1.
Engravings (album)
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Engravings is the debut album by Forest Swords, released through Tri Angle Records on 26 August 2013. The album release was announced when the artist posted the The Weight Of Gold track to his Soundcloud page on 18 July 2013, previously, Thors Stone had been shared in June 2013 but without mention of the album release. The album cover artwork - designed by Barnes - was nominated for the award Best Art Vinyl 2013, the video for Thors Stone was directed by Dave Ma and was online in September 2013, featuring Spanish dancer Guzman Rosado. A video for The Weight Of Gold directed by French dancer and choreographer Benjamin Millepied was posted online in February 2014, a remix of Engravings lead track Thors Stone by dub artist Lee Scratch Perry was posted online in November 2013. Uniquely, the album was mixed on headphones outdoors on Thurstaston Hill in The Wirral, brighton, UK vocalist Anneka provides vocals on the Annekas Battle track
2.
Chaim Goldberg
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Chaim Goldberg was a Polish-Jewish artist, painter, sculptor, and engraver. Following World War II he emigrated to Israel and later to the United States where he died in 2004, Chaim Goldberg was born in a wooden clapboard house built by his father, a village cobbler. As a young boy of 6 he gravitated to creating little figurines carved from stones, later he took up drawing and painting with basic shoemaker paints that he found at his fathers workbench. He was the child and the first boy after eight girls. He grew up in a home in Kazimierz Dolny. He would observe and draw the beggars and klezmers who frequented his home as guests and his father would encourage their stays by letting it be known that the humble Goldberg home was open for those who could not pay for their night stay at any of the inns. These characters became Chaims early models, as he waited for his shoes, he noticed the numerous art works that were attached to the wall with shoe nails and inquired who the artist was. Silberstein spent the night reviewing the young artist’s work. In the morning they went by foot to Lublin, a distance of 26 miles and he then got him several small scholarships based on these letters of recommendation. This helped finance his education at the Józef Mehoffer School for Fine Arts, in Kraków. At 17, he was the youngest to be admitted and studied under the Rector of the Academy and Professor Tadeusz Pruszkowski, Kowarski, Władysław Skoczylas, the beauty of Kazimierz Dolny had long ago been discovered by artists who had flocked there in large numbers over the years. Between the First World War and the Second World War, Kazimierz Dolny became known as an Art Colony as well, Professor Tadeusz Pruszkowski had built a summer studio in the mountains and attracted his students to come down and paint outdoors. Many of these artists as well as older ones painted the life they saw, Chaim Goldberg became stimulated by this traffic of artists and began to do art as well. When he was discovered he had not attended any school or private lessons and he watched what the other artists did and was encouraged to do the same, set himself up with a home-made easel and paint outdoors. When he was discovered at the age of 14, his collection included landscapes as well as paintings of the types that frequented his home as guests. Chaim was conscripted into the Polish army in the fall of 1938 and he was assigned to the artillery brigade that guarded Warsaw. After the Polish army surrendered to the Germans he was taken into custody as a POW and he managed to escape and tried to rescue his parents and family who would not believe that the Germans had any intention of hurting the Jews. He could not motivate them to flee with him, so Chaim, his future wife, her sister and their parents became exiles escaping to Russia on foot
3.
Glass engraving
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Glass engraving is a form of decorative glasswork that involves engraving a glass surface or object. It is distinct from glass art in the sense, which refers to moulding and blowing glass. Some artists may combine two or more techniques, Glass engraving encompasses a variety of techniques. One notable form is intaglio work, with images and inscriptions cut into the surface of the glass through abrasion, Glass engraving tools are therefore small abrasive wheels and drills, with small lathes often used. Engraving wheels are made of copper, with a linseed oil. Other forms of engraving are stipple and drypoint in which the surface of the glass is abraded with the use of small diamond tipped burrs. The scratches and small dots made in this method can, in the hands of a skilled artist, be used to produce images of astonishing clarity, notable practitioners of this form are James Dennison Pender and the late Lawrence Whistler who began a revival in England. Sandblasting is yet another technique used in glass engraving, abrasive is sprayed through a sandblasting gun on to glass which is masked up by a piece of stencil in order to produce inscriptions. This is more of a glass engraving technique employed by companies like Crystal Galleries Ltd in order to engrave on crystal awards. Glass engraving is considered by many to be an art form. While this is far from accurate it is certainly a form that has seen its heyday come, despite this there are still many glass engravers who are producing bold dynamic and aesthetically challenging artworks. In the UK one of the most notable artists is Alison Kinnaird MBE, based in Scotland she splits her time between glass engraving and playing the traditional Scottish harp. In recent years these two apparently disparate mediums have been combined when she composed music to accompany her piece Psalmsong which is now installed in the Scottish Parliament building. The UK currently has a Guild of Glass engravers based in London and lists a number of well respected glass artists as members and these include Katherine Coleman MBE, Sally Scott, Tracey Sheppard, Dominic Fonde and Ronald Pennell. It has a gallery of members works with contact details for commissions. A general exhibition is held two years. The most resent ones at the FitzWilliam museum in Cambridge 2010, local branches in the UK meet for joint practical work, tutorials, and hold regional exhibitions. Meanwhile, the Czech republic having produced many world class glass artists can lay claim to one of the very best, every two years the Czech Republic hosts a conference aimed specifically at glass engravers
4.
Intaglio (printmaking)
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Intaglio is the family of printing and printmaking techniques in which the image is incised into a surface and the incised line or sunken area holds the ink. It is the direct opposite of a relief print, normally, copper or zinc plates are used as a surface or matrix, and the incisions are created by etching, engraving, drypoint, aquatint or mezzotint. Collagraphs may also be printed as intaglio plates, in etching, for example, the plate is covered in a resin ground or an acid-resistant wax material. Using an etching needle, or a tool, the image is engraved into the ground. The plate is dipped into acid. The acid bites into the surface of the plate where it was exposed, biting is a printmaking term to describe the acids etching, or incising, of the image. After the plate is bitten, the plate is removed from the acid bath. To print an intaglio plate, ink is applied to the surface by wiping and/or dabbing the plate to push the ink into the recessed lines, the plate is then rubbed with tarlatan cloth to remove most of the excess ink. The final smooth wipe is often done with newspaper or old public phone book pages, a damp piece of paper is placed on top of the plate, so that when going through the press the damp paper will be able to be squeezed into the plates ink-filled grooves. The paper and plate are covered by a thick blanket to ensure even pressure when going through the rolling press. The rolling press applies very high pressure through the blanket to push the paper into the grooves on the plate, the blanket is then lifted, revealing the paper and printed image. Martin Schongauer was one of the earliest known artists to exploit the copper-engraving technique, italian and Netherlandish engraving began slightly after the Germans, but were well developed by 1500. Drypoint and etching were also German inventions of the century, probably by the Housebook Master. In the nineteenth century, Viennese printer Karel Klíč introduced a combined intaglio, photogravure retained the smooth continuous tones of photography but was printed using a chemically-etched copper plate. This permitted a photographic image to be printed on regular paper, at one time intaglio printing was used for all mass-printed materials including banknotes, stock certificates, newspapers and magazines, fabrics, wallpapers and sheet music. Today intaglio engraving is largely used for paper or plastic currency, banknotes, passports, photogravure, an intaglio photo-printmaking process Rotogravure Line engraving Viscosity printing History of printing Intaglio and other printmaking definitions
5.
Wood engraving
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Wood engraving is a printmaking and letterpress printing technique, in which an artist works an image or matrix of images into a block of wood. Functionally a variety of woodcut, it uses relief printing, where the artist applies ink to the face of the block and prints using relatively low pressure. By contrast, ordinary engraving, like etching, uses a metal plate for the matrix, and is printed by the method, where the ink fills the valleys. As a result, wood engravings deteriorate less quickly than copper-plate engravings, Thomas Bewick developed the wood engraving technique at the end of the 18th century. His work differed from earlier woodcuts in two key ways, first, rather than using woodcarving tools such as knives, Bewick used an engravers burin. With this, he could create thin delicate lines, often creating large areas in the composition. Second, wood engraving traditionally uses the woods end grain—while the older technique used the side grain. The resulting increased hardness and durability facilitated more detailed images, wood-engraved blocks could be used on conventional printing presses, which were going through rapid mechanical improvements during the first quarter of the 19th century. The blocks were made the same height as, and composited alongside, the combination of this new wood engraving method and mechanized printing drove a rapid expansion of illustrations in the 19th century. Further, advances in stereotype let wood-engravings be reproduced onto metal, by the mid-19th century, many wood engravings rivaled copperplate engravings. In 15th and 16th-century Europe, woodcuts were a technique in printmaking and printing. They were still made for printing press work such as newspapers or almanacs. The beginnings of modern wood engraving techniques developed at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, Bewick generally engraved harder woods, such as boxwood, rather than the woods used in woodcuts, and he engraved the ends of blocks instead of the side. Finding a woodcutting knife not suitable for working against the grain in harder woods, Bewick used a burin, from the beginning of the nineteenth century Bewicks techniques gradually came into wider use, especially in Britain and the United States. Alexander Anderson introduced the technique to the United States, Bewicks work impressed him, so he reverse engineered and imitated Bewicks technique—using metal until he learned that Bewick used wood. This was, in ways a unnatural application, since engravers had to cut away almost all the surface of the block to produce the printable lines of the artists drawing. Nonetheless, it became the most common use of wood engraving, in the United States, wood-engraved publications also began to take hold, such as Harpers Weekly. A single design was divided into a grid, and each worked on a square
6.
Relief printing
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Relief printing is a process where protruding surface faces of the printing plate or block are inked, recessed areas are ink free. Printing the image is therefore a simple matter of inking the face of the matrix. A printing-press may not be needed as the back of the paper can be rubbed or pressed by hand with a tool such as a brayer or roller. The matrix in relief printing is classically created by starting with a flat original surface, the remaining areas of the original surface receive the ink. The relief family of techniques includes woodcut, metalcut, wood engraving, relief etching, linocut, rubber stamp, foam printing, potato printing, traditional text printing with movable type is also a relief technique. This meant that woodcuts were much easier to use as book illustrations, intaglio illustrations, such as engravings, had to be printed separately. Relief printing is one of the families of printmaking techniques, along with the intaglio. Modern developments have created other types, in contrast, in the intaglio process the recessed areas are the printed areas. The whole matrix is inked, and the ink then wiped away from the surface, much greater pressure is then needed to force the paper into the channels containing the ink, and a high-pressure press will normally be required. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, and drypoint, with planographic techniques, such as lithography, the entire surface of the matrix is flat, and some areas are treated to create the print image. Normally relief and intaglio techniques can only be mixed with others of the family in the same work. See also Relief printing techniques as used and described by French printmaker Dominique Lecomte
7.
