1.
General Electric Company plc
–
The General Electric Company, or GEC, was a major UK-based industrial conglomerate involved in consumer and defence electronics, communications, and engineering. The company was a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, in December 1999, GECs defence arm, Marconi Electronic Systems, was amalgamated with British Aerospace to form BAE Systems. The rest of GEC continued as Marconi plc, the financial troubles that followed the bursting of the dot-com bubble in 2001 led to the restructuring in 2003 of Marconi plc into Marconi Corporation plc. In 2005, Ericsson acquired the bulk of Marconi Corporation plc, along with its principal subsidiary, the remainder of the business was renamed Telent. GEC had its origins in the G. Binswanger and Company, regarded as the year GEC was founded,1886 saw a fellow immigrant, Hugo Hirst, join Byng, and the company changed its name to The General Electric Apparatus Company. Their small business found success with its unorthodox method of supplying electrical components over the counter. Hugo Hirst was a salesman who saw the potential of electricity and was able to direct the standardisation of an industry in its infancy. He travelled across Europe with an eye for the latest products, the following year, the company acquired its first factory in Salford, where electric bells, telephones, ceiling roses and switches were manufactured. In 1889, the business was incorporated as a company known as General Electric Company Ltd. The company was expanding rapidly, opening new branches and factories and trading in everything electrical, in 1893, it decided to invest in the manufacture of lamps. The resulting company, was to lead the way in lamp design, GEC was incorporated as a public limited company, The General Electric Company Ltd. In 1902, its first purpose-built factory, the Witton Engineering Works, was opened near Birmingham, with the death of Gustav Byng in 1910, Hugo Hirst became the chairman as well as managing director, a position he had assumed in 1906. Hirsts shrewd investment in lamp manufacture was proving extremely profitable, in 1909, Osram began production of the most successful tungsten filament lamps in the industry. Rapidly growing private and commercial use of electricity created huge demand, the company expanded both at home and overseas, with the establishment of agencies in Europe, Japan, Australia, South Africa, and India. It also did trade with South America. The outbreak of World War I transformed GEC into a player in the electrical industry. It was heavily involved in the war effort, with such as radios, signal lamps. Between the wars, GEC expanded to become a global corporation, the takeover of Fraser and Chalmers in 1918 took GEC into heavy engineering and bolstered their claim to supply everything electrical
General Electric Company plc
–
Sir Hugo Hirst,
Bt., c. 1930
General Electric Company plc
–
Early switchboard, c. 1888
2.
British Aircraft Corporation
–
The British Aircraft Corporation was a British aircraft manufacturer formed from the government-pressured merger of English Electric Aviation Ltd. Vickers-Armstrongs, the Bristol Aeroplane Company and Hunting Aircraft in 1960, Bristol, English Electric and Vickers became parents of BAC with shareholdings of 20%, 40% and 40% respectively. BAC in turn acquired the capital of their aviation interests. Its head office was on the top floors of the 100 Pall Mall building in the City of Westminster, BAC was formed following a warning from government that it expected consolidation in the aircraft, guided weapons and engine industries. The new corporation was owned by Vickers, English Electric. Internally it had two divisions – the Aircraft Division under Sir George Edwards and the Guided Weapons Division under Viscount Caldecote, the aircraft operations of the three parents were now subsidiaries of BAC, Bristol Aircraft Ltd, English Electric Aviation Ltd and Vickers-Armstrongs Ltd. BAC also had a controlling interest in Hunting Aircraft, the parents still had significant aviation interests outside BAC. English Electric had Napier & Son aero-engines, Bristol had 50% of Bristol Aerojet and Bristol Siddeley engines and smaller investments in Westland and it remains operational today as Bristol Cars. Most of the BAC designs were taken over from the companies that formed it. BAC did not apply its new identity retrospectively, hence the VC10 remained the Vickers VC10, instead the company applied its name to marketing initiatives, the VC10 advertising carried the name Vickers-Armstrongs Limited, a member company of the British Aircraft Corporation. The first model to bear the BAC name was the BAC One-Eleven, the first Concorde contracts were signed with Air France and BOAC in September 1972. In 1963, BAC acquired the previously autonomous guided weapons divisions of English Electric and Bristol to form a new subsidiary, the company enjoyed some success, including development of the Rapier, Sea Skua and Sea Wolf missiles. BAC eventually expanded this division to include electronics and space systems and, in 1966, Hughes awarded major contracts to BAC, including sub-systems for Intelsat satellites. The cancellation of the TSR-2 in April 1965 was a blow to the new company. After successfully flying the aircraft, political pressure forced development to cease. Given the numerous government contract cancellations during the 1960s, the BAC 1–11, launched as a private venture, in May 1966, BAC and Breguet formed SEPECAT, a joint company to manage the Jaguar aircraft programme. The first of eight prototypes flew on 8 September 1968, and service entry was achieved with the French Air Force in 1973, also in 1966, Rolls-Royce acquired Bristol Aeroplane for its Bristol Siddeley aero-engine business, but declared it had no interest in the BAC shareholding. Despite this, Rolls-Royce still had not disposed of its BAC shareholding by 1971 when Rolls-Royce was declared bankrupt, the 20% share was eventually acquired from receivership by Vickers and GEC, who had acquired English Electric in 1968
British Aircraft Corporation
–
A
BAC 1-11 passenger airliner
British Aircraft Corporation
–
British Aircraft Corporation
British Aircraft Corporation
–
BAC
Aérospatiale Concorde G-BOAB in storage at
London Heathrow Airport following Concorde's grounding in 2000. This aircraft flew for 22,296 hours between its first flight in 1976 and its grounding.
British Aircraft Corporation
–
The protototype
BAC TSR-2 at the
Warton factory in 1966
3.
International Computers Limited
–
International Computers Limited was a large British computer hardware, computer software and computer services company that operated from 1968 until 2002. It was formed through a merger of International Computers and Tabulators, English Electric Leo Marconi, the companys most successful product line was the ICL2900 Series range of mainframe computers. In later years, ICL attempted to diversify its product line, despite significant sales in overseas markets, ICLs mainframe base was dominated by large contracts from the UK public sector. Significant customers included Post Office Ltd, the Inland Revenue, the Department for Work and Pensions, ICL also had a strong market share with UK local authorities and nationalized utilities including the water, electricity, and gas boards. The company was acquired by Fujitsu, and in April 2002 it was rebranded as Fujitsu. International Computers Limited was formed in 1968 as a part of the Industrial Expansion Act of the Wilson Labour Government, ICL was an initiative of Tony Benn, the Minister of Technology, to create a British computer industry that could compete with major world manufacturers like IBM. ICL represented the last step in a series of mergers that had taken place in the industry since the late 1950s, EELM was itself a merger of the computer divisions of English Electric, LEO and Marconi. Upon its creation, the British government held a ten percent stake in the company, the new board decided that the 1900 should be phased out in favour of the System 4, but shortly afterwards reversed the decision. It is probable that this was due to union and political pressure from the Wilson government. In any event, most of the original EEC board resigned over the interference as they believed that the 1900 series was doomed from the outset, ICL initially thrived, but relied almost wholly on supplying the UK public sector with computers. In 1962 ICT delivered the first ICT1300 series computer which was its first transistor machine, a small team from Ferrantis Canadian subsidiary, Ferranti-Packard, visited the various Ferranti computer labs and saw their work on a next-generation machine. On their return home they produced the Ferranti-Packard 6000 in a short period of time, developing the machine, compilers. A feature of the Executive operating system was its ability to multi task, the machine went on to have some success and sold in small numbers in Canada and the United States. In 1964 ICT purchased the division of Ferranti in another government-forced merger. Ferranti had been building a number of scientific machines based on various university designs since the 1950s. None of these could be considered successful, however. Meanwhile, ICT management in England was looking to rejuvenate their line-up, their latest developments, Management looked at the FP6000 as well as licensing the RCA Spectra 70, an IBM System/360-clone. In the end it was decided to go with the FP6000 as the basis for a line of small-to-midrange machines
International Computers Limited
–
Former ICL offices at Amsinckstraße 45, Hamburg, Germany. In 2013 the building is undergoing conversion into a hotel.
International Computers Limited
–
ICL 2966 at the
National Museum of Computing
4.
Strand, London
–
Strand is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, Central London. The roads name comes from the Old English strond, meaning the edge of a river, the street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries, with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river. These included Essex House, Arundel House, Somerset House, Savoy Palace, Durham House, the aristocracy moved to the West End over the 17th century, following which the Strand became well known for coffee shops, restaurants and taverns. The street was a point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century. At the east end of the street are two churches, St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes. Several authors, poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand, including Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson, the street has been commemorated in the song Lets All Go Down the Strand, now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall. The street is the link between the two cities of Westminster and London. It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square, parallel to the River Thames, traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych, connected at both ends to the Strand. The road marks the boundary of the Covent Garden district. The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway, then in 1185 as Stronde and it is formed from the Old English word strond, meaning the edge of a river. Initially it referred to the bank of the once much wider Thames. The name was applied to the road itself. In the 13th century it was known as Densemanestret or street of the Danes, Strand Bridge was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction, it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo. London Bus routes 6,23,139 and 176 all run along the Strand, as do numerous night bus services. During Roman Britain, what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester, known as Iter VIII on the Antonine Itinerary, and it was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD, and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually moved the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, and the area returned to fields. In the Middle Ages, the Strand became the route between the separate settlements of the City of London and the royal Palace of Westminster. The landmark Eleanors Cross was built in the 13th century at the end of the Strand at Charing Cross by Edward I commemorating his wife Eleanor of Castile
Strand, London
–
Strand at
Charing Cross in 2008, looking towards Trafalgar Square and
Admiralty Arch
Strand, London
–
This 1593 map shows "The Strande" as the principal route – parallel to the River, from
the City in the east, to
Whitehall in the west.
Strand, London
–
A 19th-century print showing
St Mary-Le-Strand and the Strand front of
Somerset House.
Strand, London
–
A
Routemaster on
London Buses route 1 heading down the Strand in 1981.
St Clement Danes church is in the background.
5.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
6.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
–
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
7.
Marconi Company
–
The Marconi Company was a British telecommunications and engineering company that did business under that name from 1963 to 1987. The company was founded by the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi and began as the Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company, the company was a pioneer of wireless long distance communication and mass media broadcasting, eventually becoming one of the UKs most successful manufacturing companies. In 1999, its manufacturing division, Marconi Electronic Systems. In 2006, extreme financial difficulties led to the collapse of the company, with the bulk of the business acquired by the Swedish telecommunications company. The company opened the worlds first radio factory on Hall Street in Chelmsford in 1898 and was responsible for some of the most important advances in radio and television. These include, In 1900 the companys name was changed to Marconis Wireless Telegraph Company, the company and factory was moved to New Street Works in 1912, to allow for production expansion in light of the RMS Titanic disaster. Along with private entrepreneurs, Marconi company formed in 1924 the Unione Radiofonica Italiana, after the war, URI became the RAI, which lives on to this day. In 1939, the Marconi Research Laboratories at Great Baddow were founded, English Electric acquired the Marconi Company in 1946 which complemented its other operations, heavy electrical engineering, aircraft and its railway traction business. In 1948 the company was reorganised into four divisions, These had expanded to 13 manufacturing divisions by 1965 when a reorganisation took place. It also owned Marconi Instruments, Sanders Electronics, Eddystone Radio, in 1967 Marconi took over Stratton and Company to form Eddystone Radio. In 1903 Marconi founded the Marconis Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada which was renamed as the Canadian Marconi Company in 1925, the radio business of the Canadian Marconi Company is known as Ultra Electronics TCS since 2002 and its avionic activities as CMC Electronics, owned by Esterline since 2007. In 1967 or 1968 English Electric was subject to a bid by the Plessey Company. Under UK government pressure, the section of GEC, English Electric Leo Marconi. In 1968 Marconi Space and Defence Systems and Marconi Underwater Systems were formed, the Marconi Company continued as the primary defence subsidiary of GEC, GEC-Marconi. Marconi was renamed GEC-Marconi in 1987, during the period 1968–1999 GEC-Marconi/MES underwent significant expansion. Acquisitions which were folded into the company and partnerships established include, Other acquisitions include, in 1999 GEC underwent a major transformation. Marconi Electronic Systems which included its wireless assets was demerged and sold to British Aerospace which then formed BAE Systems, GEC, realigning itself as a primarily telecommunications company following the MES sale, retained the Marconi brand and renamed itself Marconi plc. BAE were granted limited rights to continue its use in existing partnerships, major spending and the dot-com collapse led to a major restructuring of that group, in a debt-for-equity swap shareholders were given 0. 5% of the new company, Marconi Corporation plc
Marconi Company
–
An employee of the Marconi Company, England, 1906
Marconi Company
–
Marconi Wireless Station in
Somerset, New Jersey, in 1921.
8.
