappeared, and valves are almost all overhead, however, most are now driven more directly by the overhead camshaft system. Few pushrod-type engines remain in production outside of the United States market and this is in part a result of some countries passing laws to tax engines based on displacement, because displacement is somewhat related to the emissions and fuel efficiency of an automobile. This has given OHC engines a regulatory advantage in those countries, however, in 2002, Chrysler introduced a new pushrod engine, a 5. 7-litre Hemi engine. The new Chrysler Hemi engine presents advanced features such as variable displacement technology and has been an option with buyers. The Hemi was on the Wards 10 Best Engines list for 2003 through 2007, Chrysler also produced the worlds first production variable-valve OHV engine with independent intake and exhaust phasing
32.
Rocker arm
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A rocker arm is an oscillating lever that conveys radial movement from the cam lobe into linear movement at the poppet valve to open it. One end is raised and lowered by a lobe of the camshaft while the other end acts on the valve stem. When the camshaft lobe raises the outside of the arm, the inside presses down on the valve stem, when the outside of the arm is permitted to return due to the camshafts rotation, the inside rises, allowing the valve spring to close the valve. The drive cam is driven by the camshaft and this pushes the rocker arm up and down about the trunnion pin or rocker shaft. Friction may be reduced at the point of contact with the stem by a roller tip. A similar arrangement transfers the motion via another roller tip to a second rocker arm and this rotates about the rocker shaft, and transfers the motion via a tappet to the poppet valve. In this case this opens the valve to the cylinder head. Current automotive design favors rocker arm ratios of about 1.5,1 to 1.8,1, however, in the past smaller positive ratios and even negative ratios have been used. Many pre-World War II engines use a 1,1 ratio, for car engines the rocker arms are generally steel stampings, providing a reasonable balance of strength, weight and economical cost. Because the rocker arms are, in part, reciprocating weight, truck engines use stronger and stiffer rocker arms made of cast iron, or forged carbon steel. Dating back to the 19th century, rocker arms have been made with and without roller tips that press upon the valve
33.
Overhead camshaft
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Compared to OHV pushrod systems with the same number of valves, the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower overall mass. Though the system drives the camshafts may be more complex, most engine manufacturers accept that added complexity as a trade-off for better engine performance. The fundamental reason for the OHC valvetrain is that it offers an increase in the ability to exchange induction. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimised port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs, with no intrusive pushrods, the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous cross-section and length. The OHC design allows for higher speeds than comparable cam-in-block designs. The higher engine speeds thus allowed increases power output for a given torque output, in earlier OHC systems, including inter-war Morrises and Wolseleys, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue. Single overhead camshaft is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head, in the SOHC design, the camshaft operates the valves directly, traditionally via a bucket tappet, or via an intermediary rocker arm. SOHC cylinder heads are less expensive to manufacture than double overhead camshaft cylinder heads. Timing belt replacement can be easier since there are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that need to be aligned during the replacement procedure, SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to overhead valve designs — when used for multivalve cylinder heads, in which each cylinder has more than two valves. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the side of the engine block. This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs, in the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen Group also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets, the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve clearance adjustment. Honda later used a similar system in their motorcycles, using the term Unicam for the concept. This system uses one camshaft for each bank of cylinder heads, with the cams operating directly onto the valve and indirectly, through a short rocker arm. This allows a compact, light valvetrain to operate valves in a combustion chamber. The Unicam valve train was first used in single cylinder dirt bikes, a dual overhead camshaft valvetrain layout is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and the other one operating the exhaust valves. This design reduces valvetrain inertia more than is the case with a SOHC engine, a DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than do SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at higher engine speeds, DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum placement of the spark plug which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency
34.