Printmaking
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Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
8.
Mapmaking
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Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively, the fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to, Set the maps agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing, traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. Represent the terrain of the object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections, eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the maps purpose. This is the concern of generalization, reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization, orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design, modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems. The earliest known map is a matter of debate, both because the term map isnt well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE, the oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, another depicts Babylon as being north of the world center. The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps since Anaximander in the 6th century BCE, in the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemys world map – the world known to Western society. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic, in ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, in the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and these charts may have been used for navigation. Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world, approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154
9.
Photographic
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
10.
Etching
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Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types of material, as a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today. In a number of variants such as microfabrication etching and photochemical milling it is a crucial technique in much modern technology. In traditional pure etching, a plate is covered with a waxy ground which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with an etching needle where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece. The échoppe, a tool with an oval section, is also used for swelling lines. The plate is dipped in a bath of acid, technically called the mordant or etchant. The acid bites into the metal where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate, the remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, the plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper. The paper picks up the ink from the lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times, typically several hundred impressions could be printed before the shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process, Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving or aquatint. The process as applied to printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, Hopfer was a craftsman who decorated armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking, using iron plates. Apart from his prints, there are two examples of his work on armour, a shield from 1536 now in the Real Armeria of Madrid. The switch to copper plates was made in Italy. On the other hand, the handling of the ground and acid need skill and experience, prior to 1100 AD, the New World Hohokam independently utilized the technique of acid etching in marine shell designs. Jacques Callot from Nancy in Lorraine made important technical advances in etching technique and he developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do. Callot also appears to have responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for the etching ground
11.
Goldsmith
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A goldsmith is a metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals. Goldsmiths must be skilled in forming metal through filing, soldering, sawing, forging, casting, the trade has very often included jewellery-making skills, as well as the very similar skills of the silversmith. Many universities and junior colleges also offer goldsmithing, silversmithing, compared to other metals, gold is malleable, ductile, rare, and it is the only solid metallic element with a yellow color. It may easily be melted, fused, and cast without the problems of oxides and gas that are problematic with other such as bronzes. It is fairly easy to weld, wherein similarly to clay two small pieces may be pounded together to make one larger piece. Gold is classified as a noble metal—because it does not react with most elements and it usually is found in its native form, lasting indefinitely without oxidization and tarnishing. Gold has been worked by humans in all cultures where the metal is available, either indigenously or imported, and the history of these activities is extensive. Superbly made objects from the ancient cultures of Africa, Asia, Europe, India, North America, Mesoamerica, some pieces date back thousands of years and were made using many techniques that still are used by modern goldsmiths. Techniques developed by some of those goldsmiths achieved a level that was lost and remained beyond the skills of those who followed. In medieval Europe goldsmiths were organized into guilds and usually were one of the most important, the guild kept records of members and the marks they used on their products. These records, when they survive, are useful to historians. Goldsmiths often acted as bankers, since they dealt in gold and had sufficient security for the storage of valuable items. The Sunar caste is one of the oldest communities in goldsmithing in India, in India, Vishwakarma are the goldsmith caste. The printmaking technique of engraving developed among goldsmiths in Germany around 1430, the notable engravers of the fifteenth century were either goldsmiths, such as Master E. S. or the sons of goldsmiths, such as Martin Schongauer and Albrecht Dürer. A goldsmith might have an array of skills and knowledge at their disposal. Gold, being the most malleable metal of all, offers opportunities for the worker. In todays world a variety of other metals, especially platinum alloys. 24 Carat is pure gold and historically, was known as fine gold, because it is so soft, however,24 Carat gold is rarely used
12.
Gunsmith
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A gunsmith is a person who repairs, modifies, designs, or builds guns. This occupation differs from an armorer, a gunsmith does factory level repairs, renovation, and makes modifications and alterations for special uses. Gunsmiths may also apply carvings, engravings and other features to an otherwise finished gun. Due to the breadth of subject matter to be mastered. Alternatively, some gunsmiths learn many of the skills of the trade, the primary technical responsibility of gunsmiths is to ensure that the guns work and function safely. They accomplish this firstly by always properly observing gun safety handling procedures and they accomplish this secondly by inspecting guns to ensure safe mechanical operation. Some of those around them are, Improper Assembly Missing Parts Cracks, all cracked parts are cause for concern, bore Obstructions, being either dented or bent barrels, or foreign material in barrels. Improper Headspace, dimensions concerning the locations of the chamber. Safety-Mechanism Malfunctions, potentially allowing a gun with the safety mechanism supposedly engaged to unexpectedly fire, worn Sear Edges, potentially allowing a firearm to unexpectedly fire when the safety mechanism is disengaged. Firing-Pin Tips Deformed, leading to the possibility of primer-rupture, many failure modes are dependent on the particular model of firearm. Disassemble, clean, inspect, lubricate & reassemble, Repair burred or damaged parts with files & stones. Replace defective parts with factory-made replacements, hand-fitting as necessary, add after-market customizations, sling-swivels recoil-pads iron-sights scopes grip caps butt plates Repair and re-finish wooden stock parts. Deepen or clean up worn or damaged engravings & markings, re-crown damaged muzzles on a lathe. Install or repair rib on shotgun barrels, or repair double-barrel assemblies, troubleshoot and repair feeding, ejecting & firing problems. Test-fire guns with conventional loads to ensure proper operation, fabricate wooden stocks to customer specifications and body dimensions. Fit same to existing receiver and barrel, glass-bed actions to stocks to improve accuracy. Remove existing metal finish, and re-blue metal parts, fabricate replacement parts from metal stock. Modify trigger-pull weight through careful stoning of trigger mechanism parts, fire proof-loads through weapons to ensure sufficient strength of parts under over-load conditions
13.
Photoengraving
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Normally applied to metal, it can also be used on glass, plastic and other materials. A photoresist is selected which is resistant to the acid or other etching compound to be used. It may be a liquid applied by brushing, spraying, pouring or other means and then allowed to set, or it may come in sheet form and be applied by laminating. It is then exposed to strong ultraviolet light—through a photographic, mechanically printed. Alternatively, a lens may be used to project an image directly onto it, typically, the photoresist is hardened where it receives sufficient exposure to light, but some photoresists are initially hard and are then softened by exposure. A solvent is used to wash away the parts, laying bare the underlying material. The remaining photoresist is removed after the operation is complete. In the graphic arts, photoengraving is used to printing plates for various printing processes, reproducing a wide variety of graphics such as lettering, line drawings. The same procedure is used to make printed circuit boards, foil-stamping dies and it is also used to make nameplates, commemorative plaques and other decorative engravings. It can be used to make flat springs, levers, gears, a very high degree of precision is possible. In these applications, it is properly called photochemical machining, but the terms photochemical milling, a similar process called photolithography is used to make integrated circuits. One method of photoengraving produces a depression in the metal. This is used for printing plates or for decorative purposes. It is also the method used for printed circuit boards. The engraving is usually made in copper or brass, the process can be done in open trays but is much more effective if the etchant is sprayed onto the metal. When ferric chloride is used as the etchant, no metal parts other than titanium can be used in the etching equipment, decorative engraving is often filled by spray-painting then sanding to remove the paint from the raised parts of the engraving. Another method produces a deep engraving with sloped shoulders, in this method, the metal is held face down and a mixture of nitric acid and a soap-like oil is splashed onto it. As the acid etches the surface, the oil adheres to the edges of the exposed area and this progressively reduces the area being etched, resulting in a sloped edge, a single dot will end up as a cone-shaped mound protruding from the etched area
14.
Laser engraving
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Laser engraving, which is a subset of laser marking, is the practice of using lasers to engrave an object. The impact of laser marking has been more pronounced for specially designed laserable materials and these include laser-sensitive polymers and novel metal alloys. The term laser marking is used as a generic term covering a broad spectrum of surfacing techniques including printing, hot-branding. The machines for laser engraving and laser marking are the same, a laser engraving machine can be thought of as three main parts, a laser, a controller, and a surface. The laser is like a pencil - the beam emitted from it allows the controller to trace patterns onto the surface, the controller controls the direction, intensity, speed of movement, and spread of the laser beam aimed at the surface. The surface is picked to match what the laser can act on, sometimes the laser is stationary and the workpiece moves. Sometimes the workpiece moves in the Y axis and the laser in the X axis, a second genre is for cylindrical workpieces where the laser effectively traverses a fine helix and on/off laser pulsing produces the desired image on a raster basis. In the third method, both the laser and workpiece are stationary and galvo mirrors move the beam over the workpiece surface. Laser engravers using this technology can work in either raster or vector mode, the point where the laser touches the surface should be on the focal plane of the lasers optical system, and is usually synonymous with its focal point. This point is small, perhaps less than a fraction of a millimeter. Only the area inside this focal point is significantly affected when the beam passes over the surface. The energy delivered by the changes the surface of the material under the focal point. It may heat up the surface and subsequently vaporize the material, or perhaps the material may fracture, cutting through the paint of a metal part is generally how material is laser engraved. A laser can remove material very efficiently because the beam can be designed to deliver energy to the surface in a manner which converts a high percentage of the light energy into heat. The beam is focused and collimated - in most non-reflective materials like wood, plastics and enamel surfaces. However, because of this efficiency, the equipment used in laser engraving may heat up rather quickly, elaborate cooling systems are required for the laser. Alternatively, the beam may be pulsed to decrease the amount of excessive heating. Different patterns can be engraved by programming the controller to traverse a path for the laser beam over time
15.
Engraved gem
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An engraved gem is a small gemstone, usually semi-precious, that has been carved, in the Western tradition normally with images or inscriptions only on one face. The engraving of gemstones was a luxury art form in the ancient world. Strictly speaking, engraving means carving in intaglio, but relief carvings are covered by the term. This article uses cameo in its sense, to denote a carving exploiting layers of differently coloured stone. The activity is also called gem carving, and the artists gem-cutters, vessels like the Cup of the Ptolemies and heads or figures carved in the round are also known as hardstone carvings and similar terms. Glyptics, or glyptic art, covers the field of small carved stones, including seals and inscriptions. A finely carved seal was practical, as it made more difficult – the distinctive personal signature did not really exist in antiquity. Gems were mostly cut by using abrasive powder from harder stones in conjunction with a hand-drill, emery has been mined for abrasive powder on Naxos since antiquity. Some early types of seal were cut by hand, rather than a drill, there is no evidence that magnifying lenses were used by gem cutters in antiquity. A medieval guide to gem-carving techniques survives from Theophilus Presbyter, byzantine cutters used a flat-edged wheel on a drill for intaglio work, while Carolingian ones used round-tipped drills, it is unclear where they learnt this technique from. In intaglio gems at least, the cut surface is usually very well preserved. The colour of several gemstones can be enhanced by a number of methods, using heat, sugar. Many of these can be shown to have used since antiquity – since the 7th millennium BC in the case of heating. The technique has an ancient tradition in the Near East, and is represented in all or most early cultures from the area, and these were made in various types of stone, not all hardstone. The Greek tradition emerged in Ancient Greek art under Minoan influence on mainland Helladic culture, pre-Hellenic Ancient Egyptian seals tend to have inscriptions in hieroglyphs rather than images. The Biblical Book of Exodus describes the form of the hoshen, round or oval Greek gems are found from the 8th and 7th centuries BC, usually with animals in energetic geometric poses, often with a border marked by dots or a rim. Early examples are mostly in softer stones, Gems of the 6th century are more often oval, with a scarab back, and human or divine figures as well as animals, the scarab form was apparently adopted from Phoenicia. The forms are sophisticated for the period, despite the small size of the gems
16.