Vulcan Foundry
–
The Vulcan Foundry Limited was a British locomotive builder sited at Newton-le-Willows, Lancashire. Because of the distance from the works in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, it seemed preferable to build. In 1832, Robert Stephenson became a partner for a few years, the company had become The Vulcan Foundry Company in 1847 and acquired limited liability in 1864. From the beginning of 1898, the name changed again to The Vulcan Foundry Limited, the site had its own railway station, Vulcan Halt, on the former Warrington and Newton Railway line from Earlestown to Warrington Bank Quay. The halt was opened on 1 November 1916 by the London and North Western Railway and this list claims that the first two locomotives were 0-4-0 Tayleur and Stephenson built in 1833 for Mr Hargreaves, Bolton, but this seems unlikely. The earliest authenticated products were 0-4-0 Titan and Orion, similar to Stephensons design, other early orders came from the Leicester and Swannington Railway and there were also some 4-2-0s for America which were among the first British bogie locomotives. From 1835 the company was selling to Belgium, France, and in 1836 to Austria and Russia, the companys locomotives had a strong Stephenson influence, many during the following decade being of the long boiler design. In 1852 the first locomotives ever to run in India were supplied to the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, a number of Fairlie locomotives were built, including Taliesin for the Ffestiniog Railway and Josephine one of the NZR E class. During 1870 the company supplied the first locos to run in Japan, a number of Matthew Kirtleys double-framed goods engines were also produced for the Midland Railway. The healthy export trade continued, particularly to India and South America, the most notable design manufactured for an overseas railway during this period was the large 4-8-4 built for the Chinese National Railways in 1934-35. These fine locomotives were equipped with a stoker and six of them were fitted with booster engines on the tender. Of the 24 exported, one returned to the UK and is preserved at the National Railway Museum in York, during 1953-54 the company built sixty J Class 2-8-0 locomotives for Victorian Railways, Australia. From 1939 the works was mostly concerned with the war effort, becoming involved in the development, from 1943 large orders were received from the Ministry of Supply for locomotives,390 Austerity 2-8-0s and fifty Austerity 0-6-0 saddle tanks. In 1944 the Vulcan Foundry acquired Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns and in 1945 received an order for 120 Liberation 2-8-0 locomotives for UNRRA in Europe, the war had left Indias railways in a parlous state and in 1947, with foreign aid, embarked on a massive rebuilding plan. Not only was the competition fierce from other countries, but India had developed the ability to build its own locomotives, the company had experience of both diesel and electric locomotives, having built thirty-one so-called Crocodile 2600 hp 1, 500V DC electric banking locomotives in 1929 for India. Indias National Railway Museum in New Delhi exhibits a locomotive from the Vulcan foundry. In 1931, the company supplied the first experimental diesel shunter to the London, Midland and Scottish Railway. In 1936 Vulcan, a diesel-mechanical 0-6-0 shunter with a Vulcan-Frichs 6-cylinder 275 hp diesel engine was loaned to the LMS, and was used by the War Department
Vulcan Foundry
–
Vulcan Foundry worksplate
Vulcan Foundry
–
Chinese
KF7 in the
National Railway Museum in York
Vulcan Foundry
–
Vulcan Foundry
works plate No. 3977 of 1926 on
LMS Fowler Class 3F No. 47406 in 2012
Vulcan Foundry
–
Preserved Vulcan-Frichs
railcar on
Plains Vintage Railway,
Ashburton, New Zealand.
9.
Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns
–
Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns Ltd was a locomotive builder with works in North East England. The goodwill of Leeds locomotive builders Kitson & Co. was obtained in 1938, RSH locomotive numbering began at 6939, this being the first number following the sum total of locomotives built by Robert Stephenson & Co. and Hawthorn Leslie. RSH became part of English Electric in 1955, locomotive building at the Newcastle upon Tyne works ended in 1961 and at Darlington in 1964. RSH entered the locomotive market in November 1937 with a direct reversing locomotive fitted with a Crossley two-stroke engine. There was no reversing gearbox and the engine itself was reversible. When starting, in direction, power was supplied by compressed air until the engine fired. One of these locomotives, Beryl, is preserved at the Tanfield Railway, after the 1955 modernisation plan of British Railways RSH responded by building the following class of diesel locomotives some of which are preserved. Class 04 Class 20 Class 37 Class 40 Industrial Railway Society, Various publications
Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns
–
Builders plate from NZGR Ew 1805 locomotive
Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns
–
Stored awaiting overhaul.
Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns
–
Static display.
Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns
–
Undergoing overhaul
10.
English Electric Leo Marconi
–
The LEO I was the first computer used for commercial business applications. The prototype LEO I was modelled closely on the Cambridge EDSAC and its construction was overseen by Oliver Standingford, Raymond Thompson and David Caminer of J. Lyons and Co. LEO I ran its first business application in 1951, in 1954 Lyons formed LEO Computers Ltd to market LEO I and its successors LEO II and LEO III to other companies. LEO Computers eventually became part of English Electric Company and then International Computers Limited, LEO series computers were still in use until 1981. During their visit they met Herman Goldstine, one of the developers of ENIAC. Standingford and Thompson saw the potential of computers to solve the problem of administering a major business enterprise. They also learned from Goldstine that, back in the UK, Douglas Hartree and Maurice Wilkes were actually building another such machine, on their return to the UK, Standingford and Thompson visited Hartree and Wilkes in Cambridge, and were favourably impressed with their technical expertise and vision. Hartree and Wilkes estimated that EDSAC was twelve to eighteen months from completion, Standingford and Thompson wrote a report to the Lyons Board recommending that Lyons should acquire or build a computer to meet their business needs. EDSAC was completed and ran its first program in May 1949, following the successful completion of EDSAC, the Lyons board agreed to start the construction of their own machine, expanding on the EDSAC design. The Lyons machine was christened Lyons Electronic Office, or LEO, on the recommendation of Wilkes, Lyons recruited John Pinkerton, a radar engineer and research student at Cambridge, as team leader for the project. Lenaerts returned to Lyons to work on the project, and Wilkes provided training for Lyons engineer Derek Hemy, the first business application to be run on LEO was Bakery Valuations. This was initially run as a test program on 5 September 1951, LEO Is clock speed was 500 kHz, with most instructions taking about 1.5 ms to execute. To be useful for applications, the computer had to be able to handle a number of data streams, input and output. Therefore, its designer, Dr. John Pinkerton, designed the machine to have multiple input/output buffers. In the first instance, these were linked to fast paper tape readers and punches, fast punched card readers and punches, later, other devices, including magnetic tape, were added. Its ultrasonic delay line memory based on tanks of mercury, with 2K 35-bit words, was four times as large as that of EDSAC, the systems analysis was carried out by David Caminer. Lyons used LEO I initially for valuation jobs, but its role was extended to include payroll, inventory and this was the first instance of an integrated management information system plus a computerised call centre. The LEO project was also a pioneer in outsourcing, in 1956, Lyons started doing the calculations for Ford UK
English Electric Leo Marconi
–
A circuit board from a LEO III computer
11.
Armistice of 11 November 1918
–
It went into effect at 11 a. m. Paris time on 11 November 1918, and marked a victory for the Allies, the Germans were responding to the policies proposed by U. S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918. Although the armistice ended the fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. In addition, he recommended the acceptance of the demands of US president Woodrow Wilson including putting the Imperial Government on a democratic footing, hoping for more favorable peace terms. As he said to officers of his staff on 1 October, on 3 October, the liberal Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed Chancellor of Germany, replacing Georg von Hertling in order to negotiate an armistice. In the subsequent two exchanges, Wilsons allusions failed to convey the idea that the Kaisers abdication was a condition for peace. The leading statesmen of the Reich were not yet ready to contemplate such a monstrous possibility, in late October, Ludendorff, in a sudden change of mind, declared the conditions of the Allies unacceptable. He now demanded to resume the war which he himself had declared lost only one month earlier, however the German soldiers were pressing to get home. It was scarcely possible to arouse their readiness for battle anew, the Imperial Government stayed on course and Ludendorff was replaced by Wilhelm Groener. On 5 November, the Allies agreed to take up negotiations for a truce, the latest note from Wilson was received in Berlin on 6 November. That same day, the led by Matthias Erzberger departed for France. For example, they assumed that the de-militarization suggested by Wilson would be limited to the Central Powers, there were also contradictions with their post-War plans that did not include a consistent implementation of the ideal of national self-determination. Also on 9 November, Max von Baden handed over the office of Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, eberts SPD and Erzbergers Catholic Centre Party had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Imperial government since Bismarcks era in the 1870s and 1880s. They were well represented in the Imperial Reichstag, which had power over the government. Their prominence in the negotiations would cause the new Weimar Republic to lack legitimacy in right-wing. The Armistice was the result of a hurried and desperate process and they were then entrained and taken to the secret destination, aboard Ferdinand Fochs private train parked in a railway siding in the forest of Compiègne. Foch appeared only twice in the three days of negotiations, on the first day, to ask the German delegation what they wanted, the Germans were handed the list of Allied demands and given 72 hours to agree. The German delegation discussed the Allied terms not with Foch, but with other French, the Armistice amounted to complete German demilitarization, with few promises made by the Allies in return
Armistice of 11 November 1918
–
The Allied representatives at the signing of the armistice.
Ferdinand Foch, second from right, seen outside his railway carriage in the
forest of Compiègne.
Armistice of 11 November 1918
–
Front page of the "
New York Times " on 11 November 1918
Armistice of 11 November 1918
Armistice of 11 November 1918
–
American soldiers of the
64th Regiment, part of the
7th Division, celebrate the news of the Armistice.
12.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
13.
Electric motor
–
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
Electric motor
–
Various electric motors, compared to 9 V battery.
Electric motor
–
Cutaway view through stator of induction motor.
Electric motor
–
Faraday's electromagnetic experiment, 1821
Electric motor
–
Jedlik 's "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest). The historic motor still works perfectly today.
14.
Transformer
–
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a magnetic field. Power can be transferred between the two coils through the field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faradays law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect, Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications. A wide range of designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons. For simplification or approximation purposes, it is common to analyze the transformer as an ideal transformer model as presented in the two images. An ideal transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled, perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive force. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying EMF or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the winding and load impedance connected to the secondary winding. The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF and this is in accordance with Lenzs law, which states that induction of EMF always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field. The transformer winding voltage ratio is shown to be directly proportional to the winding turns ratio according to eq. common usage having evolved over time from turn ratio to turns ratio. However, some use the inverse definition. The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings, Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the fields with each cycle of the power supply
Transformer
–
Pole-mounted
distribution transformer with
center-tapped secondary winding used to provide '
split-phase ' power for residential and light commercial service, which in North America is typically rated 120/240 V.
Transformer
–
Instrument transformer, with polarity dot and X1 markings on LV side terminal
Transformer
–
Real transformer equivalent circuit
Transformer
–
Core form = core type; shell form = shell type
15.
Railway locomotive
–
A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles and these are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains. Traditionally, locomotives pulled trains from the front, however, push-pull operation has become common, where the train may have a locomotive at the front, at the rear, or at each end. Prior to locomotives, the force for railroads had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power. The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick, in 1804 his unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 long tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles, the locomotive only ran three trips before it was abandoned. Trevithick built a series of locomotives after the Penydarren experiment, including one which ran at a colliery in Tyneside in northern England, the first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murrays rack locomotive, Salamanca, built for the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the oldest locomotive in existence. In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the locomotives of Trevithick. He built the Blücher, one of the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotives, Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of steam locomotives. His designs improved on the work of the pioneers, in 1825 he built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which became the first public steam railway. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials and this success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. The first inter city passenger railway, Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830, there are a few basic reasons to isolate locomotive train power, as compared to self-propelled vehicles. Maximum utilization of power cars Separate locomotives facilitate movement of costly motive power assets as needed, flexibility Large locomotives can substitute for small locomotives when more power is required, for example, where grades are steeper. As needed, a locomotive can be used for freight duties. Obsolescence cycles Separating motive power from payload-hauling cars enables replacement without affecting the other, to illustrate, locomotives might become obsolete when their associated cars did not, and vice versa
Railway locomotive
–
Three body styles of
diesel locomotive:
cab unit,
hood unit and
box cab. These locomotives are operated by
Pacific National in
Australia.
Railway locomotive
–
R class steam locomotive number R707 as operated by the
Victorian Railways of
Australia.
Railway locomotive
–
A
Green Cargo RC 4 class
electric locomotive repainted in its original livery for the
Swedish 150-year railway anniversary in 2006.
Railway locomotive
–
The first passenger railway, the
Liverpool and Manchester Railway, in
England.
16.
Diesel engine
–
Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
Diesel engine
–
Diesel generator on an oil tanker
Diesel engine
–
A Diesel engine built by
MAN AG in 1906
Diesel engine
–
A
Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine working at the
Great Dorset Steam Fair
Diesel engine
–
Diesel's original 1897 engine on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany
17.
Steam turbine
–
A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
Steam turbine
–
The rotor of a modern steam turbine used in a
power plant
Steam turbine
–
A 250 kW industrial steam turbine from 1910 (right) directly linked to a
generator (left).
Steam turbine
–
Diagram of an AEG marine steam turbine circa 1905
Steam turbine
–
A low-pressure steam turbine in a nuclear power plant. These turbines exhaust steam at a pressure below atmospheric.
18.