Valvetrain
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A valve train or valvetrain is a mechanical system that controls operation of the valves in an internal combustion engine, in which a sequence of components transmits motion throughout the assembly. A traditional reciprocating internal combustion engine uses valves to control air and fuel flow into and out of the cylinders, the valve train consists of valves, rocker arms, pushrods, lifters, and camshaft. Valve train opening/closing and duration, as well as the geometry of the train, controls the amount of air. Timing for open/close/duration is controlled by the camshaft that is synchronized to the crankshaft by a chain, belt, camless This layout uses no camshafts at all. Technologies such as solenoids are used to actuate the valves. The valve train is the system responsible for operation of the valves. Valves are usually of the type, although many others have been developed such as sleeve, slide. Poppet valves typically require small coil springs, appropriately named valve springs and they are attached to the valve stem ends, seating within spring retainers. Depending on the used, the valves are actuated directly by a rocker arm, finger. Overhead camshaft engines use fingers or bucket tappets, upon which the cam lobes contact, rocker arms are actuated by a pushrod, and pivot on a shaft or individual ball studs in order to actuate the valves. Pushrods are long, slender metal rods seated within the engine block, at the bottom ends the pushrods are fitted with lifters, either solid or hydraulic, upon which the camshaft, located within the cylinder block, makes contact. The camshaft pushes on the lifter, which pushes on the pushrod, which pushes on the rocker arm, camshafts must actuate the valves at the appropriate time in the combustion cycle. In order to accomplish this the camshaft is linked to and kept in synchronisation with the crankshaft through the use of a chain, rubber belt. Because these mechanisms are essential to the timing of valve actuation they are named timing chains, timing belts. Typical normal-service engine valve-train components may be too lightweight for operating at high revolutions per minute, valve float will damage the valvetrain over time, and could cause the valve to be damaged as it is still partially open while the piston comes to the top of its stroke. Upgrading to high pressure valve springs could allow higher valvetrain speeds, high-output and engines used in competition feature camshafts and valvetrain components that are designed to withstand higher RPM ranges. These changes also include additional modifications such as larger-sized valves combined with freer breathing intake, automakers offer factory-approved performance parts to increase engine output, and numerous aftermarket parts vendors specialize in valvetrain modifications for various engine applications
35.
Marine propulsion
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Marine propulsion is the mechanism or system used to generate thrust to move a ship or boat across water. Marine engineering is the discipline concerned with the design process of marine propulsion systems. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and icebreakers, nuclear reactors to power commercial vessels has not been adopted by the marine industry. Electric motors using electric battery storage have been used for propulsion on submarines, development in liquefied natural gas fueled engines are gaining recognition for their low emissions and cost advantages. Stirling engines, which are efficient, quieter, smoother running producing less harmful emissions than diesel engines. The Stirling engine has yet to be upscaled for larger surface ships, until the application of the coal-fired steam engine to ships in the early 19th century, oars or the wind were used to assist watercraft propulsion. Merchant ships predominantly used sail, but during periods when naval warfare depended on ships closing to ram or to fight hand-to-hand, galley were preferred for their manoeuvrability, the Greek navies that fought in the Peloponnesian War used triremes, as did the Romans at the Battle of Actium. In modern times, human propulsion is found mainly on boats or as auxiliary propulsion on sailboats. Human propulsion includes the push pole, rowing, and pedals, propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect mast, supported by stays, and controlled by lines made of rope. The development of piston-engined steamships was a complex process, early steamships were fueled by wood, later ones by coal or fuel oil. Early ships used stern or side paddle wheels, while ones used screw propellers. The first commercial success accrued to Robert Fultons North River Steamboat in US in 1807, steam propulsion progressed considerably over the rest of the 19th century. Notable developments include the surface condenser, which eliminated the use of sea water in the ships boilers. This, along with improvements in technology, permitted higher steam pressures. As the means of transmitting the power, paddle wheels gave way to more efficient screw propellers. Steam turbines were fueled by coal or, later, fuel oil or nuclear power, the marine steam turbine developed by Sir Charles Algernon Parsons raised the power-to-weight ratio. He achieved publicity by demonstrating it unofficially in the 100-foot Turbinia at the Spithead Naval Review in 1897. This facilitated a generation of high-speed liners in the first half of the 20th century, and rendered the reciprocating steam engine obsolete, first in warships, and later in merchant vessels
36.
Compression release engine brake
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A compression release engine brake, frequently called a Jake brake or Jacobs brake, is an engine braking mechanism installed on some diesel engines. When activated, it opens exhaust valves in the cylinders after the cycle, releasing the compressed air trapped in the cylinders. When the driver releases the accelerator on a vehicle powered by a diesel engine. As such, each time air is compressed in a cylinder virtually 100% of that energy is returned to the crankshaft providing very little in the way of braking to the vehicle. The typical compression release engine brake, as developed, uses an add-on hydraulic system using engine oil. When activated, the motion of the fuel injector rocker arm is transferred to the engine exhaust valve and this occurs very near TDC and releases the compressed air in the cylinder so that that energy is not returned to the crankshaft. Energy is now absorbed and the engine becomes an excellent brake, if used properly, this energy can be used by the truck driver to maintain speed or even slow the vehicle with little or no use of the service brakes. Contrast a petrol engine, where the mechanics are different and a valve is not necessary for engine braking to occur when the driver releases the accelerator. In a gasoline engine, when the accelerator is released, the throttle prevents the flow of air into the cylinders. The closed throttle provides engine braking by forcing the engine to generate a vacuum between the throttle and the cylinders, diesel compression release brake controls consist of an on/off switch and, often, a multi-position switch that controls the number of cylinders on which the brake is active. Throttle and clutch switches are integral with the system, activation occurs when both the clutch is released with transmission in gear and the throttle is released. It is the job to ascertain the correct transmission gear to use depending on, for example. The name is derived from the manufacturer, Jacobs, and was patented 1962–1965 by Clessie Cummins, such prohibitions have led to the development of new types of mufflers and turbochargers to better silence compression braking noise. Jacobs claims that the use of the term Jake Brakes on signs prohibiting engine retarding brakes violates their trademark and discriminates against Jacobs brand products
37.