Relief
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Relief, formerly known as Panorama, is a public affairs newsmagazine series in Canada, airing nightly in Ontario on TFO, the Franco-Ontarian public television network. The series is hosted by Gisèle Quenneville, reporters associated with the series include Melanie Routhier-Boudreau, Isabelle Brunet, Marie Duchesneau, Luce Gauthier, Frédéric Projean and Chantal Racine. Longtime host Pierre Granger retired from the series in 2009, the series was renamed RelieF in fall 2010. The show airs seven nights a week at 7 p. m, from Monday to Thursday, it airs news and public affairs. On Fridays, the program airs documentary programming, on Saturdays, it airs a week in review edition, and on Sundays it airs an arts and culture magazine
17.
Line engraving
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Line engraving is a term for engraved images printed on paper to be used as prints or illustrations. The term is now less used and when is, it is mainly in connection with 18th or 19th century commercial illustrations for magazines and books. Copperplate engraving is somewhat outdated term for engravings. Engraving for the purpose of printmaking creates plates for intaglio printing, intaglio engravings are made by carving into a plate of a hard substance such as copper, zinc, steel, or plastic. Afterward ink is rubbed into the areas and away from the flat surface. Moistened paper is placed over the plate and both are run through the rollers of an intaglio press, the pressure exerted by the press on the paper pushes it into the engraved lines and prints the image made by those lines. In an intaglio print, the lines print black. Wood engraving is a printing technique, with the images made by carving into fine-grained hardwood blocks. In a relief print, the lines show white. The art of engraving has been practiced from the earliest ages, jewelry and many types of fine metal works frequently are engraved as well as furniture. Engraving often is used as an embellishment of knives, swords, guns, the important discovery which made line engraving one of the multiplying arts was the accidental discovery of how to print an incised line. This method was known for time before its real utility was realized. The resulting design, called a niello, was higher in contrast and thus. As this enamel was difficult to remove, goldsmiths developed alternate means of viewing their work still in progress. They would take a sulfur cast of the work on a matrix of fine clay and it was discovered later that a proof could be taken on damped paper by filling the engraved lines with ink and wiping it off the surface of the plate. Pressure was then applied to push the paper into the hollowed lines and this was the beginning of plate printing. This convenient way of proofing a niello saved the effort of producing a cast, although goldsmiths continued to engrave nielli to ornament plates and furniture, it was not until the late 15th century that the new method of printing was implemented. In early Italian and German prints, the line is used with such perfect simplicity of purpose that the methods of the artists are as obvious as if we saw them actually at work
18.
Steel engraving
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Steel engraving is a technique for printing illustrations based on steel instead of copper. It has been used in artistic printmaking, although it was much used for reproductions in the 19th century. Steel engraving was introduced in 1792 by Jacob Perkins, an American inventor, for banknote printing, the new technique only partially replaced the other commercial techniques of that time such as woodcut, wood engraving, copper engraving and later lithography. All the illustrations in the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1911 are steel engravings, Engraving is done with a burin, which is a small bar of hardened steel with a sharp point. It is pushed along the plate to produce thin furrowed lines and this is followed by the use of a scraper to remove any burs, since they would be an impediment during the subsequent inking process. Steel plates are very hard for this technique, which is used on softer copper plates. So steel engraving also used etching, where acid creates the lines in the plates in the pattern made by removing a thin coating of acid-resistant ground by tools. Roulettes of different types were used together with the burin and needle to create densely packed marks which appear as tonal to the eye, true burin engraving was generally used to finish the etched image. First a broad, general outline is made on the plate before starting the detailed image, Engraving will produce a printed reverse or mirror image of the image on the plate. Steel plates can be hardened to ensure that they can print thousands of times with little wear. From about 1860 the steel-facing of copper plates became widely used and it can be very difficult to distinguish between engravings on steel and steel-faced copper, other than by date. The most reliable way of distinguishing between unfaced copper engraving and steel or steel-faced engraving is the lightness and delicacy of the lines in the latter. Until around 1820 copper plates were the medium used for engraving. Copper, being a metal, was easy to carve or engrave. Engravers then reworked a worn plate by retracing the previous engraving to sharpen the image again, another advantage to using copper is that it is a soft metal and can be corrected or updated with a reasonable amount of effort. For this reason, copper plates were the medium of printing for mapmakers. During the 1820s steel began to copper as the preferred medium of commercial publishers for illustration. Steel engraving produced plates with shaper, harder, more distinct lines, also, the harder steel plates produced much longer wearing dies that could strike thousands of copies before they would need any repair or refurbishing engraving
19.
Letterhead
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A letterhead is the heading at the top of a sheet of letter paper. That heading usually consists of a name and an address, and a logo or corporate design, the term letterhead is often used to refer to the whole sheet imprinted with such a heading. Many companies and individuals prefer to create a template in a word processor or other software application. This generally includes the information as pre-printed stationery, but at lower cost. Letterhead can then be printed on stationery as needed on an output device or sent electronically. Letterheads are generally printed by either the offset or letterpress methods, in most countries outside North America, company letterheads are printed A4 in size. In North America, the size is typically 8.5 x 11 inches. In Nigeria it is known as letterheaded paper, although modern technology makes letterheads very easy to imitate, they continue to be used as evidence of authenticity. Gallery of historic letterheads Tutorial on using free OpenOffice. org software to create a letterhead
20.
Security printing
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The main goal of security printing is to prevent forgery, tampering, or counterfeiting. A number of methods are used in the security printing industry. In November 2011 Canada joined the list of countries using polymer currency as it began the introduction of a new banknote series. A watermark is an image or pattern in paper that appears lighter or darker than surrounding paper when viewed with a light from behind the paper. A watermark is made by impressing a water coated metal stamp or dandy roll onto the paper during manufacturing, watermarks were first introduced in Bologna, Italy in 1282, as well as their use in security printing, they have also been used by papermakers to identify their product. Watermarks can also be made on polymer currency, for example, printed with white ink, simulated watermarks have a different reflectance than the base paper and can be seen at an angle. Because the ink is white, it cannot be photocopied or scanned, intaglio is a printing technique in which the image is incised into a surface. Normally, copper or zinc plates are used, and the incisions are created by etching or engraving the image, but one may also use mezzotint. In printing, the surface is covered in ink, and then rubbed vigorously with tarlatan cloth or newspaper to remove the ink from the surface, leaving it in the incisions. A damp piece of paper is placed on top, and the plate and paper are run through a press that, through pressure. The very sharp printing obtained from the process is hard to imitate by other means. Intaglio also allows for the creation of latent images which are visible when the document is viewed at a very shallow angle. A guilloché is a pattern formed of two or more curved bands that interlace to repeat a circular design. They are made with a geometric lathe and this involves the use of extremely small text, and is most often used on currency and bank checks. The text is generally enough to be indiscernible to the naked eye. Cheques, for example, use microprint as the signature line, color changing inks are made from mica. Color changing inks colored magnetizable inks are prepared by including chromatic pigments of high color strength, the magnetic pigments’ strong inherent color generally reduces the spectrum of achievable shades. Generally, pigments should be used at high concentrations to ensure that sufficient magnetizable material is applied even in thin offset coats, some magnetic pigment are best suited for colored magnetizable inks due to their lower blackness
21.
Mezzotint
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Mezzotint is a printmaking process of the intaglio family, technically a drypoint method. It was the first tonal method to be used, enabling half-tones to be produced without using line- or dot-based techniques like hatching, cross-hatching or stipple. Mezzotint achieves tonality by roughening the plate with thousands of little dots made by a tool with small teeth. In printing, the pits in the plate hold the ink when the face of the plate is wiped clean. A high level of quality and richness in the print can be achieved, the mezzotint printmaking method was invented by the German amateur artist Ludwig von Siegen. His earliest mezzotint print dates to 1642 and is a portrait of Countess Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg and this was made by working from light to dark. The rocker seems to have been invented by Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a cavalry commander in the English Civil War, who was the next to use the process. Sir Peter Lely saw the potential for using it to publicise his portraits, the process was especially widely used in England from the mid-eighteenth century, to reproduce portraits and other paintings. Since the mid-nineteenth century it has relatively little used. Robert Kipniss and Peter Ilsted are two notable 20th-century exponents of the technique, M. C, British mezzotint collecting was a great craze from about 1760 to the Great Crash of 1929, also spreading to America. The favourite period to collect was roughly from 1750 to 1820, leading collectors included William Eaton, 2nd Baron Cheylesmore and the Irishman John Chaloner Smith. This became the most common method, the whole surface of a metal, usually copper, plate is roughened evenly, manually with a rocker, or mechanically. If the plate were printed at this point it would show as solid black, a burnisher has a smooth, round end, which flattens the minutely protruding points comprising the roughened surface of the metal printing plate. Areas smoothed completely flat will not hold ink at all, such areas will print white, by varying the degree of smoothing, mid-tones between black and white can be created, hence the name mezzo-tinto which is Italian for half-tone or half-painted. This is called working from dark to light, or the subtractive method, alternatively, it is possible to create the image directly by only roughening a blank plate selectively, where the darker parts of the image are to be. This is called working from light to dark, or the additive method, the first mezzotints by Ludwig von Siegen were made in this way. Especially in this method, the mezzotint can be combined with other techniques, such as engraving, on areas of the plate not roughened. The plate is put through a printing press next to a sheet of paper
22.