Consumer electronics
–
Consumer electronics or home electronics are electronic or digital equipment intended for everyday use, typically in private homes. Consumer electronics include devices used for entertainment, communications, and home-office activities, in British English, they are often called brown goods by producers and sellers, to distinguish them from white goods such as washing machines and refrigerators. Radio broadcasting in the early 20th century brought the first major consumer product, later products included telephones, personal computers, MP3 players, audio equipment, televisions and calculators. In the 2010s, consumer electronics stores often sell GPS, automotive electronics, video game consoles, electronic instruments, karaoke machines, digital cameras. Stores also sell digital cameras, camcorders, cell phones, some consumer electronics stores, such as Best Buy have also begun selling office and baby furniture. Consumer electronics stores may be bricks and mortar retail stores, online stores. The CEA estimated the value of 2015 consumer electronics sales at US$220 billion, for its first fifty years the phonograph turntable did not use electronics, the needle and soundhorn were purely mechanical technologies. However, in the 1920s radio broadcasting became the basis of production of radio receivers. The vacuum tubes that had made radios practical were used with record players as well, television was soon invented, but remained insignificant in the consumer market until the 1950s. The transistor, invented in 1947 by Bell Laboratories, led to significant research in the field of semiconductors in the early 1950s. The transistors advantages revolutionized that industry along with other electronics, by 1959 Fairchild Semiconductor had introduced the first planar transistor from which come the origins of Moores Law. Integrated circuits followed when manufacturers built circuits on a substrate using electrical connections between circuits within the chip itself. One overriding characteristic of consumer products is the trend of ever-falling prices. This is driven by gains in manufacturing efficiency and automation, lower costs as manufacturing has moved to lower-wage countries. Semiconductor components benefit from Moores Law, a principle which states that, for a given price. While consumer electronics continues in its trend of convergence, combining elements of many products, there is an ever increasing need to keep product information updated and comparable, for the consumer to make an informed choice. Style, price, specification, and performance are all relevant, there is a gradual shift towards e-commerce web-storefronts. Many products include Internet connectivity using technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, products not traditionally associated with computer use now provide options to connect to the Internet or to a computer using a home network to provide access to digital content
Consumer electronics
–
A typical
CoCo 3 computer system, from the 1980s
Consumer electronics
–
A
JVC camcorder, a typical consumer electronics device
Consumer electronics
–
A modern flat panel
television set
Consumer electronics
–
Gramophone factory in
Hannover-Nordstadt
19.
Guided missile
–
In modern language, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as a rocket. Missiles have four components, targeting or missile guidance, flight system, engine. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes, surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-air missiles, all known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside a rocket engine, jet engine, or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles. In ordinary British-English usage predating guided weapons, a missile is any thrown object, the word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning to send. In military usage, munitions projected towards a target are broadly categorised as follows, a powered, unguided munition is known as a rocket. Unpowered munitions not fired from a gun are called bombs whether guided or not, munitions that are fired from a gun are known as projectiles whether guided or not. If explosive, they are more specifically as shells or mortar bombs. Powered munitions that travel through water are called torpedoes, hand grenades are not usually classed as missiles. The first missiles to be used operationally were a series of missiles developed by Nazi Germany in World War II, most famous of these are the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, however, these early systems in World War II were only built in small numbers. Guided missiles have a number of different system components, Targeting or missile guidance Flight system Engine Warhead Missiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infrared, lasers or radio waves and this radiation may emanate from the target, it may be provided by the missile itself, or it may be provided by a friendly third party. The first two are known as fire-and-forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV guidance—using either visible light or infrared—in order to see the target, the picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target or by a computer doing much the same job. One of the more bizarre guidance methods instead used a pigeon to steer the missile to its target, many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement. Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target and using a system such as INS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the current position and the position of the target
Guided missile
–
A
V-2 missile launch by the
British during
Operation Backfire
Guided missile
–
V-1 missile
Guided missile
–
Missile Maintainer inspects missile guidance system of the LGM-30G Minuteman ICBM
Guided missile
–
An
R-36 ballistic missile launch at a
Soviet silo
20.
Military aircraft
–
A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat, Combat aircraft are designed to destroy enemy equipment using their own aircraft ordnance, Combat aircraft are normally developed and procured only by military forces. Non-combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function and these mainly operate in support roles, and may be developed by either military forces or civilian organizations. In 1783, when the first practical aircraft were established, they were adopted for military duties. The main role of fighters is destroying enemy aircraft in air-to-air combat, many are fast and highly maneuverable. Escorting bombers or other aircraft is also a common task and they are capable of carrying a variety of weapons, including machine guns, cannons, rockets and guided missiles. Many modern fighters can attack enemy fighters from a great distance, examples of air superiority fighters include the F-22 Raptor. World War II fighters include the British Spitfire, the American P-51 Mustang, an example of an interceptor would be the MiG-25. An example of a fighter is the Messerschmitt Bf 110. The term fighter is also applied to aircraft that have little air-to-air combat capability – for example the A-10 ground-attack aircraft is operated by USAF Fighter squadrons. Bombers are normally larger, heavier, and less maneuverable than fighter aircraft and they are capable of carrying large payloads of bombs, torpedoes or cruise missiles. Bombers are used almost exclusively for ground attacks and not fast or agile enough to take on enemy fighters head-to-head, a few have a single engine and require one pilot to operate and others have two or more engines and require crews of two or more. A limited number of bombers, such as the B-2 Spirit, have stealth capabilities that keep them from being detected by enemy radar, an example of a conventional modern bomber would be the B-52 Stratofortress. An example of a World War II bomber would be a B-17 Flying Fortress, bombers include light bombers, medium bombers, heavy bombers, dive bombers, and torpedo bombers. The U. S. Navy and Marines have traditionally referred to their light, attack aircraft can be used to provide support for friendly ground troops. Some are able to carry conventional or nuclear weapons far behind enemy lines to strike priority ground targets, attack helicopters attack enemy armor and provide close air support for ground troops. An example historical ground-attack aircraft is the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik, several types of transport airplanes have been armed with sideways firing weapons as gunships for ground attack. These include the AC-47 and AC-130 aircraft, in modern air forces the distinction between bombers, fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurred
Military aircraft
–
United States Navy
Grumman F-14 Tomcat fighter aircraft fly in formation as they wait their turn for refueling during
Operation Desert Storm in 1991
Military aircraft
–
A German
MiG-29 firing an air-to-air missile.
Military aircraft
–
A
USAAF B-29 Superfortress.
Military aircraft
–
An
A-10 Thunderbolt II firing an
AGM-65.
21.
Mainframe computer
–
The term originally referred to the large cabinets called main frames that housed the central processing unit and main memory of early computers. Later, the term was used to distinguish high-end commercial machines from less powerful units, most large-scale computer system architectures were established in the 1960s, but continue to evolve. Their high stability and reliability enable these machines to run uninterrupted for decades, Mainframes are defined by high availability, one of the main reasons for their longevity, since they are typically used in applications where downtime would be costly or catastrophic. The term reliability, availability and serviceability is a characteristic of mainframe computers. Proper planning and implementation is required to exploit these features, and if improperly implemented, in the late 1950s, most mainframes had no explicitly interactive interface, but only accepted sets of punched cards, paper tape, or magnetic tape to transfer data and programs. In cases where interactive terminals were supported, these were used almost exclusively for applications rather than program development, typewriter and Teletype devices were also common control consoles for system operators through the 1970s, although ultimately supplanted by keyboard/display devices. By the early 1970s, many mainframes acquired interactive user interfaces and operated as timesharing computers, users gained access through specialized terminals or, later, from personal computers equipped with terminal emulation software. By the 1980s, many mainframes supported graphical terminals, and terminal emulation and this format of end-user computing reached mainstream obsolescence in the 1990s due to the advent of personal computers provided with GUIs. After 2000, most modern mainframes have partially or entirely phased out classic green screen terminal access for end-users in favour of Web-style user interfaces, the infrastructure requirements were drastically reduced during the mid-1990s, when CMOS mainframe designs replaced the older bipolar technology. IBM claimed that its newer mainframes could reduce data center energy costs for power and cooling, modern mainframes can run multiple different instances of operating systems at the same time. This technique of virtual machines allows applications to run as if they were on physically distinct computers, in this role, a single mainframe can replace higher-functioning hardware services available to conventional servers. While mainframes pioneered this capability, virtualization is now available on most families of computer systems, Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity without disrupting system function, with specificity and granularity to a level of sophistication not usually available with most server solutions. Modern mainframes, notably the IBM zSeries, System z9 and System z10 servers, such a two-mainframe installation can support continuous business service, avoiding both planned and unplanned outages. In practice many customers use multiple mainframes linked either by Parallel Sysplex and shared DASD, or with shared, Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume input and output and emphasize throughput computing. Since the late-1950s, mainframe designs have included subsidiary hardware which manage the I/O devices and it is common in mainframe shops to deal with massive databases and files. Gigabyte to terabyte-size record files are not unusual, compared to a typical PC, mainframes commonly have hundreds to thousands of times as much data storage online, and can access it reasonably quickly. Other server families also offload I/O processing and emphasize throughput computing, Mainframes also have execution integrity characteristics for fault tolerant computing. This hardware-level feature, also found in HPs NonStop systems, is known as lock-stepping, not all applications absolutely need the assured integrity that these systems provide, but many do, such as financial transaction processing
Mainframe computer
–
An
IBM System z9 mainframe
Mainframe computer
–
Inside an
IBM System z9 mainframe
22.
English Electric Canberra
–
The English Electric Canberra is a British first-generation jet-powered medium bomber that was manufactured during the 1950s. It was developed by English Electric during the mid-to-late 1940s in response to a 1944 Air Ministry requirement for a successor to the wartime de Havilland Mosquito fast-bomber. Amongst the performance requirements for the type was the demand for a high altitude bombing capability in addition to flying at high speeds. These were partly accomplished by making use of newly developed jet propulsion technology, when the Canberra was introduced to service with the Royal Air Force, the types first operator, in May 1951, it became the services first jet-powered bomber aircraft. Throughout the majority of the 1950s, the Canberra could fly at a higher altitude than any other bomber or even any other aircraft in the world, in 1957, one Canberra established a world altitude record of 70,310 ft. In February 1951, another Canberra set another record when it became the first jet aircraft to make a non-stop transatlantic flight. The type was also produced in Australia and the United States of America. In addition to being a nuclear strike aircraft, the Canberra proved to be highly adaptable, serving in varied roles such as tactical bombing. Canberras served in the Suez Crisis, the Vietnam War, the Falklands War, the Indo-Pakistani wars, in several wars, each of the opposing sides had Canberras in their air forces. The Canberra had a service life, serving for more than 50 years with some operators. In June 2006, the RAF retired the last of its Canberras,57 years after its first flight, three of the Martin B-57 variant remain in service, performing meteorological work for NASA, as well as providing electronic communication testing for deployment to Afghanistan. During the Second World War, a demand for bomber aircraft led to many aircraft being produced by secondary manufacturers via licence manufacturing arrangements. Sir George Nelson, the chairman of English Electric, decided that the company would seek to remain in the business, in November 1943, the company was invited to participate in discussions over a prospective bomber which would take advantage of the newly developed jet propulsion technology. The design used a conventional aerodynamic design, Petter having determined that the necessary performance could be attained without adopting swept wings or a swept tail. The authorities doubted its suitability for operations from unprepared fields and at low altitude but could see its potential as a bomber design, numerous manufacturers refused to take on the design. Petter left Westland to join the English Electric company in December 1944, in 1945, English Electric formalised its own in-house aircraft design team to pursuit this design. The Canberra had its origins in a 1944 requirement issued by the Air Ministry for a successor to the de Havilland Mosquito. This requirement, the initial revision being E. 3/45, sought a high altitude, further specification refinements were issued, including B. 3/45 and B. 5/47, issued further details such as a three-man crew and other features such as a visual bombing capability
English Electric Canberra
–
Canberra
English Electric Canberra
–
Canberra PR9 XH135
English Electric Canberra
–
The first Canberra B2 prototype, VX165
English Electric Canberra
–
Martin EB-57B
23.
B-57 Canberra
–
The Martin B-57 Canberra is an American-built, twinjet tactical bomber and reconnaissance aircraft that entered service with the United States Air Force in 1953. The B-57 is a version of the British English Electric Canberra manufactured by the Glenn L. Martin Company. The B-57 Canberra holds the distinction of being the first jet bomber in U. S. service to drop bombs during combat. The B-57 Canberra was also sold to customers abroad, further combat use was seen by the Pakistani Air Force during the Second Kashmir War. At the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, the USAF found itself in dire need of an all-weather interdiction aircraft, in response to these needs, the USAF requested the British government to provide a private demonstration of the English Electric Canberra, a newly developed jet-powered bomber. On 16 September 1950, the USAF formally issued a request for a bomber, the sought aircraft had to possess a top speed of 630 mph, ceiling of 40,000 feet. Full all-weather capability and a reconnaissance role also had to be included in the design. The American contenders included the Martin XB-51, the North American B-45 Tornado, to expedite the process, only projects based on existing aircraft were considered and, unusually, the service considered foreign aircraft. These included the Canadian Avro Canada CF-100 and the British English Electric Canberra, as part of the USAF evaluations process, all five aircraft were submitted to a series of fly-offs to determine their performance. On 21 February 1951, a British Canberra B, according to Gunston and Gilchrist, the Canberra proved to be significantly superior to any of the competing aircraft, and that its selection was beyond doubt by the end of the competition. Martin Company, under which it was proposed that Martin would receive a license to build the Canberra in the United States. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, the Americanization of the Canberra program proved effective at dismissing many of the opponents that had opposed the project. On 23 March 1951, the USAF issued a contract to Martin, requesting the manufacturing of a quantity of 250 Canberras. On 3 April 1951, English Electric and Martin both signed a licensing agreement to cover the Canberras production. The crash did lead to design changes in the face of political pressure. As such, more than 30 changes that had been requested by the Wright Air Development Center were rejected on program schedule or cost grounds, in early July 1953, the first US-built production aircraft rolled out, it conducted its maiden flight on 20 July 1953. One month later, this initial production aircraft was accepted by the USAF, in place of the curtailed B-57A, a more refined bomber variant, the B-57B, was developed. The B-57B introduced several major changes.50 cal Browning machine guns installed within the wings
B-57 Canberra
–
B-57 Canberra
B-57 Canberra
–
The British-built Canberra B.2 that was used as a pattern and prototype for the B-57
B-57 Canberra
–
EB-57A parked at
Scott AFB, 1969.
B-57 Canberra
–
B-57B,
71st Bombardment Squadron,
Laon-Couvron Air Base, circa 1957
24.