Bourke engine
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The Bourke Engine was an attempt to improve the two-stroke engine by Russell Bourke in the 1920s. The main claimed virtues of the design are that it has two moving parts, is lightweight, powerful, has two power pulses per revolution, and does not need oil mixed into the fuel. The pistons are connected to a Scotch Yoke mechanism in place of the more usual crankshaft mechanism and this causes the pistons to spend more time at top dead center than conventional engines. The incoming charge is compressed in a chamber under the pistons, the connecting-rod seal prevents the fuel from contaminating the bottom-end lubricating oil. The engine is designed to run without using spark ignition once it is warmed up and this is known as auto-ignition or dieseling, and the air/fuel mixture starts to burn due to the high temperature of the compressed gas, and/or the presence of hot metal in the combustion chamber. The Scotch yoke does not create lateral forces on the piston, o-rings are used to seal joints rather than gaskets. The Scotch Yoke makes the pistons dwell very slightly longer at top dead center, lean burn for increased efficiency and reduced emissions. Oil was shown to be used slowly by the dropfull as needed, the lubricating oil in the base is protected from combustion chamber pollution by an oil seal over the connecting rod. The piston rings are supplied with oil from a small hole in the cylinder wall at bottom dead center. Efficiency 0.25 /hp is claimed - about the same as the best diesel engine and this is equivalent to a thermodynamic efficiency of 55. 4%, which is an exceedingly high figure for a small internal combustion engine. In a test witnessed by a party, the actual fuel consumption was 1.1 hp/, or 0.9 /hp, equivalent to a thermodynamic efficiency of about 12. 5%. A test of a 30 cubic inch Vaux engine, built by an associate of Bourke, gave a fuel consumption of 1.48 lbm/bhp-hr. Power to weight The Silver Eagle was claimed to produce 25 hp from 45 lb, the larger 140 cubic inch engine was good for 120 hp from 125 lb, or approximately 1 hp/lb. The Model H was claimed to produce 60 hp with a weight of 95 lb, other sources claim 0.9 to 2.5 hp/lb, although no independently witnessed test to support these high figures has been documented. The upper range of this is twice as good as the best four-stroke production engine shown here. The lower claim is unremarkable, easily exceeded by production four-stroke engines, Emissions Achieved virtually no hydrocarbons or carbon monoxide in published test results, however no power output was given for these results, and NOx was not measured. Low Emissions The engine is claimed to be able to operate on hydrogen or any hydro-carbon fuel without any modifications, producing water vapor. The Bourke Engine has some interesting features, but the extravagant claims for its performance are unlikely to be out by real tests
38.
Sarich orbital engine
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The theoretical advantage is that there is no high-speed contact area with the engine walls, unlike in the Wankel engine in which edge wear is a problem. Sarich worked on the concept for a number of years without producing a production engine. A prototype was demonstrated, running on the bench with no load, the engine, which produces very high revs, has eight moving parts in the six-chambered version depicted in the patent application, plus valves for each chamber. It can supposedly be powered by compressed air or steam and can be run as a pump, in the patent, the engine is described as two-stroke internal combustion engine, but the patent claims that with a different valve mechanism it could be used a four-stroke engine. A blower is required as the two stroke cycle does not provide suction to draw the mixture into the chamber, the Sarich orbital engine has a number of fundamental unsolved problems that have kept it from becoming a usable engine. Some key components cannot be cooled and others cannot readily be lubricated, at one press conference at which Sarich presented the engine, automotive engineer Phil Irving pointed out a number of technical difficulties. Some processes developed for the engine could be used for engines, such as the Orbital Combustion Process
39.