Don Quijote
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Don Quixote, fully titled The history of the valorous and wittie Knight-Errant Don-Quixote of the Mancha, is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. Published in two volumes, in 1605 and 1615, Don Quixote is considered the most influential work of literature from the Spanish Golden Age, the story follows the adventures of an hidalgo named Mr. He recruits a simple farmer, Sancho Panza, as his squire, Don Quixote, in the first part of the book, does not see the world for what it is and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story. Throughout the novel, Cervantes uses such techniques as realism, metatheatre. Arthur Schopenhauer cited Don Quixote as one of the four greatest novels written, along with Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Héloïse. Cervantes wrote that the first chapters were taken from The Archive of La Mancha, and this metafictional trick appears to give a greater credibility to the text, implying that Don Quixote is a real character and that the story truly occurred several decades back. However, it was common practice in that era for fictional works to make some pretense of being factual. As a result, he is given to anger and believes every word of these fictional books of chivalry to be true. Imitating the protagonists of these books, he decides to become a knight-errant in search of adventure. He spends the night holding vigil over his armor and becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules. In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him and sends him on his way. Don Quixote next frees a young boy tied to a tree and beaten by his master, and makes his master swear to treat the boy fairly, Don Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo, who insult the imaginary Dulcinea. He attacks them, only to be beaten and left on the side of the road. While Don Quixote is unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, a large part of this section consists of the priest deciding which books deserve to be burned and which to be saved. This gives an occasion for many comments on books Cervantes liked and disliked, for example, Cervantes own pastoral novel La Galatea is saved, while the rather unbelievable romance Felixmarte de Hyrcania is burned. After the books are dealt with, they seal up the room contained the library. After a short period of feigning health, Don Quixote requests his neighbor, Sancho Panza, to be his squire, Sancho, who is both greedy and unintelligent, agrees to the offer and sneaks away with Don Quixote in the early dawn. It is here that their famous adventures begin, starting with Don Quixotes attack on windmills that he believes to be ferocious giants, the two next encounter a group of friars accompanying a lady in a carriage
23.
Louis George
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Louis George was a Prussian master watchmaker of the late baroque era. Louis George was a descendant of French Huguenots living in Berlin in the third generation, Louis George produced mainly daedal watches. Reported makes are, pocket watches, nautical clocks, mechanical odometer, console clocks, long case clocks, on the 26 December 1769 Louis George applied for the patent as the royal watchmaker and succeeded. He was allowed to call himself now on “Horloger du Roy” — in English. French was the language of the Berlin nobility, the literature on Louis George reports different working periods. The writer Gerhard Koenig states in his book a working period from 1769 to 1796, the address calendar of Berlin lists the Louis George in the editions of the years 1799 and 1801. The addresses of Louis Georges workshops mentioned at the Berlin Adresskalender are Schlossplatz 10 and 13 and Schlossplatz 10 in, starting in 1815 Louis George et compagnie produced lever pocket watches, most probably a son of the royal watchmaker. Louis George was a watchmaker and artist. He did not just create watches but real gems of watch making and his posh watches enchanted the audience and recovered the respect of the Berlin nobility and solvent bourgeoisie. His business flourished and he was capable of opening a shop in the same street opposite the royal city palace. Located at Berlin he provided watches for three generations of Prussians kings, Frederick II, king of Prussia his nephew and successor Frederick William II. King of Prussia his nephew and successor Frederick William III, king of Prussia Other German monarchs appreciated the masterly crafted clocks and watches too. A long case clock with an organ movement formerly owned by Georg I, duke of Saxe-Meiningen is preserved on castle of Elisabethenburg at Meiningen. It can be visited at the art collection of the Meininger Museen at the Schloss Elisabethenburg Inventory-No, II1908, height 2,93 m. approx. GEORGE HORLOGER DU ROY“ / „A BERLIN“, the curator M. Ruszwurm reports that clock is equipped with a precious flute watch. A console clock with an attached flute work is exhibited at the Schloss Sanssouci at Potsdam, Louis Georges watches and clocks can be found all over Europe. A bedroom clock displaying hour, minute and date with a decorated and gold-plated case was auctioned in Paris in 2005. Other clocks made by Louis George have been found in Spain, Louis George discussed technical problems of watchmaking with other watchmakers from the Swiss Canton of Neuchâtel
24.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
25.
Jean-Pierre Norblin de La Gourdaine
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Jean-Pierre Norblin de La Gourdaine was a French-born painter, draughtsman, engraver, drawing artist and caricaturist. From 1774 to 1804 he resided in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and he is considered one of the most important painters of the Enlightenment in Poland. He achieved great success in Poland, given many commissions from some of the most notable families of the country, he stayed there for many years, not returning to Paris until the early 19th century. He created a gallery of portraits of representatives of all classes in the last years of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Norblin started his career in France, in the early sixties, later he became influenced by Rembrandt and Watteau. Around 1771–72 he worked in Paris, London, Dresden and Spa, in 1772 he met Polish Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski, with whom he traveled for two years and by whom he was invited to Poland. From 1774 he worked for the family of Czartoryski and became their court artist. Among his early works the most prominent are his illustrations to Myszeida and he worked in Puławy and at Powązki estates as painter and decorator of local Czartoryskis estates. Later he also worked for the Radziwiłł family in Arkadia and for King Stanisław August Poniatowski. After his return to France in 1804 he still continued to paint based on some of his Poland-era drafts and he died in Paris in 1830. Norblins students in Poland included Aleksander Orłowski, Michał Płoński and Jan Rustem, jean-Pierre Norblin de La Gourdaine was the great-grandfather of an equally accomplished artist, Stefan Norblin. The paintings of Stefan Norblin, who worked in Poland, India and the United States, were rediscovered in the 1990s in India, where they decorate maharajas palaces, e. g. in Rajasthan
26.
National Museum, Warsaw
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The National Museum in Warsaw, popularly abbreviated as MNW, is a national museum in Warsaw, one of the largest museums in Poland and the largest in the capital. The museum is home to numismatic collections, a gallery of applied arts. The National Museum in Warsaw was established on 20 May 1862, as the Museum of Fine Arts, Warsaw, the collection, on Jerusalem Avenue, is housed in a building designed by Tadeusz Tolwiński, developed between 1927 and 1938. In 1932 an exhibition of decorative art opened in the two earlier erected wings of the building, the new building was inaugurated on 18 June 1938. The purpose-built modernistic edifice, was situated on the edge of Na Książęcem Park established between 1776–79 for Prince Kazimierz Poniatowski, from 1935 the museum director was Stanisław Lorentz, who directed an effort to save the most valuable works of art during World War II. The Gestapo headquarters presented Rembrandts portrait of Maerten Soolmans as a gift to Hans Frank in occupied Kraków, after the war the Polish Government, under the supervision of Professor Lorentz, retrieved many of the works seized by the Germans. More than 5,000 artifacts are still missing, in 2008 the Polish Archaeological Mission Tyritake of National Museum in Warsaw commenced works at Tyritake, Crimea. It is headed by Alfred Twardecki curator of the Ancient Art Gallery, in 2010 the National Museum, as one of the first state institutions in the world, held an exhibition entirely consecrated to homoerotic art - Ars Homo Erotica. Since the 2011–12 renovation, the museum is considered as one of the most modern in Europe with a computer-led LED lighting allowing to enhance unique qualities of every painting. In 2012 the permanent galleries underwent revolutionary changes, the curators of the museum re-arranged it and supplemented it with new works from the museums warehouses. Paintings were not hung chronologically, but thematically, genre painting, still lifes, landscapes, cityscapes, biblical, mythological, works by Italian, Flemish, Dutch, German and Polish artists were hung together, making it easy to observe and compare similarities and differences. The Gallery of Medieval Art mainly presents objects from the late Middle Ages, originating from different regions of todays Poland and these works were originally designed almost exclusively for churches. The exhibition was designed to allow the audience to understand the role of art in the life of the Middle Ages. The new techniques implemented in the gallery allow the presentation of large polyptychs, such as the famous Grudziądz Polyptych. The new arrangement of the exhibition was designed by WWAA, the Gallery of Old Masters on the second floor was conceived from the former Gallery of Decorative Art, Gallery of Old European Painting and the Gallery of Old Polish and European Portrait in 2016. It combines species of pictorial art - painting, sculpture, drawings and these social spaces have provided the key to the division of the gallery,1. Church, chapel and domestic altar,3, in the redesigned gallery, the works are presented not according to national schools, but as a confrontation of artistic circles of the South and North. The new system reflects the hierarchy of the created by Renaissance art theory
27.
Warsaw
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Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It stands on the Vistula River in east-central Poland, roughly 260 kilometres from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population is estimated at 1.750 million residents within a metropolitan area of 3.101 million residents. The city limits cover 516.9 square kilometres, while the area covers 6,100.43 square kilometres. In 2012 the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Warsaw as the 32nd most liveable city in the world and it was also ranked as one of the most liveable cities in Central Europe. Today Warsaw is considered an Alpha– global city, an international tourist destination. Warsaws economy, by a variety of industries, is characterised by FMCG manufacturing, metal processing, steel and electronic manufacturing. The city is a significant centre of research and development, BPO, ITO, the Warsaw Stock Exchange is one of the largest and most important in Central and Eastern Europe. Frontex, the European Union agency for external security, has its headquarters in Warsaw. It has been said that Warsaw, together with Frankfurt, London, Paris, the city is positioning itself as Eastern Europe’s chic cultural capital with thriving art and club scenes and serious restaurants. The first historical reference to Warsaw dates back to the year 1313, after the Third Partition of Poland in 1795, Warsaw was incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars, the city became the capital of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. In accordance with the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, the Russian Empire annexed Warsaw in 1815, only in 1918 did it regain independence from the foreign rule and emerge as a new capital of the independent Republic of Poland. Warsaw gained the title of the Phoenix City because it has survived wars, conflicts. Most notably, the city required painstaking rebuilding after the damage it suffered in World War II. On 9 November 1940, the city was awarded Polands highest military decoration for heroism, the historic city-centre of Warsaw with its picturesque Old Town in 1980 was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Buildings represent examples of nearly every European architectural style and historical period, folk etymology attributes the city name to a fisherman, Wars, and his wife, Sawa. According to legend, Sawa was a living in the Vistula River with whom Wars fell in love
28.