English Electric Lightning
–
The English Electric Lightning is a supersonic fighter aircraft of the Cold War era. It was designed, developed, and manufactured by English Electric and it was then marketed as the BAC Lightning. The Lightning was the only all-British Mach 2 fighter aircraft, the Lightning was used by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Saudi Air Force. Although it was the RAFs primary interceptor for more than two decades it was never required to attack another aircraft, the Lightning is powered by two Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet engines in a unique staggered stacked installation in the fuselage. This performance made the Lightning a fuel-critical aircraft, meaning that its missions are dictated to a degree by its limited range. Later developments provided greater range and speed along with aerial reconnaissance, following retirement in the late 1980s, many of the remaining aircraft became museum exhibits and, until 2010, three Lightnings were kept flying at Thunder City in Cape Town, South Africa. In September 2008, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers conferred on the Lightning its Engineering Heritage Award at a ceremony at BAE Systems site at Warton Aerodrome. The specification for the aircraft followed the cancellation of the Air Ministrys 1942 E. 24/43 supersonic research aircraft specification which had resulted in the Miles M.52 programme. Teddy Petter, formerly chief designer at Westland Aircraft, was an early proponent of Britains need to develop a supersonic fighter aircraft. Petter initiated a proposal with F. W. Freddie Page leading the design. By July 1948 their proposal incorporated the engine configuration and a high-mounted tailplane but was designed for Mach 1.5. As a consequence it had a conventional 40° degree swept wing This proposal was submitted in the November, on 29 March 1949 MoS granted approval for English Electric to start the detailed design, develop wind tunnel models and build a full-size mockup. The design that had developed during 1948 evolved further during 1949, to achieve Mach 2 the wing sweep was increased to 60° with the ailerons moved to the wingtips. In late 1949 low-speed wind tunnel showed that a vortex was generated by the wing which caused a large downwash on the tailplane. Following the resignation of Petter, Page took over as team leader for the P.1. In 1949, the Ministry of Supply had issued Specification F23/49, on 1 April 1950, English Electric received a contract for two flying airframes, as well as one static airframe, designated P.1. The Royal Aircraft Establishment was sceptical of Petters swept wing concepts, to test the design of both the wing, the tailplane and to assess handling, Short Brothers were issued a contract to produce the Short SB5 in mid-1950. This was a research aircraft and was designed so that different wing sweep angles could be assumed by the single aircraft
English Electric Lightning
–
Lightning
English Electric Lightning
–
Lightning F.3 in flight, 1983
English Electric Lightning
–
Lightning F.6 XS904 after a high speed taxi run at 2012 Cold War Jets Day, Bruntingthorpe
English Electric Lightning
–
Lightning in flight at the Ysterplaat Airshow, Cape Town, September 2006
25.
Vickers Armstrongs
–
Vickers-Armstrongs Limited was a British engineering conglomerate formed by the merger of the assets of Vickers Limited and Sir W G Armstrong Whitworth & Company in 1927. The majority of the company was nationalised in the 1960s and 1970s, Vickers merged with the Tyneside-based engineering company Armstrong Whitworth, founded by W. G. Armstrong, to become Vickers-Armstrongs, Ltd. Armstrong Whitworth and Vickers had developed along lines, expanding into various military sectors. Armstrong Whitworth were notable for their manufacture at Elswick and shipbuilding at a yard at High Walker on the River Tyne. 1929 saw the merger of the railway business with those of Cammell Laird to form Metropolitan Cammell Carriage and Wagon. In 1935, before rearmament began, Vickers-Armstrongs was the third-largest manufacturing employer in Britain, behind Unilever, in 1960 the aircraft interests were merged with those of Bristol, English Electric and Hunting Aircraft to form the British Aircraft Corporation. This was owned by Vickers, English Electric and Bristol, BAC in turn owned 70% of Hunting. The Supermarine operation was closed in 1963 and the Vickers brand name for aircraft was dropped by BAC in 1965, under the terms of the Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act 1977 BAC was nationalised to become part of British Aerospace. The Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act also led to the nationalisation of Vickers shipbuilding division as part of British Shipbuilders, Vickers Container and Packaging Machinery Division, including the Vickers Stitcher and Vickers Hardness Machine business, was bought by Fords Industrial Products, part of Barry Wehmiller in 1986. In 1991 the Vickers Hardness Machinery business was bought by the field engineers. The Vickers Stitcher was still being manufactured in India as recently as 2005, the steelmaking division became part of British Steel Corporation and the remaining interests were divested as the public company Vickers plc, whose various components were later split. The Vickers name ceased to exist in 2003 when Rolls-Royce renamed its acquisitions Vinters plc, Vickers-Armstrongs inherited the Vickers machine gun of 1912 used in World War I from Vickers Limited. An unusual machine gun also made was the Vickers Higson, Vickers produced larger weapons such as the Ordnance QF 2-pounder gun used on tanks. In 1948 Vickers bought the Australian business of Charles Ruwolt Ltd for £750,000 following Ruwolts death in 1946, during WW2 Ruwolts firm produced armaments for the Australian Government, including field artillery such as mortars and howitzer cannon. Vickers-Armstrongs was one of the most important warship manufacturers in the world and these interests were renamed as Vickers-Armstrongs Shipbuilders in 1955, changing again to Vickers Limited Shipbuilding Group in 1968. The Barrow yard was nationalised and became part of British Shipbuilders in 1977, was privatised as VSEL in 1986, the company was also known for its tank designs, starting with the widely used Vickers 6-Ton. It also produced the influential, if never actually produced, Independent A1E1 tank, one of the companys most important designs was the Valentine Infantry Tank, produced in the thousands in World War II. The military vehicle manufacturing interests were divested into Vickers plc, and would pass to Alvis Vickers, now part of BAE Systems Land
Vickers Armstrongs
–
Vickers-Armstrongs Limited
26.
Bristol Aeroplane Company
–
In 1956 its major operations were split into Bristol Aircraft and Bristol Aero Engines. BAC went on to become a component of the nationalised British Aerospace. Bristol Siddeley was purchased by Rolls-Royce in 1966, who continued to develop, the BAC works were in Filton, about 4 miles north of Bristol city centre. BAE Systems, Airbus, Rolls Royce, MBDA and GKN still have a presence at the Filton site where the Bristol Aeroplane Company was located. Additionally, key personnel for the new business were recruited from the employees of the Tramway Company, including George Challenger as chief engineer and works manager. These flying schools came to be regarded as some of the best in the world, the companys initial manufacturing venture was to be a licensed and improved version of an aircraft manufactured in France by the Societe Zodiac, a biplane designed by Gabriel Voisin. This aircraft had been exhibited at the Paris Aero Salon in 1909 and had impressed Sir George with the quality of its construction. One example was bought and shipped to England to be shown at the Aero Show at Olympia in March 1910, since the machine had been sold with a guarantee to fly Sir George succeeded in getting 15,000 francs compensation from Zodiac. Work was then begun on designing a successor, drawings were prepared by George Challenger for an aircraft based on a successful design by Henri Farman whose dimensions had been published in the aeronautical press. The drawings were made in little over a week, and Sir George authorised the construction of twenty examples, the first to be completed was taken to Larkhill for flight trials, where it made its first flight on 30 July piloted by Maurice Edmonds, proving entirely satisfactory. Many served in the flying schools and examples were sold to the War Office as well as a number of foreign governments. Both of these were exhibited at the 1911 Aero Show at Olympia, at this time both Challenger and Low left the company to join the newly established aircraft division of the armament firm Vickers. Their place was taken by Pierre Prier, the chief instructor at the Blériot flying school at Hendon. In January 1912 the Romanian engineer Henri Coandă was appointed as chief designer, also at this time a highly secret separate design office, the X-Department, was set up to work on Dennistoun Burneys ideas for naval aircraft. Frank Barnwell was taken on as the engineer for this project. Barnwell was to one of the worlds foremost aeronautical engineers. The Company expanded rapidly, opening a factory at the Brislington tramway works. Official War Office policy was to only aircraft designed by the Royal Aircraft Establishment
Bristol Aeroplane Company
–
Bristol Boxkite Replica at
RAAF Museum
Bristol Aeroplane Company
–
The Bristol Fighter
Bristol Aeroplane Company
–
The Bristol Bulldog
Bristol Aeroplane Company
–
Bristol Beaufighter
27.
Coventry Ordnance Works
–
Its core operations were from a 60-acre site in Stoney Stanton Road in the English city of Coventry, Warwickshire. At the end of 1918 it became a constituent of a brand new enterprise English Electric Company Limited. After World War II the works made electricity-generating machinery and heavy machine tools, the ordnance business had been bought from Mulliner and Wigley by Charles Cammell, later Cammell Laird, in 1903. A complete factory for the manufacture of Fuzes had also installed in Coventry. Early in 1915 Bacon was appointed to the Royal Marines, 37mm gun was the first modern autocannon developed in 1917. At their Annual General Meeting four days after the armistice Dick Kerr & Co Limited announced an agreement for amalgamation with Coventry Ordnance Works Limited. It was anticipated that the new combine would be one of the three principal electrical manufacturing concerns in the country and it struggled in the recession after the end of World War I which affected Britains arms industry and closed in 1925. Harland and Wolff, who took over the Scotstoun, Glasgow, works from Coventry Ordnance Works in 1920, little investment was made and the firm had to seek civil engineering contracts away from shipbuilding in order to minimise losses. In 1927 the factory was put on a care and maintenance basis, the beginning of a national rearmament programme in 1936 prompted the re-commissioning of the works to make gun mountings. After the war, they continued to build naval guns into the late 1960s, building the standard 4.5 turrets for the County class destroyers and other classes. Barrels were brought in from Vickers-Armstrongs but in earlier times they were made locally at Beardmores in Parkhead. and these were supplied to British Pressed Steel at Linwood, Paisley, Longbridge, Dagenham and Liverpool. and gas engine driven compressors. In 1969 the works was sold to Albion Motors, whose main factory had been situated on the side of South Street. This factory had some of the largest machine tools in the UK, one, a vertical boring mill had a turntable 36 in diameter, used for machining the gun turret gear rings. This and other machines lent themselves to the machining of large turbine casing castings for the hydro-electric schemes, the building had three tiers of overhead cranes and could together lift several hundred tons. The building still continues to manufacture automotive parts under the ownership of Albion, the Battleship Builders - Constructing and Arming British Capital Ships. The 15-inch Guns of Vanguard, Courageous and Glorious Glasgow University Archive Services, photographic collection C. O. W
Coventry Ordnance Works
–
Advertisement
Brassey's Naval Annual 1915
Coventry Ordnance Works
–
Work on naval gun mountings
Coventry Ordnance Works
–
Woman cleaning the rifling 15 inch howitzer
Coventry Ordnance Works
–
15 inch howitzer Dainville 10 April 1917
28.
Coventry
–
Coventry is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, England. Historically part of Warwickshire, Coventry is the 9th largest city in England and it is the second largest city in the West Midlands region, after Birmingham, with a population of 345,385 in 2015. Coventry is 95 miles northwest of central London,19 miles east-south-east of Birmingham,24 miles southwest of Leicester and 11 miles north of Warwick. Coventry Cathedral was built after the destruction of the 14th century cathedral church of Saint Michael by the German Luftwaffe in the Coventry Blitz of 14 November 1940, Coventry motor companies have contributed significantly to the British motor industry. The city has two universities, Coventry University in the city centre and the University of Warwick on the southern outskirts. The Romans founded a settlement in Baginton, next to the River Sowe, and another formed around a Saxon nunnery, founded c. AD700 by St Osburga, that was later left in ruins by King Canutes invading Danish army in 1016. Earl Leofric of Mercia and his wife Lady Godiva built on the remains of the nunnery, in time, a market was established at the abbey gates and the settlement expanded. By the 14th century, Coventry was an important centre of the cloth trade, the bishops of Lichfield were often referred to as bishops of Coventry and Lichfield, or Lichfield and Coventry. Coventry claimed the status of a city by ancient prescriptive usage, was granted a charter of incorporation in 1345, the plays that William Shakespeare witnessed in Coventry during his boyhood or teens may have influenced how his plays, such as Hamlet, came about. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Coventry became one of the three main British centres of watch and clock manufacture and ranked alongside Prescot, in Lancashire, in the late 19th century, Coventry became a major centre of bicycle manufacture. The industry energised by the invention by James Starley and his nephew John Kemp Starley of the Rover safety bicycle, by the early 20th century, bicycle manufacture had evolved into motor manufacture, and Coventry became a major centre of the British motor industry. Jaguar is owned by the Indian company, Tata Motors, with many of the citys older properties becoming increasingly unfit for habitation, the first council houses were let to their tenants in 1917. With Coventrys industrial base continuing to soar after the end of the Great War a year later, numerous private and council housing developments took place across the city in the 1920s and 1930s. The development of a southern by-pass around the city, starting in the 1930s and being completed in 1940, Coventry suffered severe bomb damage during the Second World War. There was a massive Luftwaffe air raid, part of the Coventry Blitz, firebombing on this date led to severe damage to large areas of the city centre and to Coventrys historic cathedral, leaving only a shell and the spire. More than 4,000 houses were damaged or destroyed, along with three quarters of the citys industrial plants. More than 800 people were killed, with injured and homeless. Aside from London, Hull and Plymouth, Coventry suffered more damage than any other British city during the Luftwaffe attacks, following the raids, the majority of Coventrys historic buildings could not be saved as they were in ruinous states or were deemed unsafe for any future use
Coventry
–
Skyline of Coventry city centre
Coventry
–
A 1972
Hillman Avenger Tiger, produced in Coventry by Chrysler Competitions Department.