Axial engine
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Axial engines are a type of reciprocating engine with pistons arranged around an output shaft with their axes parallel to the shaft. Barrel refers to the shape of the cylinder group whilst the Z-crank alludes to the shape of the crankshaft. As a result, it is a compact, cylindrical engine. In a swashplate engine the piston rods stay parallel with the shaft, the small-end bearing of a traditional connecting rod, one of the most problematic bearings in a traditional engine, is eliminated. An alternate design, the Rand cam engine, replaces the plate with one or more sinousoidal cam surfaces, in effect these spaces serving the same purpose as the cylinders of an axial engine, and the sinuous cam surface acts as the face of the pistons. In either form the axial or barrel engine can be derived as a cam engine or swashplate or wobble plate engine, the attraction of lightweight and mechanically simple engines, even with a finite working life, have obvious application for small unmanned aircraft. In 1911 the Macomber Rotary Engine Company of Los Angeles marketed one of the first axial internal-combustion engines, manufactured by the Avis Engine Company of Allston, Massachusetts. A four-stroke, air-cooled unit, it had seven cylinders and a compression ratio, altered by changing the wobble-plate angle. It was called an engine, because the entire engine rotated apart from the end casings. Ignition was supplied by a Bosch magneto directly driven from the cam gears, according to Macombers literature, it was guaranteed not to overheat. The engine was claimed to be able to run at 150 to 1,500 rpm, at the normal speed of 1,000 rpm, it reportedly developed 50 hp. It weighed 230 pounds and it was 28 inches long by 19 inches in diameter, pioneer aviator Charles Francis Walsh flew an aircraft powered by a Macomber engine in May 1911, the Walsh Silver Dart. In 1913 Statax-Motor of Zürich, Switzerland introduced an engine design. Only a single prototype was produced, which is held in the Science Museum. It appears only the 40 hp design was produced, which was installed in a Caudron G. II for the British 1914 Aerial Derby but was withdrawn before the flight. Hansen introduced a version of this design in 1922. Much improved versions were introduced by Stataxs German division in 1929, greenwood and Raymond of San Francisco acquired the patent rights for the US, Canada, and Japan, and planned a 5-cylinder of 100 hp and a 9-cylinder of 350 hp. In 1917 Anthony Michell obtained patents for his engine design
40.
Swing-piston engine
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Generally two sets of pistons are used, geared to move in a fixed relationship as they rotate around the cylinder. In some versions the pistons oscillate around a center, as opposed to rotating around the entire engine. The design has also referred to as a oscillating piston engine, vibratory engine when the pistons oscillate instead of rotate. Two successful swing-piston models have made, The American-made MYT engine. These engines utilize fuel much more efficiently than internal combustion engines. Swing-piston engines were introduced during the 1820s as alternate steam engine designs. From the side they are flat plates or pie-wedge shaped. The term swing-piston is not entirely accurate in these cases, the first known example was introduced by Elijah Galloway in 1829 for ship propulsion. It featured a single vane rotating through 270 degrees and it appears this version was never built, although a model still exists in the Science Museum. Galloway also designed a variety of pure rotary engines using vanes as well. A more serious attempt was the Cambrian System of John Jones in 1841 and this design used two or three flat plates that were geared to move closer or further apart as the cycle continued. When the plates were at their closest point, steam was admitted between them using a valve, pushing them apart as the cycle continued, in this fashion the design was effectively a compound engine. Many variations followed, and a number of these saw limited use in the field, notable among them was John Ericssons design of 1843, which powered the USS Princeton, the United States first screw-powered steamship. Charles Parsons examined the concept and appears to have produced two swing-piston engine designs before moving on to the steam turbine, the Roots brothers designed a swing-piston engine of a unique type, although they are better known for their supercharger design. It is unclear whether or not any internal combustion engine has ever reached production. His design had six pistons in total, three each attached to two disks, the timing was arranged such that the chambers reached their close together point over the spark plug, and their wide apart point over the intake and exhaust ports. Lutzs engine was being designed as a gas generator for a new type of aircraft engine, one that replaced a traditional centrifugal or axial compressor with his swing-piston design. Ultimately the exhaust would be used to drive a turbine, that power being used to drive a propeller to produce a turboprop
41.
Two-stroke engine
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A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to an engine, which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke, two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the power band. Compared to four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a reduced number of moving parts. The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, however, unlike most later two-stroke engines, his had a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day. The first truly practical two-stroke engine is attributed to Yorkshireman Alfred Angas Scott, gasoline versions are particularly useful in lightweight or portable applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles. In a two-stroke engine, the transfer from the engine to the cooling system is less than in a four-stroke. Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, the Japanese manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s. Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. They are also common in power tools used outdoors, such as lawnmowers, chainsaws, with direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency. Therefore, the cycle has also been used in large diesel engines, most notably large industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks. Although the principles remain the same, the details of various two-stroke engines differ depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder, piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke engines. All functions are controlled solely by the covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some principles for this system. They found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the amount as raising the port. However, there is a limit to the width of a single exhaust port
42.