Die (manufacturing)
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A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut or shape material mostly using a press. Like molds, dies are generally customized to the item they are used to create, products made with dies range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced technology. Forming dies are made by tool and die makers and put into production after mounting into a press. The die is a block that is used for forming materials like sheet metal. For the vacuum forming of sheet only a single form is used. Vacuum forming is considered a simple molding thermoforming process but uses the principles as die forming. The workpiece may pass through several stages using different tools or operations to obtain the final form, the main components for die tool sets are, Die block – This is the main part that all the other parts are attached to. Punch plate – This part holds and supports the different punches in place, blank punch – This part along with the blank die produces the blanked part. Pierce punch – This part along with the pierce die removes parts from the finished part. Stripper plate – This is used to hold the material down on the blank/pierce die, pilot – This will help to place the sheet accurately for the next stage of operation. Guide, back gauge, or finger stop – These parts are all used to make sure that the material being worked on always goes in the position, within the die. Setting block – This part is used to control the depth that the punch goes into the die, Blanking dies – See blanking punch Pierce die – See pierce punch. Shank – used to hold in the presses and it should be aligned and situated at the center of gravity of the plate. Processes, Blanking, A blanking die produces a piece of material by cutting the desired shape in one operation. The finished part is referred to as a blank, generally a blanking die may only cut the outside contour of a part, often used for parts with no internal features. Three benefits to die blanking are, Accuracy, a properly sharpened die, with the correct amount of clearance between the punch and die, will produce a part that holds close dimensional tolerances in relationship to the parts edges. Since the part is blanked in one operation, the edges of the part produces a uniform appearance as opposed to varying degrees of burnishing from multiple operations. Due to the compression of the blanking process, the end result is a flat part that may retain a specific level of flatness for additional manufacturing operations
29.
Pantograph
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A pantograph is a mechanical linkage connected in a manner based on parallelograms so that the movement of one pen, in tracing an image, produces identical movements in a second pen. If a line drawing is traced by the first point, an identical, enlarged, using the same principle, different kinds of pantographs are used for other forms of duplication in areas such as sculpture, minting, engraving and milling. Because of the shape of the device, a pantograph also refers to a kind of structure that can compress or extend like an accordion. This can be found in extension arms for wall-mounted mirrors, temporary fences, scissor lifts, the first pantograph was constructed in 1603 by Christoph Scheiner, who used the device to copy and scale diagrams, but he wrote about the invention over 27 years later, in Pantographice. One arm of the pantograph contained a pointer, while the other held a drawing implement, and by moving the pointer over a diagram. By changing the positions of the arms in the linkage between the arm and drawing arm, the scale of the image produced can be changed. In 1821, Professor William Wallace invented the eidograph to improve upon the practical utility of the pantograph, the eidograph relocates the fixed point to the center of the parallelogram and uses a narrow parallelogram to provide improved mechanical advantages. The original use of the pantograph was for copying and scaling line drawings, modern versions are sold as toys. By adjusting the needles different enlargement or reduction ratios can be achieved, chevertons machine was fitted with a rotating cutting bit to carve reduced versions of well-known sculptures. Of course a three-dimensional pantograph can also be used to enlarge sculpture by interchanging the position of the model, another version is still very much in use to reduce the size of large relief designs for coins down to the required size of the coin. One advantage of phonograph and gramophone discs over cylinders in the 1890s—before electronic amplification was available—was that large numbers of discs could be stamped quickly and cheaply, when molding improved somewhat, molded cylinders were used as pantograph masters. This was employed by Edison and Columbia in 1898, and was used until about January 1902, some companies like the United States Phonograph Co. of Newark, New Jersey, supplied cylinder masters for smaller companies so that they could duplicate them, sometimes pantographically. Pantographs could turn out about 30 records per day and produce up to about 150 records per master, in theory, pantograph masters could be used for 200 or 300 duplicates if the master and the duplicate were running in reverse and the record would be duplicated in reverse. This, in theory, could extend the usability of a master by using the unworn/lesser worn part of the recording for duplication. Pathé employed this system with mastering their vertically-cut records until 1923 and this was done as the resulting cylinder was considerably loud and of very high fidelity. This system resulted in some fidelity reduction and rumble, but relatively high quality sound, Edison Diamond Disc Records were made by recording directly onto the wax master disc. If the milling head was mounted on a pantograph, a part could be cut simply by tracing a template. This was essentially the same concept as reproducing documents with a pen-equipped pantograph, Pantograph routing, which is conceptually identical to pantograph milling, also exists
30.
Degree (angle)
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A degree, usually denoted by °, is a measurement of a plane angle, defined so that a full rotation is 360 degrees. It is not an SI unit, as the SI unit of measure is the radian. Because a full rotation equals 2π radians, one degree is equivalent to π/180 radians, the original motivation for choosing the degree as a unit of rotations and angles is unknown. One theory states that it is related to the fact that 360 is approximately the number of days in a year. Ancient astronomers noticed that the sun, which follows through the path over the course of the year. Some ancient calendars, such as the Persian calendar, used 360 days for a year, the use of a calendar with 360 days may be related to the use of sexagesimal numbers. The earliest trigonometry, used by the Babylonian astronomers and their Greek successors, was based on chords of a circle, a chord of length equal to the radius made a natural base quantity. One sixtieth of this, using their standard sexagesimal divisions, was a degree, Aristarchus of Samos and Hipparchus seem to have been among the first Greek scientists to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. Timocharis, Aristarchus, Aristillus, Archimedes, and Hipparchus were the first Greeks known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes, eratosthenes used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts. Furthermore, it is divisible by every number from 1 to 10 except 7 and this property has many useful applications, such as dividing the world into 24 time zones, each of which is nominally 15° of longitude, to correlate with the established 24-hour day convention. Finally, it may be the case more than one of these factors has come into play. For many practical purposes, a degree is a small enough angle that whole degrees provide sufficient precision. When this is not the case, as in astronomy or for geographic coordinates, degree measurements may be written using decimal degrees, with the symbol behind the decimals. Alternatively, the sexagesimal unit subdivisions can be used. One degree is divided into 60 minutes, and one minute into 60 seconds, use of degrees-minutes-seconds is also called DMS notation. These subdivisions, also called the arcminute and arcsecond, are represented by a single and double prime. For example,40. 1875° = 40° 11′ 15″, or, using quotation mark characters, additional precision can be provided using decimals for the arcseconds component. The older system of thirds, fourths, etc. which continues the sexagesimal unit subdivision, was used by al-Kashi and other ancient astronomers, but is rarely used today
31.
Sharpening stone
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Sharpening stones, water stones or whetstones are used to grind and hone the edges of steel tools and implements. Examples of items that may be sharpened with a sharpening stone include scissors, scythes, knives, razors and tools such as chisels, hand scrapers, the process of using a sharpening stone is called stoning. Sharpening stones come in a range of shapes, sizes. Stones may be flat, for working flat edges, or shaped for more complex edges and they may be composed of natural quarried material, or from man-made material. The Roman historian Pliny described use of naturally occurring stones for sharpening in his Natural History. He describes the use of oil and water stones and gives the locations of several ancient sources for these stones. The use of stone for sharpening has diminished with the widespread availability of high-quality. As a result, the legendary Honyama mines in Kyoto, Japan, have closed since 1967. Belgium currently has only a single mine that is still quarrying Coticules, for example, the proportional content of abrasive particles as opposed to base or binder materials can be controlled to make the stone cut faster or slower, as desired. Natural stones are prized for their natural beauty as stones and their rarity. Furthermore, each stone is different, and there are rare natural stones that contain abrasive particles in grit sizes finer than are currently available in artificial stones. These are highly prized for their elegance and beauty. This stone is considered one of the finest for sharpening straight razors, the hard stone of Charnwood Forest in northwest Leicestershire, England, has been quarried for centuries, and was a source of whetstones and quern-stones. Whetstones may be natural or artificial stones, artificial stones usually come in the form of a bonded abrasive composed of a ceramic such as silicon carbide or of aluminium oxide. Bonded abrasives provide a cutting action than natural stones. They are commonly available as a block with a coarse grit on one side. Some shapes are designed for purposes such as sharpening scythes. Natural stones are formed of quartz, such as Novaculite
32.
Stipple engraving
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Stipple engraving is a technique used to create tone in an intaglio print by distributing a pattern of dots of various sizes and densities across the image. The pattern is created on the plate either in engraving by gouging out the dots with a burin. Stippling was used as an adjunct to conventional line engraving and etching for two centuries, before being developed as a distinct technique in the mid-18th century. The technique allows for subtle tonal variations and is suitable for reproducing chalk drawings. An etched stipple technique known as the manner, suitable for producing imitations of chalk drawings, was pioneered in France. Gilles Demarteau used in 1756 goldsmiths chasing tools and marking-wheels to shade the lines in a series of Trophies designed by Antoine Watteau, jean-Charles François who was a partner of Demarteau further developed the technique and used it to engrave the whole plate. François engraved in 1757 three etchings directly on copper in crayon manner and he then used the technique to etch three plates using different-size needles bound together. Other people who contributed to this new engraving technique included Alexis Magny, the process of stipple engraving is described in T. H. To begin with a ground is laid on the plate. The outline is drawn out in small dots with a needle. As in mezzotint use was made of roulettes, and a mattoir to produce large numbers of relatively quickly. Then the plate is bitten with acid, and the ground removed. The etched middle and dark tones would also be deepened where appropriate with the graver, in France the technique fed a fashion for reproductions of red chalk drawings by artists such as Antoine Watteau and François Boucher. Gilles Demarteau etched 266 drawings of Boucher in stipple, for printing in an appropriate sanguine-coloured ink and these prints so resembled red chalk drawings that they could be framed as little pictures. They could then be hung in the blank spaces of the elaborately decorated paneling of residences. During the late century, some printmakers, including Francesco Bartolozzi. This method is known as à la poupée after the French term for the small cotton pads used for the inking. Media related to Stipple engraving at Wikimedia Commons
33.
Stereo microscope
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The instrument uses two separate optical paths with two objectives and eyepieces to provide slightly different viewing angles to the left and right eyes. This arrangement produces a three-dimensional visualization of the sample being examined, stereomicroscopy overlaps macrophotography for recording and examining solid samples with complex surface topography, where a three-dimensional view is needed for analyzing the detail. They are thus used in manufacturing industry for manufacture, inspection. Stereo microscopes are essential tools in entomology, the stereo microscope should not be confused with a compound microscope equipped with double eyepieces and a binoviewer. In such a microscope, both see the same image, with the two eyepieces serving to provide greater viewing comfort. However, the image in such a microscope is no different from that obtained with a monocular eyepiece. Use of reflected light from the object allows examination of specimens that would be too thick or otherwise opaque for compound microscopy, stereoscopes with specially-equipped illuminators can be used for dark field microscopy, using either reflected or transmitted light. Great working distance and depth of field are important qualities for this type of microscope, both qualities are inversely correlated with resolution, the higher the resolution, the smaller the depth of field and working distance. Some stereo microscopes can deliver a useful magnification up to 100×, comparable to a 10× objective and 10× eyepiece in a compound microscope. This is around one tenth the useful resolution of a compound optical microscope. The large working distance at low magnification is useful in examining large solid objects such as fracture surfaces, such samples can also be manipulated easily so as to determine the points of interest. There are severe limitations on sample size in scanning electron microscopy, there are two major types of magnification systems in stereo microscopes. One type is fixed magnification in which primary magnification is achieved by a set of objective lenses with a set degree of magnification. The other is zoom or pancreatic magnification, which are capable of a variable degree of magnification across a set range. Zoom systems can achieve further magnification through the use of auxiliary objectives that increase total magnification by a set factor, also, total magnification in both fixed and zoom systems can be varied by changing eyepieces. Small specimens necessarily require intense illumination, especially at high magnifications, fiber optics utilize halogen lamps which provide high light output for a given power input. The lamps are small enough to be fitted easily near the microscope, the fibre-optic stalk gives the operator much freedom in choosing appropriate lighting conditions for the sample. The stalk is encased in a sheath that is easy to move, the stalk is normally unobtrusive when the lit end is near the specimen, so usually does not interfere with the image in the microscope
34.