Coventry
–
Coventry precinct with spire of ruined cathedral in the background.
Coventry
–
North
29.
Scotstoun
–
Scotstoun is an area of Glasgow, Scotland, west of Glasgow City Centre. It is bounded by Garscadden to the west, Victoria Park, Jordanhill and Whiteinch to the east, Jordanhill to the north, at the heart of Scotstoun lies Scotstounhill, an enclave of late Victorian and post-war housing centred upon Scotstounhill railway station. Scotstoun is home to BAE Systems Surface Ships, a naval shipbuilding defence contractor owned by BAE Systems, Scotstoun was until the early 1860s the site of the Oswald family estate, which was centred on Scotstoun House. By 1861 the westward expansion of the Clyde shipbuilding yards had reached Scotstoun with the opening of the Charles Connell and Company shipyard in 1861, the local primary school and church lie in the centre. Unfortunately, the area has suffered the loss of many of its trees in recent years. Scotstoun is today home to Scotstoun Primary School, and formerly a fine red sandstone secondary school, Victoria Drive, which was closed and demolished in 1998. Scotstouns finest B listed building, the former Scotstoun West church, was destroyed by fire then replaced with a Cala development of flats with little architectural merit in the 1990s. A brand new community centre was opened on Balmoral Street on 18 June 2011 and it is called The Heart of Scotstoun Community Centre. Other local groups are involved in contributing to the community. Scotstoun Primary School is a school built by the Renfrew Landward School Board in 1905 on Earlbank Avenue. The building differs from those built by the Glasgow School Board in many respects, the current head teacher is Gillian Mackay. Scotstoun Primary is part of the Knightswood New Learning Community
Scotstoun
–
Earlbank Avenue, typical of Scotstoun's avenues
30.
Bradford
–
Bradford /ˈbrædfərd/ is in the Metropolitan Borough of the City of Bradford in West Yorkshire, England, in the foothills of the Pennines 8.6 miles west of Leeds, and 16 miles northwest of Wakefield. Bradford became a borough in 1847, and received its charter as a city in 1897. Following local government reform in 1974, city status was bestowed upon the metropolitan borough. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Bradford rose to prominence during the 19th century as a centre of textile manufacture. It was a boomtown of the Industrial Revolution, and amongst the earliest industrialised settlements, the textile sector in Bradford fell into decline from the mid-20th century. However, Bradford has faced challenges to the rest of the post-industrial area of Northern England, including deindustrialisation, social unrest. It was recorded as Bradeford in 1086, after an uprising in 1070, during William the Conquerors Harrying of the North, the manor of Bradford was laid waste and is described as such in the Domesday Book of 1086. It then became part of the Honour of Pontefract given to Ilbert de Lacy for service to the Conqueror, there is evidence of a castle in the time of the Lacys. The manor then passed to the Earl of Lincoln, John of Gaunt, The Crown and, ultimately, by the middle ages Bradford, had become a small town centred on Kirkgate, Westgate and Ivegate. In 1316 there is mention of a mill, a soke mill where all the manor corn was milled. During the Wars of the Roses the inhabitants sided with House of Lancaster, Edward IV granted the right to hold two annual fairs and from this time the town began to prosper. In the reign of Henry VIII Bradford exceeded Leeds as a manufacturing centre, Bradford grew slowly over the next two-hundred years as the woollen trade gained in prominence. During the Civil War the town was garrisoned for the Parliamentarians, Sir Thomas Fairfax took the command of the garrison and marched to meet the Duke of Newcastle but was defeated. The Parliamentarians retreated to Bradford and the Royalists set up headquarters at Bolling Hall from where the town was besieged leading to its surrender, the Civil War caused a decline in industry but after the accession of William and Mary in 1689 prosperity began to return. The launch of manufacturing in the early 18th century marked the start of the development while new canal. In 1801, Bradford was a market town of 6,393 people. Bradford was thus not much bigger than nearby Keighley and was smaller than Halifax. This small town acted as a hub for three nearby townships – Manningham, Bowling and Great and Little Horton, which were separated from the town by countryside
Bradford
–
City Hall,
Bradford Cathedral,
The Alhambra Theatre,
The Wool Exchange,
City Park,
The National Media Museum
Bradford
–
Bradford Boundaries 1835.
Bradford
–
Bradford waterworks on completion of the Wharfedale scheme in 1881
Bradford
–
Lister's Mill
31.
Preston, Lancashire
–
Preston /ˈprɛstən/ is a city and the administrative centre of Lancashire, England. The district obtained city status in 2002, becoming Englands 50th city in the 50th year of Queen Elizabeth IIs reign, Preston has a population of 114,300, the City of Preston district 132,000 and the Preston Built-up Area 313,322. The Preston Travel To Work Area, in 2011, had a population of 420,661 compared to 354,000 in the previous census. Preston and its area have provided evidence of ancient Roman activity. The Angles established Preston, its name is derived from the Old English meaning priests settlement, in the Middle Ages, Preston was a parish and township in the hundred of Amounderness and was granted a Guild Merchant charter in 1179, giving it the status of a market town. Textiles have been produced since the century when locally produced wool was woven in peoples houses. Flemish weavers who settled in the area in the 14th century helped develop the industry, in the early-18th century, Edmund Calamy described Preston as a pretty town with an abundance of gentry in it, commonly called Proud Preston. Sir Richard Arkwright, inventor of the frame, was born in the town. The most rapid period of growth and development coincided with the industrialisation and expansion of textile manufacturing, Preston was a boomtown of the Industrial Revolution, becoming a densely populated engineering centre, with large industrial plants. Preston is recorded in the Domesday Book as Prestune in 1086, various other spellings occur in early documents, Prestonam, Prestone, Prestona, Presteton, and Prestun. The modern spelling occurs in 1094,1176,1196,1212 and 1332, the towns name is derived from Old English Presta and Tun, the Tun of the Presta. During the Roman period, Roman roads passed close to what is now the centre of Preston. For example, the road from Luguvalium to Mamucium crossed the River Ribble at Walton-le-Dale, 3⁄4 mile southeast of the centre of Preston, at Withy Trees,1 1⁄2 miles north of Preston, the road crossed another Roman road from Bremetennacum to the coast. An explanation of the origin of the name is that the Priests Town refers to a set up by St Wilfrid near the Ribbles lowest ford. This idea is supported by the similarity of the Paschal lamb on Prestons crest with that on St Wilfrids, when first mentioned in the 1086 Domesday Book, Preston was already the most important town in Amounderness. When assessed for tax purposes in 1218 –19 it was the wealthiest town in the whole county and it is the only Guild still celebrated in the UK. Before 1328 a celebration had been held on an irregular basis, after this, there were breaks in the pattern for various reasons, but an unbroken series were held from 1542 to 1922. A full 400 year sequence was frustrated by the cancellation of the 1942 Guild due to World War II, the expression every Preston Guild, meaning very infrequently, has passed into fairly common use, especially in Lancashire
Preston, Lancashire
–
Preston Flag Market, including
Sessions House, the
Cenotaph and
Harris Museum
Preston, Lancashire
–
2012 Preston Guild roadside emblem
Preston, Lancashire
–
Plaque in Fox Street commemorating the work of
Reverend Joseph Dunn in bringing
gas lighting to the town
Preston, Lancashire
–
Preston in 1774
32.
United Electric Car Company
–
The United Electric Car Company was a tramcar manufacturer from 1905 to 1917 in Preston, Lancashire. The Electric Railway and Tramway Carriage Works was formed in 1897 registered on 25 April 1898 to acquire works at Preston and it was founded by two Scots, W. B. They formed a new company, English Electrical Manufacturing based in a new West Works on Strand Road, Preston in 1900, in 1905 the Electric Railway and Tramway Carriage Works took over two other works, including G. F. Milnes & Co. in Hadley, Shropshire, the name being changed to United Electric Car Co. By 1914, the company employed around 2,000 people, in 1917 Dick, Kerr & Co. also in Strand Road, Preston, acquired the United Electric Car Co and in 1918 the Company became a part of English Electric. UEC Preston - used on Line A of the Buenos Aires Underground
United Electric Car Company
–
London 106 built in April 1903
33.
Rugby, Warwickshire
–
Rugby is a market town in Warwickshire, England, close to the River Avon. The town has a population of 70,628 making it the second largest town in the county, the enclosing Borough of Rugby has a population of 100,500. Rugby is 13 miles east of Coventry, on the edge of Warwickshire. The town is credited with being the birthplace of rugby football, Early Iron age settlement existed in the Rugby area, and a few miles outside what is now Rugby, existed a Roman settlement known as Tripontium. Rugby was originally a small Anglo-Saxon farming settlement, and was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Rocheberie, Rugby obtained a charter to hold a market in 1255, and soon developed into a small country market town. Rugby School was founded in 1567 with money left in the will of Lawrence Sheriff, a locally born grocer, Rugby School was originally intended as a school for local boys, but over time became a mostly fee-paying private school. The Lawrence Sheriff School was eventually founded in the late 19th century to carry on Sheriffs original intentions, Rugby remained a sleepy country market town until the 19th century and the coming of the railways. In 1838 the London and Birmingham Railway was constructed past it, Rugby became an important railway junction, and the proliferation of rail yards and workshops attracted workers. Rugbys population grew from just 2,500 in 1835, to over 10,000 by the 1880s, in the 1890s and 1900s heavy engineering industries began to set up in the town, and Rugby rapidly grew into a major industrial centre. Rugby expanded rapidly in the decades of the 20th century as workers moved in. By the 1940s, the population of Rugby had grown to over 40,000, in the postwar years, Rugby became well served by the motorway network, with the M1 and M6 merging close to the town. Rugby is most famous for the invention of rugby football, which is played throughout the world, the invention of the game is credited to William Webb Ellis whilst breaking the existing rules of a football match played in 1823 at Rugby School. Rugby School is one of Englands oldest and most prestigious public schools, a substantial part of the 2004 dramatisation of the novel, starring Stephen Fry, was filmed on location at Rugby School. Hughes later set up a colony in America for the sons of the English gentry. The town of Rugby, Tennessee still exists, Rugby is a birthplace of the jet engine. Much of his work was carried out at nearby Lutterworth, holography was invented in Rugby by the Hungarian inventor Dennis Gabor in 1947. In the 19th century, Rugby became famous for its once important railway junction which was the setting for Charles Dickenss story Mugby Junction, Rugby also includes the areas of New Bilton, Overslade and Hillside. The spread of Rugby has nearly reached the villages of Clifton-upon-Dunsmore, Cawston, Dunchurch, the town centre is mostly Victorian and early 20th century, however a few much older buildings survive, along with some more modern developments
Rugby, Warwickshire
–
Rugby Market Place, looking west from Church Street
Rugby, Warwickshire
–
Regent Street with St Andrews Church
Rugby, Warwickshire
–
Rugby Town Hall - The headquarters of Rugby Borough Council
Rugby, Warwickshire
–
Rugby Cement works
34.
John Pybus
–
Sir Percy John Pybus, 1st Baronet was a British Liberal Party politician. Having completed an engineering apprenticeship John Pybus joined electrical engineers Phoenix Dynamo Manufacturing Company when aged 26, during World War I he was appointed managing director. Phoenix became a constituent of the amalgamation of businesses named English Electric in 1918. He was appointed managing director of English Electric in March 1921 and he was a member of many boards of directors including The Times newspaper and chairman of others including Phoenix Assurance. In October 1928 he was selected as Liberal candidate for the Harwich Division and he remained a director of English Electric. He was first elected at the May 1929 general election, as the Liberal Member of Parliament for Harwich in Essex, re-elected in Harwich at the 1931 general election, Pybus served as Minister of Transport from 1931 until 1933. Created C. B. E. in 1917 he was made a baronet, of Harwich in the County of Essex, in January 1934 and his title became extinct on his death. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by John Pybus
John Pybus
–
Sir John Pybus 1st Baronet
35.
Stafford
–
Stafford is the county town of Staffordshire, in the West Midlands of England. It lies approximately 16 miles north of Wolverhampton,18 miles south of Stoke-on-Trent and 24 miles north-west of Birmingham. The population in 2001 was 63,681 and that of the borough of Stafford 122,000. Stafford means ford by a staithe, the original settlement was on dry sand and gravel peninsula that provided a strategic crossing point in the marshy valley of the River Sow, a tributary of the River Trent. There is still an area of marshland northwest of the town. It is thought Stafford was founded in about 700 AD by a Mercian prince called Bertelin who, according to legend, the tree-trunk coffin may have been placed there as an object of commemoration or veneration of St Bertelin. This new burh was fortified and provided with an area for the centralised production of Roman-style pottery which was supplied to the chain of West Midlands burhs. Anglo-Saxon women could play powerful roles in society, Æthelflæds death effectively ended the independence of Mercia. Edward the Elder of Wessex took over her fortress at Tamworth and accepted the submission of all who were living in Mercia, in late 918 Aelfwynn, Æthelflæds daughter, was deprived of her authority over Mercia and taken to Wessex. The project for the unification of England took another step forward, the Lady of Mercia, Æthelflæd, ruled Mercia for five years after the death of her father and husband, dying in Tamworth in 918. At around this time the county of Staffordshire was formed, Stafford lay within the Pirehill hundred. In 1069, a rebellion by Eadric the Wild against the Norman conquest culminated in the Battle of Stafford, two years later another rebellion, this time led by Edwin, Earl of Mercia, culminated in Edwins assassination. This meant his lands were distributed amongst the followers of William the Conqueror, robert de Tonei was granted the manor of Bradley and one third of the kings rents in Stafford. Stafford Castle was built by the Normans on the hilltop to the west in about 1090. It was first made of wood, and later rebuilt of stone and it has been rebuilt twice since, and the ruins of the 19th century gothic revival castle on the earthworks incorporate much of the original stonework. A motte was constructed on the side of the peninsula, overlooking a ford. In 1206 King John granted a Royal Charter which created the borough of Stafford, in the Middle Ages Stafford was a market town, mainly dealing in cloth and wool. In spite of being the town, Stafford required successive surges of external investment from the time of Æthelflæd to that of Queen Elizabeth I
Stafford
–
Stafford town centre
Stafford
–
Stafford on the 14th century
Gough Map, at bottom centre.