Four-stroke engine
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A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning a crankshaft. A stroke refers to the travel of the piston along the cylinder. The four separate strokes are termed, Intake, also known as induction or suction This stroke of the piston begins at top dead center and ends at bottom dead center. In this stroke the valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its downward motion. Compression, This stroke begins at B. D. C, or just at the end of the suction stroke, in this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in preparation for ignition during the power stroke. Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed during this stage, combustion, also known as power or ignition This is the start of the second revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full 360 degree revolution, while the piston is at T. D. C. The compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a plug or by heat generated by high compression. This stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the crankshaft, during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns from B. D. C. to T. D. C. While the exhaust valve is open and this action expels the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve. Nikolaus August Otto as a man was a traveling salesman for a grocery concern. In his travels he encountered the internal combustion engine built in Paris by Belgian expatriate Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, in 1860, Lenoir successfully created a double-acting engine that ran on illuminating gas at 4% efficiency. The 18 litre Lenoir Engine produced only 2 horsepower, the Lenoir engine ran on illuminating gas made from coal, which had been developed in Paris by Philip Lebon. In testing a replica of the Lenoir engine in 1861 Otto became aware of the effects of compression on the fuel charge, in 1862, Otto attempted to produce an engine to improve on the poor efficiency and reliability of the Lenoir engine. He tried to create an engine that would compress the fuel prior to ignition. Many other engineers were trying to solve the problem, with no success, in 1864, Otto and Eugen Langen founded the first internal combustion engine production company, NA Otto and Cie. Otto and Cie succeeded in creating an atmospheric engine that same year. The factory ran out of space and was moved to the town of Deutz, in 1872, Gottlieb Daimler was technical director and Wilhelm Maybach was the head of engine design
43.
Six-stroke engine
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The term six-stroke engine has been applied to a number of alternative internal combustion engine designs that attempt to improve on traditional two-stroke and four-stroke engines. Claimed advantages may include increased fuel-efficiency, reduced mechanical complexity and/or reduced emissions and these engines can be divided into two groups based on the number of pistons that contribute to the six strokes. The pistons in this type of six-stroke engine go up and down three times for each injection of fuel and these designs use either steam or air as the working fluid for the additional power stroke. The designs in which the six strokes are determined by the interactions between two pistons are more diverse, the pistons may be opposed in a single cylinder or may reside in separate cylinders. Usually one cylinder makes two strokes while the other makes four strokes giving six piston movements per cycle, the second piston may also be used to increase the expansion ratio, decoupling it from the compression ratio. Increasing the expansion ratio in this way can increase efficiency in a similar manner to the Miller or Atkinson cycle. These designs use a single piston per cylinder, like a conventional two- or four-stroke engine, a secondary, non-detonating fluid is injected into the chamber, and the leftover heat from combustion causes it to expand for a second power stroke followed by a second exhaust stroke. In 1883, the Bath-based engineer Samuel Griffin was a maker of steam. He wished to produce an internal engine, but without paying the licensing costs of the Otto patents. His solution was to develop a patent slide valve and a single-acting six-stroke engine using it, by 1886, Scottish steam locomotive maker Dick, Kerr & Co. saw a future in large oil engines and licensed the Griffin patents. These were double-acting, tandem engines and sold under the name Kilmarnock and their large heavy construction didnt suit them to mobile use, but they were capable of burning heavier and cheaper grades of oil. The key principle of the Griffin Simplex was a heated exhaust-jacketed external vapouriser, the temperature was held around 550 °F, sufficient to physically vapourise the oil but not to break it down chemically. This fractional distillation supported the use of heavy oil fuels, the unusable tars, hot-bulb ignition was used, which Griffin termed the catathermic igniter, a small isolated cavity connected to the combustion chamber. The spray injector had an adjustable inner nozzle for the air supply, surrounded by a casing for the oil. Griffin went out of business in 1923, only two known examples of a Griffin six-stroke engine survive. One is in the Anson Engine Museum, the other was built in 1885 and for some years was in the Birmingham Museum of Science and Technology, but in 2007 it returned to Bath and the Museum of Bath at Work. Leonard Dyer invented a six-stroke internal combustion engine in 1915. A dozen more similar patents have issued since