Counterfeit
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To counterfeit means to imitate something. Counterfeit products are fakes or unauthorised replicas of the real product, counterfeit products are often produced with the intent to take advantage of the superior value of the imitated product. Counterfeit products tend to have company logos and brands, have a reputation for being lower quality. This has resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people, due to automobile and aviation accidents, poisoning, the counterfeiting of money is usually attacked aggressively by governments worldwide. Paper money is the most popular product counterfeited, counterfeit money is currency that is produced without the legal sanction of the state or government and in deliberate violation of that countrys laws. The United States Secret Service, mostly known for its guarding-of-officials task, was organized primarily to combat the counterfeiting of American money. Forgery is the process of making or adapting documents with the intention to deceive and it is a form of fraud, and is often a key technique in the execution of identity theft. Uttering and publishing is a term in United States law for the forgery of documents, such as a trucking companys time. Questioned document examination is a process for investigating many aspects of various documents. Security printing is a printing industry specialty, focused on creating legal documents which are difficult to forge, the spread of counterfeit goods has become global in recent years and the range of goods subject to infringement has increased significantly. Apparel and accessories accounted for over 50 percent of the goods seized by U. S Customs. A report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development indicates that up to US$200 Billion of international trade could have been in counterfeit and illegally copied goods in 2005. In November 2009, the OECD updated these estimates, concluding that the share of counterfeit and that represents an increase to US$250 billion worldwide. In a detailed breakdown of the counterfeit goods industry, the total loss faced by countries around the world is $600 billion, when calculating counterfeit products, current estimates place the global losses at $400 billion. Some see the rise in counterfeiting of goods as being related to globalisation and these new managers of production have little or no loyalty to the original corporation. They see that profits are being made by the brand for doing little and see the possibilities of removing the middle men. Certain consumer goods, especially expensive or desirable brands or those that are easy to reproduce cheaply, have become frequent. The counterfeiters either attempt to deceive the consumer into thinking they are purchasing a legitimate item, or convince the consumer that they could deceive others with the imitation
35.
Banknote
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A banknote is a type of negotiable instrument known as a promissory note, made by a bank, payable to the bearer on demand. Banknotes were originally issued by banks, who were legally required to redeem the notes for legal tender when presented to the chief cashier of the originating bank. These commercial banknotes only traded at face value in the served by the issuing bank. Commercial banknotes have primarily been replaced by national banknotes issued by central banks, national banknotes are generally legal tender, meaning that medium of payment is allowed by law or recognized by a legal system to be valid for meeting a financial obligation. Historically, banks sought to ensure that they could always pay customers in coins when they presented banknotes for payment and this practice of backing notes with something of substance is the basis for the history of central banks backing their currencies in gold or silver. Today, most national currencies have no backing in precious metals or commodities and have value only by fiat, with the exception of non-circulating high-value or precious metal issues, coins are used for lower valued monetary units, while banknotes are used for higher values. The idea of using a durable light-weight substance as evidence of a promise to pay a bearer on demand originated in China during the Han Dynasty in 118 BC, the first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty, as merchants, during the Yuan Dynasty, banknotes were adopted by the Mongol Empire. In Europe, the concept of banknotes was first introduced during the 13th century by such as Marco Polo. Counterfeiting, the forgery of banknotes, is an inherent challenge in issuing currency and it is countered by anticounterfeiting measures in the printing of banknotes. Fighting the counterfeiting of banknotes and cheques has been a driver of security printing methods development in recent centuries. Paper currency first developed in the Tang Dynasty China during the 7th century, although true paper money did not appear until the 11th century, the usage of paper currency later spread throughout the Mongol Empire. European explorers like Marco Polo introduced the concept in Europe during the 13th century, napoleon issued paper banknotes in the early 1800s. Paper money originated in two forms, drafts, which are receipts for value held on account, and bills, the perception of banknotes as money has evolved over time. Originally, money was based on precious metals, Banknotes were seen as essentially an I. O. U. or promissory note, a promise to pay someone in precious metal on presentation. With the gradual removal of precious metals from the system, banknotes evolved to represent credit money. Notes or bills were referred to in 18th century novels and were often a key part of the plot such as a note drawn by Lord X for £100 which becomes due in 3 months time. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty, as merchants, before the use of paper, the Chinese used coins that were circular, with a rectangular hole in the middle
36.
U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing
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The BEP does not produce coins, all coinage is produced by the United States Mint. With production facilities in Washington, DC, and Fort Worth, Texas, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing has its origins in legislation enacted to help fund the Civil War. In July 1861, Congress authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to issue currency in lieu of coins due to the lack of funds needed to support the conflict. The paper notes were essentially government IOUs and were called Demand Notes because they were payable on demand in coin at certain Treasury facilities, at this time the government had no facility for the production of paper money so a private firm produced the Demand Notes in sheets of four. These sheets were then sent to the Treasury Department where dozens of clerks signed the notes and scores of workers cut the sheets, initially, the currency processing operations in the Treasury were not formally organized. For years, however, the operations were known by various semi-official labels, such as the Printing Bureau, Small Note Bureau, Currency Department. It was not until 1874 that the Bureau of Engraving and Printing was officially recognized in legislation with a specific allocation of operating funds for fiscal year 1875. From almost the beginning of its operations, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing designed and printed a variety of products in addition to currency. As early as 1864, the offices which would become the BEP made passports for the State Department. Passports are now produced by the Government Publishing Office, other early items produced by the BEP included various government debt instruments, such as interest-bearing notes, refunding certificates, compound interest Treasury notes, and bonds. The production of stamps began in 1894, and for almost the next century the BEP was the sole producer of postage stamps in the country. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing officially took over production of stamps for the United States government in July 1894. Paper currency was produced on hand presses around 1918, utilizing plates capable of printing four notes per sheet. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing officially took over production of stamps for the United States government in July 1894. The first of the works printed by the BEP was placed on sale on July 18,1894, and by the end of the first year of stamp production, the BEP had printed and delivered more than 2.1 billion stamps. The United States Postal Service switched purely to private postage stamp printers in 2005, starting in 2011 the United States Postal Service in housed all postage stamp printing services. Plate capacity on power presses increased from four to eight notes per sheet in 1918 in order to greatly expanded production requirements related to World War I. Due to this reduction in size, the Bureau was able to convert from eight-note printing plates to twelve-note plates, the redesign effort came about for several reasons, chief among them a reduction in paper costs and improved counterfeit deterrence through better public recognition of currency features
37.
Metalworking
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Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts, assemblies, or large-scale structures. The term covers a range of work from large ships and bridges to precise engine parts. It therefore includes a wide range of skills, processes. Metalworking is a science, art, hobby, industry and trade and its historical roots span cultures, civilizations, and millennia. Metalworking has evolved from the discovery of smelting various ores, producing malleable and ductile metal useful for tools, modern metalworking processes, though diverse and specialized, can be categorized as forming, cutting, or joining processes. Todays machine shop includes a number of machine tools capable of creating a precise, the oldest archaeological evidence of copper mining and working was the discovery of a copper pendant in northern Iraq from 8,700 BCE. The earliest substantiated and dated evidence of metalworking in the Americas was the processing of copper in Wisconsin, Copper was hammered until brittle then heated so it could be worked some more. This technology is dated to about 4000-5000 BCE, the oldest gold artifacts in the world come from the Bulgarian Varna Necropolis and date from 4450 BCE. Not all metal required fire to obtain it or work it, isaac Asimov speculated that gold was the first metal. His reasoning is that by its chemistry it is found in nature as nuggets of pure gold, in other words, gold, as rare as it is, is sometimes found in nature as the metal that it is. There are a few metals that sometimes occur natively. Almost all other metals are found in ores, a mineral-bearing rock, another feature of gold is that it is workable as it is found, meaning that no technology beyond a stone hammer and anvil to work the metal is needed. This is a result of properties of malleability and ductility. The earliest tools were stone, bone, wood, and sinew, at some unknown point the connection between heat and the liberation of metals from rock became clear, rocks rich in copper, tin, and lead came into demand. These ores were mined wherever they were recognized, remnants of such ancient mines have been found all over Southwestern Asia. Metalworking was being carried out by the South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh between 7000–3300 BCE, the end of the beginning of metalworking occurs sometime around 6000 BCE when copper smelting became common in Southwestern Asia. Ancient civilisations knew of seven metals. Here they are arranged in order of their potential, Iron +0.44 V
38.
Milling machine
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Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material from a workpiece by advancing in a direction at an angle with the axis of the tool. It covers a variety of different operations and machines, on scales from small individual parts to large. It is one of the most commonly used processes in industry, Milling can be done with a wide range of machine tools. The original class of tools for milling was the milling machine. After the advent of computer control, milling machines evolved into machining centers, generally classified as vertical machining centers. Milling is a process that uses a milling cutter to remove material from the surface of a workpiece. The milling cutter is a cutting tool, often with multiple cutting points. As opposed to drilling, where the tool is advanced along its rotation axis, as the milling cutter enters the workpiece, the cutting edges of the tool repeatedly cut into and exit from the material, shaving off chips from the workpiece with each pass. The cutting action is shear deformation, material is pushed off the workpiece in tiny clumps that hang together to a greater or lesser extent to form chips and this makes metal cutting somewhat different from slicing softer materials with a blade. The milling process removes material by performing many separate, small cuts, the speeds and feeds used are varied to suit a combination of variables. The speed at which the piece advances through the cutter is called feed rate, or just feed, There are two major classes of milling process, In face milling, the cutting action occurs primarily at the end corners of the milling cutter. Face milling is used to cut flat surfaces into the workpiece, in peripheral milling, the cutting action occurs primarily along the circumference of the cutter, so that the cross section of the milled surface ends up receiving the shape of the cutter. In this case the blades of the cutter can be seen as scooping out material from the work piece, peripheral milling is well suited to the cutting of deep slots, threads, and gear teeth. Many different types of cutting tools are used in the milling process, Milling cutters such as endmills may have cutting surfaces across their entire end surface, so that they can be drilled into the workpiece. Milling cutters may also have extended cutting surfaces on their sides to allow for peripheral milling, Tools optimized for face milling tend to have only small cutters at their end corners. The cutting surfaces of a cutter are generally made of a hard and temperature-resistant material. A low cost cutter may have made of high speed steel. More expensive but slower-wearing materials include cemented carbide, thin film coatings may be applied to decrease friction or further increase hardness
39.