Stone is bottom left,
Lichfield centre left. North is to the left
Stafford
–
Stafford Castle
Stafford
–
Ancient High House
36.
Siemens Brothers
–
Siemens Brothers and Company Limited owned an electrical engineering design and manufacturing business in London, England. It was first established as a branch in 1858 by a brother of the founder of the German electrical engineering firm Siemens & Halske, the principal works, set up in 1863, was at Charlton for cables and other light-current electrical apparatus. The site is now at the end of the Thames Barrier. A new works was built at Stafford in 1903 for the manufacture of generators of all kinds and sizes, during World War I Siemens Brothers was bought by a British consortium because most of its ownership was in the hands of enemy aliens. Siemens Brothers and Company Limited was bought by Associated Electrical Industries in 1955, through subsidiaries it was engaged in the manufacture of lamps of all kinds, miscellaneous electrical equipment and electrical railway signals. Its purpose was to help lay Newalls newly developed submarine communications cable, the London branch was under the control of William, later Sir William Siemens, formerly known as Carl Wilhelm Siemens. Hanover-born Sir William went to England in 1843 to sell a patent he shared with his brother Werner. He found employment in Birmingham with engineers Fox, Henderson & Co and became a naturalised British subject in 1859 and her brother was Lewis Gordon business partner of R S Newall. During the 1850s Sir William developed the Siemens regenerative furnace, following various failures in Newalls installed cables the link with them was dropped at the end of 1860. In 1865 Johann Georg Halske, partner in Siemens & Halske, the elder brothers were born in the Kingdom of Hanover into a highly educated upper-middle-class family in relatively humble economic circumstances. Their father, youngest son of a family, farmed a leased estate. In 1823 the family moved to the Baltic coast, near Lübeck, both parents had died by the time Ernst Werner was 24. He was adopted by the childless Sir William and his wife, managing director from 1889 to 1899 he remained on the board until he retired in 1918 aged 70. Following the invention of the generator or Dynamo in the late 1860s. Siemens Brothers opened a new factory at their Telegraph Works Charlton, London SE7 in 1863. It expanded to cover over 6 acres and employ more than 2,000 people. In 1869 the London and Berlin firms jointly made and laid a line from Prussia to Teheran which formed a principal part of the direct line from England to India,2,750 miles. Principal cables made and laid by Siemens Brothers between 1873 and 1883, In 1874-5 the London firm alone completed the first direct Atlantic cable, known as the DUS, in 1876 a direct Paris-New York cable was discussed in France
Siemens Brothers
–
Siemens Brothers and Company cable ship
CS Faraday shortly after her launch in 1874 Designed by Sir William Siemens she was finally scrapped in 1950 Replaced in 1923 by a new
CS Faraday sunk by bombing 1941
Siemens Brothers
–
10 kW Siemens dynamo running at 450 rpm with its
Willans steam engine
Siemens Brothers
–
Sir William
Siemens Brothers
–
Carl
37.
1926 United Kingdom general strike
–
The 1926 general strike in the United Kingdom was a general strike that lasted 10 days, from 3 May 1926 to 13 May 1926. Some 1.7 million workers went out, especially in transport, the government was prepared and enlisted middle class volunteers to maintain essential services. There was little violence and the TUC gave up in defeat, in the long run, there was little impact on trade union activity or industrial relations. The First World War, The heavy domestic use of coal in the war meant that rich seams were depleted, Britain exported less coal in the war than it would have done in peacetime, allowing other countries to fill the gap. The United States, Poland and Germany and their strong coal industries benefited, coal production was at its lowest ebb. Output per man had fallen to just 199 tonnes in 1920–1924, from 247 tonnes in the four years before the war, total coal output had been falling since 1914. The fall in prices resulting from the 1924 Dawes Plan. It allowed Germany to re-enter the international market by exporting free coal to France and Italy. Mine owners wanted to maintain even during times of economic instability. Coupled with the prospect of working hours, the industry was thrown into disarray. Miners pay had lowered from £6.00 to £3.90 over seven years, mine owners announced that their intention was to reduce miners wages. The Miners Federation of Great Britain rejected the terms, Not a penny off the pay, the Trades Union Congress responded to the news by promising to support the miners in their dispute. It also recommended a reduction by 13. 5% of miners wages, two weeks later, the prime minister announced that the government would accept the report if other parties also did. The Miners Federation of Great Britain refused the wage reduction and regional negotiation, during the next two days, frantic efforts were made to reach an agreement with the government and the mining industry representatives. However, they failed, mainly because of a decision by printers of the Daily Mail to refuse to print an editorial condemning the general strike. They objected to the passage, A general strike is not an industrial dispute. It is a move which can only succeed by destroying the government and subverting the rights. Baldwin was now concerned about the TUC and printers action interfering with the freedom of the press, King George V tried to stabilise the situation and create balance saying, Try living on their wages before you judge them
1926 United Kingdom general strike
–
Tyldesley miners outside the Miners’ Hall during the strike
1926 United Kingdom general strike
–
The Subsidised Mineowner—Poor Beggar! from the Trade Union Unity Magazine (1925)
1926 United Kingdom general strike
–
Foraging for
coal in the strike
38.
Lazard Brothers
–
Lazard is a leading financial advisory and asset management firm that engages in investment banking, asset management, and other financial services primarily with institutional clients. Its principal executive offices are in New York City, Paris, Lazard was founded in 1848 and operates from 42 cities across 27 countries in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Central and South America. On July 12,1848, three Jewish French brothers, Alexandre, Lazare, and Simon Lazard, founded Lazard Frères & Co. as a dry goods merchant store in New Orleans, Louisiana. By 1851, Simon and two brothers, Maurice and Elie, had all moved to San Francisco, California. Lazard Frères began to serve miners engaged in the California Gold Rush, in 1854, Alexandre Lazard moved to Paris, France, where he opened an office to complement the U. S. business. The firm began advising the French government on gold buying, in 1870, the firm continued to expand its international operations, opening an office in London. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, the firm evolved into three “Houses of Lazard” in the United States, France, and England, separately managed but allied, the Lazard partners advised clients on financial matters and built a cross-border network of high-level relationships in business and government. Noted financial advisor George Blumenthal rose to prominence as the head of the U. S. branch of Lazard Frères and was a partner of Lazard Frères in France. In the economic boom following World War II, the American operations of Lazard expanded significantly under the leadership of the financier André Meyer, Meyer and Lazard partner Felix Rohatyn have been credited with virtually inventing the modern mergers and acquisitions market. In 1953, Lazard Investors Ltd began a management business in London. In 1977, as the health of Meyer began to deteriorate, under his leadership, the three houses of Lazard were formally united in 2000 as Lazard LLC. In 2002, David-Weill hired Bruce Wasserstein to be CEO, Lazard became a public company, with nearly two-third of its shares owned by current and former employees in 2005. Wasserstein became its first Chairman and CEO, in connection with the initial public offering, Lazard spun off its broker-dealer business, Lazard Capital Markets. Following Wasserstein’s sudden death in 2009, Lazards Board of Directors elected Kenneth M. Jacobs Chairman, Lazard advises clients on a wide range of strategic and financial issues. These may include advising on the acquisition of another company, business or certain assets, or on the sale of certain businesses. The firm also advises on alternatives to a such as recapitalizations, spin-offs, carve-outs. For companies in financial distress, Lazard advises on all aspects of restructuring, the firm has advised on many of the largest restructuring assignments in the wake of the global financial crisis that began in mid-2007. Lazard also advises on capital structure and capital raising, Capital structure advice includes reviewing and analyzing structural alternatives and assisting in long-term planning
Lazard Brothers
–
Lazard's largest office is at
30 Rockefeller Plaza,
New York City,
NY
Lazard Brothers
–
Lazard Ltd
39.
Westinghouse Electric (1886)
–
The Westinghouse Electric Corporation was an American manufacturing company. It was founded on January 8,1886, as Westinghouse Electric Company and later renamed Westinghouse Electric Corporation by inventor, George Westinghouse had previously founded the Westinghouse Air Brake Company. The corporation purchased CBS broadcasting company in 1995 and became CBS Corporation in 1997, Westinghouse Electric was founded by George Westinghouse in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1886. The firm became active in developing electric infrastructure throughout the United States, in addition to George Westinghouse, early engineers working for the company included Frank Conrad, Benjamin Garver Lamme, Oliver B. Shallenberger, William Stanley, Nikola Tesla, Stephen Timoshenko and Vladimir Zworykin, early on Westinghouse was a rival to Thomas Edisons electric company. In 1892 Edison was merged with Westinghouses chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, making even bigger competitor, Westinghouse changed its name to Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1945. Westinghouse purchased CBS in 1995 and became CBS Corporation in 1997, in 1998, CBS established a brand licensing subsidiary Westinghouse Licensing Corporation. In 1997/1998 the Power Generation Business Unit, headquartered in Orlando, Florida, was sold to Siemens AG, a year later, CBS sold all of its nuclear power businesses to British Nuclear Fuels Limited. Soon after, BNFL gained license rights on the Westinghouse trademarks and that company was sold to Toshiba in 2007. The first commercial Westinghouse steam turbine generator, a 1,500 kW unit. The machine, nicknamed Mary-Ann, was the first steam turbine generator to be installed by a utility to generate electricity in the US. George Westinghouse had based his original steam turbine design on designs licensed from the English inventor Charles Parsons. or were built overseas under Westinghouse license. Major Westinghouse licensees or joint venture partners included Mitsubishi Heavy Industries of Japan and Harbin Turbine Co. Westinghouse boasted 50,000 employees by 1900, and established a formal research and development department in 1906. While the company was expanding, it would experience internal financial difficulties, during the Panic of 1907, the Board of Directors forced George Westinghouse to take a six-month leave of absence. Westinghouse officially retired in 1909 and died years later in 1914. Under new leadership, Westinghouse Electric diversified its business activities in electrical technology and it acquired the Copeman Electric Stove Company in 1914 and Pittsburgh High Voltage Insulator Company in 1921. Westinghouse also moved into broadcasting by establishing Pittsburghs KDKA, the first commercial radio station. Westinghouse expanded into the business, establishing the Westinghouse Elevator Company in 1928
Westinghouse Electric (1886)
–
George Westinghouse
Westinghouse Electric (1886)
–
Pittsburgh Plant (before 1888)
Westinghouse Electric (1886)
–
Close up of Westinghouse logo on historic kitchen stove at John & Mable Ringling Museum, Sarasota
Westinghouse Electric (1886)
–
Pittsburgh
Westinghouse Sign, 1967.
40.
George Nelson, 1st Baron Nelson of Stafford
–
George Horatio Nelson, 1st Baron Nelson of Stafford, known as Sir George Nelson, 1st Baronet, from 1955 to 1960, was a British engineer who was chairman of English Electric from 1933 to 1962. Over nearly thirty years as its chairman George Nelson built up the number of English Electrics employees from 4,000 to 80,000, Nelson was born in Islington, London, the son of George Nelson, a member of a Leicestershire family of textile merchants. Nelson married Florence Mabel, daughter of Henry Howe, in 1913 and they had a daughter and a son. He died in July 1962 and Lady Nelson died the same year and he was succeeded in the barony by his only son, Henry George, who had followed him in 1956 as managing director and, after his death in 1962, as chairman of English Electric. He joined British Westinghouse in Manchester and rapidly progressed, being appointed chief superintendent in 1914 aged 27. Westinghouse became Metropolitan Vickers Electrical and in 1920 Nelson was appointed manager of their Sheffield works, mensforth retired in 1933 and Nelson succeed him as chairman while retaining his position of managing director. He remained at the company for the duration of his career, during his tenure the number of employees rose from 4,000 to 80,000 with a more than proportionate increase in turnover. In the 1943 New Year Honours he was appointed a knight for services to Ministry of Aircraft Production, the Stafford Site Library of Staffordshire University was named after him in honour of his contribution to the engineering industry
George Nelson, 1st Baron Nelson of Stafford
–
English Electric Lightnings at
Farnborough Airshow, 1961
George Nelson, 1st Baron Nelson of Stafford
–
English Electric Canberra, designed in the closing stages of World War II
41.