Corian
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Corian is the brand name for a solid surface material created by E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. Its primary use is as a surface, though it has many other applications. It is composed of polymer and alumina trihydrate, a material derived from bauxite ore. Corian is the material of this type, created by DuPont scientists in 1967. A number of solid surface competitors to Corian have emerged since the expiration of DuPont’s patent on solid surfaces. Corian is manufactured in three thicknesses,6 millimetres,12 millimetres, and 19 millimetres, most Corian is manufactured at a DuPont facility near Buffalo, New York. Cross-section cuts show consistent color and particulate patterning evenly distributed throughout the material, giving rise to the category name “Solid Surface. ”Corian must be sold and installed by a DuPont certified fabricator and such installations come with a 10-year warranty covering both product and installation, for interior residential applications. Dr. Donald Slocum, a DuPont chemist, is credited as the inventor of Corian solid surface in 1967 and his name appears on the patent issued in October 1968. A “Space Age” material, the product has evolved since its invention, the product was first introduced for sale in 1971, at the National Association of Home Builder’s meeting in Houston, Texas. Originally conceived as a kitchen/bath material available in a single color, in the years subsequent to its market debut, DuPont introduced “integrated” Corian sinks that could be seamlessly integrated with a Corian countertop in a kitchen or bathroom. The enhancement allows for the material to be created in deeper, darker colors that are resistant to scratches. DuPont has issued various sub-branded releases of the material which contain unique design elements and/or methods of manufacture, notably these have included, Corian Private Collection, First colors introduced in 2002, This product line is inspired by the randomness of patterns found in nature. Some colors and patterns in this product line resemble stone and other natural materials, Corian Terra Collection, First colors introduced in the 2000s, This product line contains between 6-20% recycled content. Corian Illumination Series, First colors introduced in 2007, This product line is semi-translucent allowing for new designs calling for backlit applications, Corian Metallics Series, First colors introduced in 2010, This product line contains particulate of gold and silver fleck to give the product a metallic appearance. This creates a depth that simulates movement and variation of color when the installation is viewed from different angles. Martha Stewart Living Collection, First colors introduced in the United States in 2010, Corian DeepColor Technology, First colors introduced in 2013, This product line uses new Deep Color technology to produce darker, more scratch-resistant colors. Corian is, Non-porous Stain resistant Seamless, In the fabrication process, the pieces are clamped tightly together in order to express any excess adhesive. After the adhesive dries, the area is sanded and polished to create a seamless joint and this seamless appearance is a signature characteristic of the material
40.
Old master print
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An old master print is a work of art produced by a printing process within the Western tradition. Fifteenth-century prints are rare that they are classed as old master prints even if they are of crude or merely workmanlike artistic quality. A date of about 1830 is usually taken as marking the end of the period whose prints are covered by this term, the main techniques used, in order of their introduction, are woodcut, engraving, etching, mezzotint and aquatint, although there are others. Different techniques are combined in a single print. With rare exceptions printed on textiles, such as silk, or on vellum, many great European artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, Rembrandt, and Francisco Goya, were dedicated printmakers. In their own day, their international reputations largely came from their prints, influences between artists were also mainly transmitted beyond a single city by prints, for the same reason. Prints therefore are frequently brought up in detailed analyses of individual paintings in art history, today, thanks to colour photo reproductions, and public galleries, their paintings are much better known, whilst their prints are only rarely exhibited, for conservation reasons. But some museum print rooms allow visitors to see their collection, the oldest technique is woodcut, or woodblock printing, which was invented as a method for printing on cloth in China, and perhaps separately in Egypt in the Byzantine period. This had reached Europe via the Byzantine or Islamic worlds before 1300, religious images and playing cards are documented as being produced on paper, probably printed, by a German in Bologna in 1395. However, the most impressive printed European images to survive from before 1400 are printed on cloth, for use as hangings on walls or furniture, including altars, some were used as a pattern to embroider over. Some religious images were used as bandages, to speed healing, the earliest print images are mostly of a high artistic standard, and were clearly designed by artists with a background in painting. Whether these artists cut the blocks themselves, or only inked the design on the block for another to carve, is not known, the great majority of surviving 15th-century prints are religious, although these were probably the ones more likely to survive. Their makers were sometimes called Jesus maker or saint-maker in documents, as with manuscript books, monastic institutions sometimes produced, and often sold, prints. No artists can be identified with specific woodcuts until towards the end of the century, the little evidence we have suggests that woodcut prints became relatively common and cheap during the fifteenth century, and were affordable by skilled workers in towns. For example, what may be the earliest surviving Italian print, the school caught fire, and the crowd who gathered to watch saw the print carried up into the air by the fire, before falling down into the crowd. This was regarded as an escape and the print was carried to Forlì Cathedral. Like the majority of prints before approximately 1460, only a single impression of this print has survived, Woodcut blocks are printed with light pressure, and are capable of printing several thousand impressions, and even at this period some prints may well have been produced in that quantity. Many prints were hand-coloured, mostly in watercolour, in fact the hand-colouring of prints continued for many centuries, Italy, Germany, France and the Netherlands were the main areas of production, England does not seem to have produced any prints until about 1480
41.
Diepkloof Rock Shelter
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These date around 60,000 years ago. The symbolic patterns consist of lines crossed at right angles or oblique angles by hatching and it has been suggested that by the repetition of this motif, early humans were trying to communicate something. Perhaps they were trying to express the identity of the individual or the group, the cave is about 17 kilometres from the shoreline of the Atlantic in a semi-arid area, near Elands Bay about 150 kilometres north of Cape Town. It occurs in sandstone in a butte that overlooks in an east direction 100 metres above the Verlorenvlei River. It is about 25 metres wide and 15 metres deep, research is based upon finds discovered in a trench excavated within it that is 16 metres across and 3.6 metres in depth. The deposits consist of burnt and nonburnt organic residues and ash that came from hearths, ash dumps and it was first excavated in 1973 by John Parkington and Cedric Poggenpoel. Quartz and quartzite predominate the earliest unit with few occurrences of silcrete, during 70-74 ka unit, silcrete has replaced quartz while quartzite is still fairly dominant. From 65-70 ka quartz becomes dominant again with quartzite also being present,270 fragments of ostrich eggshell containers have been found covered with engraved geometric patterns. The fragments have a size of 20–30 mm, though a number have been fitted into larger 80 ×40 mm fragments. It is estimated that fragments from 25 containers have been found, eggshell fragments have been found throughout the period of occupation of the cave but those with engraving are found only in several layers within the Howiesons Poort period. These occur across 18 stratigraphic units, particularly those with the stratigraphic names Frank and this suggests the tradition of engraving lasted for several thousand years. The engraving consists of abstract linear patterns, including a hatched band motif. One fragment has two lines that might have been circular around the container. Moreover, they show the development of a tradition and the complex use of symbols to mediate social interactions. The large number of marked pieces shows that there were rules for composing designs, earlier finds exist of symbolism, such as the 75, 000-year-old engraved ochre chunks found in the Blombos cave, but these are isolated and difficult to tell apart from meaningless doodles. The engravings are found on ostrich eggshells that were used as water containers, Ostrich eggshells have an average volume of 1 litre. They may have had drinking spouts, holes to enable them to be strung as a canteen for easier carrying and they involved skill to make, with one of the researchers involved noting Ostrich egg shells are quite hard. Doing such engravings is not so easy, the preservation of organic matter such as wood, grass, seeds and fruits at the site has been described as exceptional
42.
Middle Stone Age
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The Middle Stone Age was a period of African prehistory between the Early Stone Age and the Later Stone Age. It is generally considered to have begun around 280,000 years ago, the beginnings of particular MSA stone tools have their origins as far back as 550–500,000 years ago and as such some researchers consider this to be the beginnings of the MSA. The MSA is associated with anatomically modern humans as well as archaic Homo sapiens, sometimes referred to as Homo helmei. Early physical evidence comes from the Gademotta Formation in Ethiopia, the Kapthurin Formation in Kenya and it is difficult to discuss the MSA of Africa without first considering the immense size of the continent. Preservation in these two regions are alternately superb and lamentable, yet the sites that have been uncovered document the adaptive nature of early hominins to climatically unstable environments. Eastern Africa represents some of the most reliable dates, due to the use of radiocarbon dating on volcanic ash deposits, faunal preservation, however, is not spectacular, and standardization in site excavation and lithic classification was, until recently, lacking. Central Africa reflects similar patterning to eastern Africa, yet more archaeological research of the region is certainly required, southern Africa consists of many cave sites, most of which show very punctuated starts and stops in stone tool technology. Research in southern Africa has been continuous and quite standardized, allowing for reliable comparisons between sites in the region. Much of the evidence for the origins of modern human behavior is traced back to sites in this region, including Blombos Cave, Howiesons Poort, Still Bay. The origins of the MSA are characterized in most regions by the Acheulian to MSA transition and this transition is considered to be a gradual process, rather than a singular event wherein hominin technologies advanced rapidly. Although the dates for this vary widely, the oldest reliably dated MSA site is Gademotta in Ethiopia at greater than 276 thousand years ago. The Middle Awash valley of Ethiopia and the Central Rift Valley of Kenya constituted a major center for behavioural innovation and this suggests a possible overlap of 100-150 thousand years. The Cave of Hearths and Montague Cave in South Africa contain evidence of Acheulian technologies, as well as later MSA technologies, Early blades have been documented as far back as 550-500,000 years in the Kapthurin Formation in Kenya and Kathu Pan in South Africa. Backed pieces from the Twin Rivers and Kalambo Falls sites in Zambia, a high level of technical competence is also indicated for the c.280 ka blades recovered from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya. The stone tool technology in use during the Middle Stone Age shows a mosaic of techniques, however, the use of blades is seen at many sites as well. In Africa, blades may have used during the transition from the Early Stone Age to the Middle Stone Age onwards. Artifact technology during the Middle Stone Age shows a pattern of innovation followed by disappearance and this occurs with technology such as the manufacture of shell beads, arrows and hide working tools including needles, and gluing technology. These pieces of evidence provide a counterpoint to the classic Out of Africa scenario in which increasing complexity accumulated during the Middle Stone Age, perhaps only in small numbers initially, but by 30 ka they had replaced Neanderthals and H. erectus
43.