Zanzibar
–
Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania in East Africa. It is composed of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, 25–50 kilometres off the coast of the mainland, the capital is Zanzibar City, located on the island of Unguja. Its historic centre is Stone Town, which is a World Heritage Site, the name Zanzibar is apparently derived from the Persian zang-bâr signifying black coast. Zanzibars main industries are spices, raffia, and tourism, in particular, the islands produce cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper. For this reason, the islands, together with Tanzanias Mafia Island, are called the Spice Islands. Zanzibar is the home of the endemic Zanzibar red colobus monkey, the Zanzibar servaline genet, the word Zanzibar came from Arabic Zanjibār, which is in turn from Persian Zang-bār, a compound of Zang + bār. The presence of microlithic tools suggest that it has been home to humans for at least 20,000 years, a Greco-Roman text between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, mentioned the island of Menuthias, which is probably Unguja. Little is known about the history of Zanzibar between the time of the Periplus and the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, from that point forward, wars in Asia and increasing trade motivated Persians, Arabs, and Indians to visit or migrate to Zanzibar. Persian traders used Zanzibar as a base for voyages between the Middle East, India, and Africa and they established garrisons on the islands and built the first Zoroastrian fire temples and mosques in the Southern Hemisphere. The impact of these traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture is uncertain, during the Middle Ages, Zanzibar and other settlements on the Swahili Coast were advanced. The littoral contained a number of autonomous trade cities and these towns grew in wealth as the Bantu Swahili people served as intermediaries and facilitators to local, Arab, Persian, Indonesian, Malaysian, Indian, and Chinese merchants. This interaction contributed in part to the evolution of the Swahili culture, although a Bantu language, Swahili as a consequence today includes some elements that were borrowed from other civilizations, particularly Arabic loanwords. With the wealth that they had acquired through trade, some of the Arab traders also became rulers of the coastal cities, vasco da Gamas visit in 1498 marked the beginning of European influence. In 1503 or 1504, Zanzibar became part of the Portuguese Empire when Captain Ruy Lourenço Ravasco Marques landed and demanded and received tribute from the sultan in exchange for peace, Zanzibar remained a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries. It initially became part of the Portuguese province of Arabia and Ethiopia and was administered by a governor general, around 1571, Zanzibar became part of the western division of the Portuguese empire and was administered from Mozambique. It appears, however, that the Portuguese did not closely administer Zanzibar, the first English ship to visit Unguja, the Edward Bonaventure in 1591, found that there was no Portuguese fort or garrison. The extent of their occupation was a depot where produce was purchased and collected for shipment to Mozambique. In other respects, the affairs of the island were managed by the local king and this hands-off approach ended when Portugal established a fort on Pemba around 1635 in response to the Sultan of Mombasas slaughter of Portuguese residents several years earlier
Zanzibar
–
The old castle in Zanzibar
Zanzibar
Zanzibar
–
The Harem and Tower Harbour of Zanzibar (p.234), London Missionary Society
Zanzibar
–
A
Zanj slave gang in Zanzibar (1889)
42.
Handley Page
–
Handley Page Limited was founded by Frederick Handley Page in 1909 as the United Kingdoms first publicly traded aircraft manufacturing company. It went into liquidation and ceased to exist in 1970. The company, based at Radlett Aerodrome in Hertfordshire, was noted for its role in aviation history and for producing heavy bombers. Frederick Handley Page first experimented with and built several biplanes and monoplanes at premises in Woolwich, Fambridge and his company, founded on 17 June 1909, became the first British public company to build aircraft. In 1912, Handley Page established a factory at Cricklewood after moving from Barking. Aircraft were built there, and flown from the adjacent airfield known as Cricklewood Aerodrome. The factory was sold off to Oswald Stoll and converted into Britains largest film studios. Handley Page had been asked by the Admiralty to produce a bloody paralyser of an aeroplane and these aircraft included the O/100 of 1915, the O/400 of 1918 and the four-engined V/1500 with the range to reach Berlin. The V/1500 had only just entered service as the war ended in 1918. The crew departed for New York from Newfoundland but were forced to land on 5 July 1919 in Parrsboro, the Atlantic continued to New York on 9 October 1919, carrying with it the first airmail from Canada to the United States of America. In the immediate postwar years, Handley Page modified a number of O/400s to passenger use, in 1924 Handley Page Transport merged with two other regional airlines to create Imperial Airways, the UKs first national airline service. Handley Page developed several large biplane airliners, including the luxurious Handley Page H. P.42, for use on Imperial routes to Africa, the leading edge slat was simultaneously designed by the German aerodynamicist Gustav Lachmann, who was later employed by Handley Page. The design was so successful that licensing fees to companies was their main source of income in the early 1920s. In 1929, the Cricklewood Aerodrome was closed and a new one built at Radlett, however the construction of aircraft at Cricklewood continued until 1964 when the premises were sold to become the Cricklewood trading estate. With the Second World War looming, Handley Page turned back to design and produced the HP.52 Hampden. However the Vulture proved so troublesome that – years before the engine was abandoned by Rolls-Royce in 1940 – the Air Staff decided that the HP.56 should be fitted with four engines instead. Therefore, before reaching prototype stage, the HP.56 design was reworked into the four-engined HP.57 Halifax, the Halifax became the second most prolific British heavy bomber of the war after the Avro Lancaster.70 Halton. After the war, the British Government sought tenders for jet bombers to carry the nuclear deterrent
Handley Page
–
Atlantic in flight, non-stop from New York to Chicago, 1919
Handley Page
–
Handley Page Limited
43.
Handley Page Hampden
–
The Handley Page HP.52 Hampden was a British twin-engine medium bomber of the Royal Air Force. It was one of a trio of then-large twin-engine bombers procured for the RAF, the newest of the three medium bombers, the Hampden, was often referred to by aircrews as the Flying Suitcase because of its cramped crew conditions. While the Hampden was powered by Bristol Pegasus radial engines, a variant known as the Handley Page Hereford instead featured in-line Napier Daggers. In 1932, the Air Ministry issued Specification B. 9/32 seeking a day bomber as higher performance than any preceding bomber aircraft. The design team, led by G. R, during early 1936, the first prototype, designated as the HP.52 and given the serial number K4240, was completed. L7271 later received a pair of Dagger engines and was accordingly re-designated as the HP.53, on 1 July 1937, another prototype, L4032, was produced to serve as the production-standard prototype, on 24 June 1938, the third prototype conducted its maiden flight. Handley Page elected to name their new aircraft after John Hampden, L4032 and L4033, which was the second production-standard Hampden to be produced, would be later assigned to the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment at RAF Martlesham Heath, Suffolk. By late 1938, the manufacturing plans for the Hampden had been formalised. Designated P.5 by the RSAF, it was operated by the service through to November 1945, on 22 February 1940, the first Preston-built Hampden, P2062, conducted its maiden flight. English Electric would go onto manufacture a total of 770 Hampdens, more than any other company, in July 1940, Handley-Page terminated its own production line for the Hampden upon the completions of its 500th aircraft. On 9 August 1940, the first Canadian-built Hampden, P5298, made its first flight, by October 1940, the Hampden Mk I had a crew of four, pilot, navigator/bomb aimer, radio operator and rear gunner. Conceived as a fast, manoeuvrable, fighting bomber, the Hampden had a fixed.303 in Browning machine gun in the forward fuselage, the layout was similar to the all-guns-forward cockpits introduced about the same time in the Luftwaffes own medium bombers, notably the Dornier Do 17. The Hampden used a flush-rivetted stressed skin design, which was reinforced with a mixture of bent, the structure employed an all-metal monocoque design. A split-assembly construction technique was employed, sections were prefabricated and then joined together, to enable rapid, the fuselage was in three major sections – front, centre and rear - that were built using jigs. The centre and rear sections were made of two halves, which meant that the sections could be fitted out in part under better working conditions prior to assembly. All possible assembly work was performed at the prior to installation upon each aircraft. In a similar fashion to the fuselage, the wings were made up of three units, centre section, port outer wing and starboard outer wing, which were in turn subdivided. Each section was built up around a main spar, leading edge section
Handley Page Hampden
–
HP.52 Hampden
Handley Page Hampden
–
The Hampden's cockpit
Handley Page Hampden
–
Handley Page Hampden of No. 83 Squadron with crew, seated on a loaded bomb trolley at
Scampton, October 1940
Handley Page Hampden
–
Hampden P5436 at the
Canadian Museum of Flight at Langley, British Columbia c.2006
44.
Handley Page Halifax
–
The Handley Page Halifax was British four-engined heavy bomber of the Second World War. On 25 October 1939, the Halifax performed its maiden flight and it quickly became a major component of Bomber Command, performing routine strategic bombing missions against the Axis Powers, many of which were performed at night. The Halifax was also operated in large numbers by other Allied and Commonwealth nations, such as the Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal Australian Air Force, Free French Air Force and Polish forces. Various improved versions of the Halifax were introduced, which incorporated more powerful engines and it remained in service until the end of the war, performing a variety of duties in addition to bombing. Additionally, specialised versions of the Halifax were developed for troop-transport, during the post-war years, the Halifax was operated by the Royal Egyptian Air Force, the French Armée de lAir and the Royal Pakistan Air Force. The type also entered service for a number of years. A dedicated civil variant, the Handley Page Halton, was also developed and entered airline service. During 1961, the last remaining Halifax bombers were retired from operational use, in the 1930s, the Royal Air Force was primarily interested in twin-engine bombers. These designs put limited demands on engine production and maintenance, both of which were stretched with the introduction of so many new types into service. Power limitations were so serious that the British invested heavily in the development of engines in the 2,000 horsepower class in order to improve performance. During the late 1930s, none of these were ready for production, accordingly, in 1936, the RAF also decided to investigate the feasibility of the four-engined bomber. During the mid 1930s, the British Air Ministry formulated and released Specification P. 13/36, in response, Handley Page produced the twin-engine HP56 design to meet Specification P. 13/36. Handley Page aircraft designer George Volkert had responsibility for the design.24 or Bristol Hercules engines, the majority of these engines were under development at this point, while four-engined bomber designs were considered for specification B. In February 1937, following consideration of the designs by the Air Ministry, accordingly, during April 1937, a pair of prototypes of both designs were ordered. The introduction of the successful P. 13/36 candidates was delayed by the necessity of ordering additional Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley, in mid-1937, it was decided to order both the Avro 679 and HP56 designs off the drawing board in order to speed up delivery timetables. The redesign increased the wingspan from 88 ft to 99 ft, towards the end of the year, a full mock-up of the design was assessed, in March 1938, the construction of the pair of HP57 prototypes commenced. Further design modifications resulted in the aircraft, which had been considerably enlarged and was powered by an arrangement of four 1,280 hp Rolls-Royce Merlin X engines. On 17 August 1940, the first flight of the prototype, L7245
Handley Page Halifax
–
Halifax
Handley Page Halifax
–
Halifax cutaway model at the
London Science Museum
Handley Page Halifax
–
The test Halifax B Mk II Srs I,
serial V9977, in-which the first
H2S radar was installed. Note the early triangular fins. This aircraft crashed in June 1942, killing several radar technicians.
Handley Page Halifax
–
Looking upward and rearward from the navigator's position: wireless operator at lower right; pilot at upper right; flight engineer in his usual inflight position at upper left behind the pilot
45.
Napier Deltic
–
Unusually, the cylinders were disposed in a three bank triangle, with a crankshaft at each corner of the triangle. The term Deltic is used to refer to both the Deltic E, a single half-sized, turbocharged Deltic power unit also featured in the English Electric-built Type 2 locomotive, designated as the Class 23. Both locomotive and engine became known as the Baby Deltic. The Deltic story began in 1943 when the British Admiralty set up a committee to develop a high-power, hitherto in the Royal Navy, such boats had been driven by petrol engines, but their highly flammable fuel made them vulnerable to fire, unlike the opposing diesel-powered E-boats. Until this time, Diesel engines had poor power-to-weight ratio and low speed, before the war, Napier had been working on an aviation Diesel design known as the Culverin after licensing versions of the Junkers Jumo 204. The Culverin was an opposed-piston two-stroke design and this negates the need for a heavy cylinder head, as the opposing piston filled this role. On the downside, the layout required separate crankshafts on each end of the engine that must be coupled through gearing or shafts, the primary advantages of the design were uniflow breathing and a rather flat engine, originally intended to be buried in the wings of large aircraft. The Admiralty required a more powerful engine, and knew about Junkers designs for multi-crankshaft engines of straight six. The Admiralty felt that these would be a starting point for the larger design which it required. The result was a triangle, the cylinder forming the sides. The Deltic could be produced with varying numbers of cylinders—nine and eighteen were the most common, in 1946, the Admiralty placed a contract with the English Electric Company, parent of Napier, to develop this engine. One feature of the engine was the way that crankshaft-phasing was arranged to allow for exhaust port lead and these engines are called uniflow designs, because the flow of gas into and out of the cylinder is one way, assisted by blowers to improve cylinder exhaust scavenging. The inlet/outlet port order is In/Out/In/Out/In/Out going around the triangular ring and this would have led the firing in each bank of cylinders to be 60 degrees apart. However, it was decided to arrange that each cylinders exhaust piston would lead its inlet piston by 20 degrees of crankshaft rotation and this required the firing events for adjacent cylinders to be 40 degrees apart. For the 18 cylinder design, it was possible for firing events to be interlaced over all six banks. This led to the even, buzzing exhaust note of the Deltic, with a charge ignition every 20 degrees of crankshaft revolution, and it should be noted that the 9 cylinder design, having three banks of cylinders, has its crankshafts rotating in the opposite direction. The exhaust lead of 20 degrees is added to the 60 degrees between banks giving firing events for adjacent cylinders in the same bank 80 degrees apart, although the engine was cylinder-ported and required no poppet valves, each bank had a camshaft, driven at crankshaft speed. This was used solely to drive the fuel pumps, each cylinder having its own injector and pump
Napier Deltic
–
Napier Deltic engine at the
National Railway Museum,
York,
UK
Napier Deltic
–
The Deltic-powered
Hunt class Mine Countermeasures Vessel
HMS Ledbury
Napier Deltic
–
Napier Deltic powered
British Rail Class 55 D9009 Alycidon, at the
National Railway Museum,
York,
UK
46.
Napier Sabre
–
The Napier Sabre was a British H-24-cylinder, liquid-cooled, sleeve valve, piston aero engine, designed by Major Frank Halford and built by D. Napier & Son during World War II. The engine evolved to one of the most powerful inline piston aircraft engines in the world. Other aircraft using the Sabre were early prototype and production variants of the Blackburn Firebrand, the Martin-Baker MB3 prototype, prior to the Sabre, Napier had been working on large aero engines for some time. By the late 1920s, the Lion was no longer competitive, Napier followed the Lion with two new H-block designs, the H-16 and the H-24. The H-block has a layout, consisting of two horizontally opposed engines, lying one atop or beside another. Since the cylinders are opposed, the motion in one is balanced by the motion on the opposing side, in these new designs, Napier chose air cooling but in service, the rear cylinders proved to be impossible to cool properly, which made the engines unreliable. During the 1930s, designers were looking to future engine developments and this specific power output was needed to propel aircraft large enough to carry large fuel loads, for long range flights. A typical large engine of the era, the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp, developed about 1,200 hp from 1,820 cubic inches and this called for radical changes and while many companies tried to build such an engine, none succeeded. In 1927, Harry Ricardo published a study on the concept of the sleeve valve engine, in it, he wrote that traditional poppet valve engines would be unlikely to produce much more than 1,500 hp, a figure that many companies were eyeing for next generation engines. Halfords office was next to Ricardos in London, and while Ricardo started work with Bristol Engines on a line of designs, Halford started work with Napier. Another important effect of increasing the number of cylinders was that the area increases. The Napier company decided first to develop a large 24 cylinder liquid–cooled engine, although the company continued with the opposed H layout of the Dagger, this new design positioned the cylinder blocks horizontally and it was to use sleeve valves. All of the accessories were grouped conveniently above and below the cylinder blocks, rather than being at the front and rear of the engine, the first Sabre engines were ready for testing in January 1938, although they were limited to 1,350 hp. By the end of the year, they were producing 2,400 hp, to put this in perspective, the contemporary 1940 Rolls-Royce Merlin II was generating just over 1,000 hp from a 1,647 cubic inch displacement. Problems arose as soon as production began. Prototype engines had been hand-assembled by Napier craftsmen and it proved to be difficult to adapt it to production techniques. The sleeves often failed, leading to seized cylinders, which caused the loss of the sole prototype Martin-Baker MB3, after testing some 18 different materials and manufacturing techniques, a process of nitriding and lapping the sleeves helped resolve the problem. Quality control proved to be inadequate, engines were delivered with improperly cleaned castings, broken piston rings
Napier Sabre
–
Sabre
Napier Sabre
–
The first aircraft designed around the Sabre engine – the
Napier-Heston Racer which crashed during early flight tests.
Napier Sabre
–
The
Hawker Typhoon was the first operational Sabre-powered aircraft, entering service with the RAF in mid-1941. Problems with both the Sabre engine and the airframe nearly led to the Typhoon's withdrawal from service.
Napier Sabre
–
Napier Sabre III
47.
Hawker Typhoon
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The Hawker Typhoon, was a British single-seat fighter-bomber, produced by Hawker Aircraft. It was intended to be a medium–high altitude interceptor, as a replacement for the Hawker Hurricane but several problems were encountered. The Typhoon was originally designed to mount twelve.303 inch Browning machine guns and its service introduction in mid-1941 was plagued with problems and for several months the aircraft faced a doubtful future. Through the support of such as Roland Beamont it became established in roles such as night-time intruder. From late 1942 the Typhoon was equipped with bombs and from late 1943 RP-3 ground attack rockets were added to its armoury, with those weapons and its four 20mm Hispano cannon, the Typhoon became one of the Second World Wars most successful ground-attack aircraft. Even before Hurricane production began in March 1937, Sydney Camm had embarked on designing its successor, two preliminary designs were similar and were larger than the Hurricane. These later became known as the N and R, because they were designed for the newly developed Napier Sabre, Hawker submitted these preliminary designs in July 1937 but were advised to wait until a formal specification for a new fighter was issued. The armament fitted was to be twelve.303 inch Browning machine guns with 500 rounds per gun, Camm and his design team started formal development of the designs and construction of prototypes. The wing had a span of 41-foot-7-inch, with an area of 279 sq ft. The airfoil was a NACA22 wing section, with a thickness to chord ratio of 19. 5% at the root tapering to 12% at the tip. The wing possessed great strength, provided plenty of room for fuel tanks. Also incorporated into the wings were inward-retracting landing gear with a wide track of 13 ft 6¾ in. By contemporary standards, the new wing was very thick. The climb rate and performance above that level was considered disappointing. When the Typhoon was dived at speeds of over 500 mph and these compressibility problems led to Camm designing the Typhoon II, later known as the Tempest, which used much thinner wings with a laminar flow airfoil. P5212 also had a small tail-fin, triple exhaust stubs and no wheel doors fitted to the centre-section, on 9 May 1940 the prototype had a mid-air structural failure, at the join between the forward fuselage and rear fuselage, just behind the pilots seat. Philip Lucas could see daylight through the split but instead of bailing out, on 15 May the Minister of Aircraft Production, Lord Beaverbrook, ordered that resources should be concentrated on the production of five main aircraft types. As a result, development of the Typhoon was slowed, production plans were postponed, in the interim between construction of the first and second prototypes, the Air Ministry had given Hawker an instruction to proceed with the construction of 1,000 of the new fighters
Hawker Typhoon
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Typhoon
Hawker Typhoon
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The unarmed first prototype Typhoon P5212 taken just before its first flight. The prototype had a small tail unit and a solid fairing behind the cockpit, which was fitted with "car door" style access hatches; no inner wheel doors were fitted and the Sabre engine used three exhaust stubs either side of the cowling.
Hawker Typhoon
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The second prototype P5216 in the standard RAF camouflage of 1941, possibly with yellow undersurfaces. The retractable tailwheel and main wheels now had doors fitted. Six exhaust stubs and the later standardised four cannon armament were other changes from P5212.
Hawker Typhoon
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A Mark IB Typhoon US-A in April 1943. It was flown by
Squadron Leader T.H.V Pheloung (New Zealand). An 18-inch-wide (460 mm) yellow recognition stripe is visible on the upper wing.
48.
Hawker Tempest
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The Hawker Tempest was a British fighter aircraft primarily used by the Royal Air Force in the Second World War. Having diverged considerably from the Typhoon, it was chosen to rename the aircraft Tempest, the Tempest emerged as one of the most powerful fighters of the World War II and was the fastest propeller-driven aircraft of the war at low altitude. Later, it targeted the rail infrastructure in Germany and Luftwaffe aircraft on the ground. The Tempest was effective in the interception role, including against newly developed jet-propelled aircraft such as the Messerschmitt Me 262. 1012, otherwise known as the Typhoon II, in addition, there had been other issues experienced with the Typhoon, such as engine unreliability, insufficient structural integrity, and the inability to perform high altitude interception duties. In March 1940, engineers were assigned to investigate the new low drag laminar flow wing developed by NACA in the United States, which had been used in the new North American P-51 Mustang. A laminar flow wing adopted for the Tempest series had a thickness to chord ratio of 14.5 per cent at the root. The wingspan was greater than that of the Typhoon at 43 ft, but the wingtips were later clipped. The wing planform was changed to a shape to accommodate the 800 rounds of ammunition for the four 20 mm Hispano cannons. Another important feature of the new wing was Camms proposal that the radiators for cooling the engine be fitted into the edge of the wing inboard of the undercarriage. This eliminated the distinctive chin radiator of the Typhoon and improved aerodynamics, a further improvement of the Tempest wing over that of the Typhoon was the exceptional, flush-riveted surface finish, essential on a high performance laminar flow airfoil. The new wing and airfoil, and the use of a four-bladed propeller, the design team also chose to adopt the new Napier Sabre IV engine for the Tempest, drawings of which had become available to Hawker in early 1941. In February 1941, Camm commenced a series of discussions with officials within the Ministry of Aircraft Production on the topic of the P.1012. In March 1941 of that year, clearance to proceed with development of the design, in March 1941, the Air Ministry issued specification F. 10/41 that had been written to fit the aircraft. By October 1941, development of the proposal had advanced to the point where the new design was finalised. On 18 November 1941, a contract was issued by the Air Ministry for a pair of prototypes of the Typhoon Mark II and this measure turned out to be fortuitous, as engine development was not trouble-free on some of the variants of the Tempest. The Tempest Mk. I featured other new features, such as a clean single-piece sliding canopy in place of the car-door framed canopy and used wing radiators instead of the chin radiator. On 2 September 1942, the Tempest Mk. V prototype, HM595, conducted its maiden flight, flown by Philip Lucas from Langley, Berkshire, England
Hawker Tempest
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Tempest
Hawker Tempest
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Tempest I prototype HM599; when first flown, it had the "car-door" canopy and small tail unit.
Hawker Tempest
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First prototype Tempest II LA602, again with the small tail unit.
Hawker Tempest
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The first production Tempest V JN729. Small blisters covering the spar securing bolts are visible on the wing root fairing. Long-barreled Hispano II cannon and Typhoon five-spoke mainwheels were other features identifying the first production batch of 100 Tempests Vs.
49.
Napier Lion
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The Napier Lion was a 12-cylinder broad arrow W12 configuration aircraft engine built by D. Napier & Son from 1917 until the 1930s. A number of advanced features made it the most powerful engine of its day and it is particularly well known for its use on a number of racing designs, in aircraft, boats and cars. Early in the First World War, Napier were contracted to build engines to designs from other companies, initially a Royal Aircraft Factory model. Both engines proved to be unreliable and in 1916 Napier decided to design an engine with power, light weight. Napiers engineers laid out the engine with its 12 cylinders in what they called a broad arrow—three banks of four cylinders sharing a common crankcase and this suggested the designs first name, the Triple-Four. The configuration is known as a W engine. Under Arthur Rowledge, the design of the engine, renamed Lion, was completed in 1917 and it was fitted to an Airco DH.9 in early 1918 and many cooling problems were observed during testing. The milled block was difficult to build with the required accuracy, both problems were solved by the middle of the year and the engine entered production in June 1918. The first Lion I versions delivered 450 horsepower from their 24 litres, the power output made the Lion the most powerful Allied aircraft engine, which had previously been the Liberty L-12, which produced 400 horsepower. As the most powerful available, the Lion went on to commercial success. Through the years between the wars the Lion was ubiquitous and Napier manufactured little else and they stopped making cars in 1925 and little thought was given to replacing their world-famous product. Between the wars the Lion engine powered over 160 different aircraft types, the record had been held by British drivers for 32 years. During the 1930s a new generation of much larger and more powerful engines appeared, by the time the Bristol Hercules and the Rolls-Royce Merlin arrived in the late 1930s, the Lion was obsolete. The Sea Lion, a version of the Lion, was used to power high speed RAF Rescue Launches. The Lion aero engine was adapted to power propeller-driven motor sleighs. Turning away from the broad arrow layout, Napier designed new engines using the more compact H engine layout, the 16-cylinder Napier Rapier produced 400 hp and the 24-cylinder Napier Dagger delivered just under 1,000 hp. Contemporary technical description of the Lion with photographs and drawings
Napier Lion
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Lion
Napier Lion
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Cutaway view showing the
double overhead camshaft arrangement
Napier Lion
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The Napier Lion installed in the
Napier-Railton car.
Napier Lion
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Napier Lion at
Brooklands Motor Museum
50.
Motor Torpedo Boat
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Motor Torpedo Boat was the name given to fast torpedo boats by the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy. The motor in the designation, referring to the use of petrol engines, was to distinguish them from the majority of other naval craft that used steam turbines or reciprocating steam engines. The capitalised term is used for the Royal Navy boats. During the Second World War, the US Navy boats were called by their hull classification symbol of PT. German motor torpedo boats of the Second World War were called S-boote by the Kriegsmarine, Italian MTBs of this period were known as Motoscafo Armato Silurante. French MTBs were known as vedettes lance torpilles, soviet MTBs were known as торпедные катеры. After the end of the War in 1945, a number of the Royal Navys MTBs were stripped and the empty hulls sold for use as houseboats. MTBs were designed for speed, operating at night, low speed ambush and manoeuvrability on the water. With no significant armour, the boats relied upon surprise and their agility at high speed to avoid being hit by gunfire from bigger ships, the British and Italian navies started developing such vessels in the early 20th century, shortly before the beginning of the First World War. Italian MAS boats were small, at 20-30 tons displacement. MAS15 was the motor torpedo boat in history to sink a battleship. British torpedo boats of the First World War were small at only around 15 tons and were known as Coastal Motor Boats, in the Second World War, British MTBs were operated by Coastal Forces. A similar size boat with a different role in the Second World War was the BPB63 ft High Speed Launch used by the RAF, the last MTBs in the Royal Navy were the two Brave-class fast patrol boats of 1958 which were capable of 50 knots. Many boats were built with a MTB designation but varied substantially, a 55 footer capable of 40 knots was shown in 1930. The Vosper private boat was designed by Commander Peter Du Cane CBE and she was completed and launched in 1937. She was bought by the Admiralty and taken into service with the Royal Navy as MTB102. Length,68 ft Beam,19 ft 9 in Draft,3 ft 9 in, armament, Two 21 in torpedo tubes MTB102 was the fastest wartime British naval vessel in service. She was at Dunkirk for the evacuation and carried Winston Churchill and they were based on the British Power Boat rescue craft and were originally designed for the Royal Air Force but reduced to 60 ft in length
Motor Torpedo Boat
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MTBs returning from an anti-E-boat patrol, June 1944
Motor Torpedo Boat
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Israeli MTB formation, circa 1967
Motor Torpedo Boat
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MTBs in the Mediterranean, February 1945
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