Art of the Upper Paleolithic
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The art of the Upper Paleolithic is amongst the oldest art known. Older possible examples include the incised ochre from Blombos Cave, Cave art in Europe continued to the Mesolithic about 12,000 years ago. As this corresponds to the phase of the last glacial period. As a notable aspect of what some call the Upper Paleolithic Revolution, and evidence for behavioral modernity, Art helps define what makes us human – it is part of what we are or can be. Decoration was also made on functional tools, such as spear throwers, perforated batons, common subject matters include the animals that were hunted and predators and other animals that were not, the human form was often expressed – especially female shapes. Men are also depicted, such as the Pin Hole man, shells from Mediterranean species have been found at Gönnersdorf, over 1,000 kilometres from the Mediterranean coast. The higher sea levels today mean that the level and nature of settlements in the Upper Paleolithic are unable to be explored. It is possible that they were used in rituals, or alternatively heated on a fire, either type of use may account for the many broken examples, often with the fragments dispersed over some distance. Many sites have large quantities of flat stones apparently used as flooring, Ice Age art can be naturalistic and figurative, it can also be geometric and non-representational. Some of the oldest works of art were found in the Schwäbische Alb, Baden-Württemberg, the Venus figurine known as the Venus of Hohle Fels, dates to some 40,000 years ago. Other fine examples of art from the Upper Palaeolithic includes, cave painting, incised / engraved cave art such as at Creswell Crags, portable art, and open-air art. There are numerous carved or engraved pieces of bone and ivory and these include spear throwers, including one shaped like a mammoth, and many of the type of objects called a bâton de commandement. One of the most famous pieces of art from Britain is the Robin Hood Cave Horse from Derbyshire. Other examples include the Kendricks Cave Decorated Horse Jaw, many of the finest examples were featured in the Ice Age Art, Arrival of the Modern Mind exhibition at the British Museum in 7 February –26 May 2013. A cave at Turobong in South Korea containing human remains has found to contain carved deer bones. Petroglyphs of deer or reindeer found at Sokchang-ri may also date to the Upper Paleolithic, potsherds in a style reminiscent of early Japanese work have been found at Kosan-ri on Jeju island, which, due to lower sea levels at the time, would have been accessible from Japan. The oldest African petroglyphs are dated to approximately the Mesolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary, zimbabwes oldest art finds date to at least 10,000 years. The earliest undisputed African rock art dates back about 10,000 years, apparently originating in the Nile River valley and spread as far west as Mali
44.
Petroglyph
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Petroglyphs are images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading, as a form of rock art. Outside North America, scholars often use such as carving, engraving. Petroglyphs are found world-wide, and are associated with prehistoric peoples. The word comes from the Greek word petro-, theme of the word meaning stone, and glyphein meaning to carve. The term petroglyph should not be confused with petrograph, which is an image drawn or painted on a rock face, both types of image belong to the wider and more general category of rock art or parietal art. Petroforms, or patterns and shapes made by large rocks. Inukshuks are also unique, and found only in the Arctic and they are a category of rock art, and sometimes found in conjunction with rock-cut architecture. However, they tend to be omitted in most works on rock art, a few such works exploit the natural contours of the rock and use them to define an image, but they do not amount to man-made reliefs. Rock reliefs have been made in many cultures, and were important in the art of the Ancient Near East. Rock reliefs are generally large, as they need to be to make an impact in the open air. Most have figures that are over life-size, and in many the figures are multiples of life-size, the vertical relief is most common, but reliefs on essentially horizontal surfaces are also found. The term typically excludes relief carvings inside caves, whether natural or themselves man-made, natural rock formations made into statues or other sculpture in the round, most famously at the Great Sphinx of Giza, are also usually excluded. Reliefs on large boulders left in their location, like the Hittite İmamkullu relief, are likely to be included. Some petroglyphs are dated to approximately the Neolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary, about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, if not earlier. Sites in Australia have petroglyphs that are estimated to be as much as 27,000 years old, around 7,000 to 9,000 years ago, other precursors of writing systems, such as pictographs and ideograms, began to appear. Petroglyphs were still common though, and some cultures continued using them much longer, petroglyphs have been found in all parts of the globe except Antarctica with highest concentrations in parts of Africa, Scandinavia, Siberia, southwestern North America and Australia. There are many theories to explain their purpose, depending on their location, age, some petroglyphs are thought to be astronomical markers, maps, and other forms of symbolic communication, including a form of pre-writing. Petroglyph maps may show trails, symbols communicating time and distances traveled, as well as the terrain in the form of rivers, landforms
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Ancient history
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Ancient history is the aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with Sumerian Cuneiform script, the term classical antiquity is often used to refer to history in the Old World from the beginning of recorded Greek history in 776 BC. This roughly coincides with the date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC, the beginning of the history of ancient Rome. In India, ancient history includes the period of the Middle Kingdoms, and, in China. Historians have two major avenues which they take to better understand the ancient world, archaeology and the study of source texts, primary sources are those sources closest to the origin of the information or idea under study. Primary sources have been distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on. Archaeology is the excavation and study of artefacts in an effort to interpret, archaeologists excavate the ruins of ancient cities looking for clues as to how the people of the time period lived. The study of the ancient cities of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, the city of Pompeii, an ancient Roman city preserved by the eruption of a volcano in AD79. Its state of preservation is so great that it is a window into Roman culture and provided insight into the cultures of the Etruscans. The Terracotta Army, the mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor in ancient China, the discovery of Knossos by Minos Kalokairinos and Sir Arthur Evans. The discovery of Troy by Heinrich Schliemann, most of what is known of the ancient world comes from the accounts of antiquitys own historians. Although it is important to take account the bias of each ancient author. Some of the more notable ancient writers include Herodotus, Thucydides, Arrian, Plutarch, Polybius, Sima Qian, Sallust, Livy, Josephus, Suetonius, furthermore, the reliability of the information obtained from these surviving records must be considered. Few people were capable of writing histories, as literacy was not widespread in almost any culture until long after the end of ancient history, the earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, beginning with Herodotus of Halicarnassus. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, the Roman Empire was one of the ancient worlds most literate cultures, but many works by its most widely read historians are lost. Indeed, only a minority of the work of any major Roman historian has survived, prehistory is the period before written history. The early human migrations in the Lower Paleolithic saw Homo erectus spread across Eurasia 1.8 million years ago, the controlled use of fire occurred 800,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. 250,000 years ago, Homo sapiens emerged in Africa, 60–70,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa along a coastal route to South and Southeast Asia and reached Australia
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Chasing (metalworking)
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Repoussé or repoussage is a metalworking technique in which a malleable metal is ornamented or shaped by hammering from the reverse side to create a design in low relief. It is a form of toreutics, there are few techniques that offer such diversity of expression while still being relatively economical. Chasing is the opposite of repoussé, and the two are used in conjunction to create a finished piece and it is also known as embossing. While repoussé is used to work on the reverse of the metal to form a design on the front. The term chasing is derived from the chase, which refers to a groove, furrow, channel. The adjectival form is chased work, the techniques of repoussé and chasing use the plasticity of metal, forming shapes by degrees. There is no loss of metal in the process as it is stretched locally, the process is relatively slow but a maximum of form is achieved, with one continuous surface of sheet metal of essentially the same thickness. Direct contact of the tools used is usually visible in the result, a not always apparent in other techniques. The word repoussé is French and means pushed up, ultimately from Latin, pulsare, repoussage is the noun to refer to the technique, with repoussé being an adjective referring to a piece to which the technique has been applied. Chasing comes from the French word, chasser meaning to drive out, an example from antiquity is the late Eighteenth Dynasty mummy mask of Tutankhamun. The lapis lazuli and other stones were inlaid in chased areas after the height of the form was completed, the majority of the mask was formed using the technique of repoussé from what appears to be a single sheet of gold. The prehistoric Gundestrup cauldron has relief panels on separate thin sheets on both the inside and outside. The largest known sculpture created with this technique is the Statue of Liberty, properly Liberté éclairant le monde, the statue was formed by copper repoussé in sections using wooden structures to shape each piece during the hammering process. A second example of monumental copper repoussé sculpture is Portlandia by Raymond Kaskey, the techniques of repoussé date from Antiquity and have been used widely with gold and silver for fine detailed work and with copper, tin, and bronze for larger sculptures. Classical pieces using this technique include the bronze Greek armour plates from the 3rd century BC, during the 3rd millennium BC, in the Middle East, a variety of semi-mass production methods were introduced to avoid repetitive free-hand work. With the simplest technique, sheet gold could be pressed into designs carved in intaglio in stone, bone, the gold could be worked into the designs with wood tools or, more commonly, by hammering a wax or lead force over it. The alternative to pressing gold sheet into a die is to work it over a design in cameo relief, here the detail would be greater on the back of the final design, so some final chasing from the front was often carried out to sharpen the detail. The use of patterned punches dates back to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, the simplest patterned punches were produced by loops or scrolls of wire
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Lost-wax casting
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Lost-wax casting is the process by which a duplicate metal sculpture is cast from an original sculpture. Dependent on the skills, intricate works can be achieved by this method. The oldest known examples of this technique are the objects discovered in the Cave of the Treasure hoard in southern Israel, conservative estimates of age from carbon-14 dating date the items to c.3700 BC, making them more than 5700 years old. Though the process varies from foundry to foundry, the steps used in casting small bronze sculptures are fairly standardized. Variations of the include, lost mould, which recognizes that materials other than wax can be used. Lost-wax casting was widespread in Europe until the 18th century, when a piece-moulding process came to predominate, casts can be made of the wax model itself, the direct method, or of a wax copy of a model that need not be of wax, the indirect method. These are the steps for the process, Model-making. An artist or mould-maker creates a model from wax, clay. Wax and oil-based clay are often preferred because these materials retain their softness, a mould is made of the original model or sculpture. The rigid outer moulds contain the inner mould, which is the exact negative of the original model. Inner moulds are made of latex, polyurethane rubber or silicone. The outer mould can be made from plaster, but can also be made of fiberglass or other materials. Most moulds are made of at least two pieces, and a shim with keys is placed between the parts during construction so that the mould can be put back together accurately. If there are long, thin pieces extending out of the model, they are cut off of the original. Sometimes many moulds are needed to recreate the model, especially for large models. Once the mould is finished, molten wax is poured into it and swished around until an even coating, usually about 1⁄8 inch thick and this is repeated until the desired thickness is reached. Another method is to fill the mould with molten wax. After this the rest of the wax is poured out again, the mould is turned upside down, with this method it is more difficult to control the overall thickness of the wax layer
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