1.
Engravings (album)
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Engravings is the debut album by Forest Swords, released through Tri Angle Records on 26 August 2013. The album release was announced when the artist posted the The Weight Of Gold track to his Soundcloud page on 18 July 2013, previously, Thors Stone had been shared in June 2013 but without mention of the album release. The album cover artwork - designed by Barnes - was nominated for the award Best Art Vinyl 2013, the video for Thors Stone was directed by Dave Ma and was online in September 2013, featuring Spanish dancer Guzman Rosado. A video for The Weight Of Gold directed by French dancer and choreographer Benjamin Millepied was posted online in February 2014, a remix of Engravings lead track Thors Stone by dub artist Lee Scratch Perry was posted online in November 2013. Uniquely, the album was mixed on headphones outdoors on Thurstaston Hill in The Wirral, brighton, UK vocalist Anneka provides vocals on the Annekas Battle track
2.
Northern Renaissance
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The Northern Renaissance was the Renaissance that occurred in Europe north of the Alps. Before 1497, Italian Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy, from the late 15th century, its ideas spread around Europe. In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned Venetian artists, writers and humanists such as Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard and Desiderius Erasmus were greatly influenced by the Italian Renaissance model and were part of the same intellectual movement. During the English Renaissance writers such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe composed works of lasting influence, the Renaissance was brought to Poland directly from Italy by artists from Florence and the Low Countries, starting the Polish Renaissance. In some areas the Northern Renaissance was distinct from the Italian Renaissance in its centralization of political power, while Italy and Germany were dominated by independent city-states, most of Europe began emerging as nation-states or even unions of countries. Feudalism had dominated Europe for a thousand years, but was on the decline at the beginning of the Renaissance, as in Italy, the decline of feudalism opened the way for the cultural, social, and economic changes associated with the Renaissance in Europe. Finally, the Renaissance in Europe would also be kindled by a weakening of the Roman Catholic Church, the slow demise of feudalism also weakened a long-established policy in which church officials helped keep the population of the manor under control in return for tribute. Consequently, the early 15th century saw the rise of secular institutions. Among the most significant of these, humanism, would lay the grounds for much of Renaissance art, music. Desiderius Erasmus, for example, was important in spreading humanist ideas in the north, forms of artistic expression which a century ago would have been banned by the church were now tolerated or even encouraged in certain circles. The velocity of transmission of the Renaissance throughout Europe can also be ascribed to the invention of the printing press and its power to disseminate knowledge enhanced scientific research, spread political ideas and generally impacted the course of the Renaissance in northern Europe. As in Italy, the press increased the availability of books written in both vernacular languages and the publication of new and ancient classical texts in Greek and Latin. Furthermore, the Bible became widely available in translation, a factor often attributed to the spread of the Protestant Reformation, one of the most important technological development of the Renaissance was the invention of the caravel. This combination of European and African ship building technologies for the first time made extensive trade and these states all began to conduct extensive trade with Africa and Asia, and in the Americas began extensive colonisation activities. This period of exploration and expansion has become known as the Age of Discovery, eventually European power spread around the globe. The detailed realism of Early Netherlandish painting was greatly respected in Italy, around the same time, Albrecht Dürer made his two trips to Italy, where he was greatly admired for his prints. Dürer, in turn, was influenced by the art he saw there, Northern painters in the 16th century increasingly looked and travelled to Rome, becoming known as the Romanists. The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the late Renaissance stylistic tendencies of Mannerism that were in vogue had a impact on their work
3.
Chaim Goldberg
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Chaim Goldberg was a Polish-Jewish artist, painter, sculptor, and engraver. Following World War II he emigrated to Israel and later to the United States where he died in 2004, Chaim Goldberg was born in a wooden clapboard house built by his father, a village cobbler. As a young boy of 6 he gravitated to creating little figurines carved from stones, later he took up drawing and painting with basic shoemaker paints that he found at his fathers workbench. He was the child and the first boy after eight girls. He grew up in a home in Kazimierz Dolny. He would observe and draw the beggars and klezmers who frequented his home as guests and his father would encourage their stays by letting it be known that the humble Goldberg home was open for those who could not pay for their night stay at any of the inns. These characters became Chaims early models, as he waited for his shoes, he noticed the numerous art works that were attached to the wall with shoe nails and inquired who the artist was. Silberstein spent the night reviewing the young artist’s work. In the morning they went by foot to Lublin, a distance of 26 miles and he then got him several small scholarships based on these letters of recommendation. This helped finance his education at the Józef Mehoffer School for Fine Arts, in Kraków. At 17, he was the youngest to be admitted and studied under the Rector of the Academy and Professor Tadeusz Pruszkowski, Kowarski, Władysław Skoczylas, the beauty of Kazimierz Dolny had long ago been discovered by artists who had flocked there in large numbers over the years. Between the First World War and the Second World War, Kazimierz Dolny became known as an Art Colony as well, Professor Tadeusz Pruszkowski had built a summer studio in the mountains and attracted his students to come down and paint outdoors. Many of these artists as well as older ones painted the life they saw, Chaim Goldberg became stimulated by this traffic of artists and began to do art as well. When he was discovered he had not attended any school or private lessons and he watched what the other artists did and was encouraged to do the same, set himself up with a home-made easel and paint outdoors. When he was discovered at the age of 14, his collection included landscapes as well as paintings of the types that frequented his home as guests. Chaim was conscripted into the Polish army in the fall of 1938 and he was assigned to the artillery brigade that guarded Warsaw. After the Polish army surrendered to the Germans he was taken into custody as a POW and he managed to escape and tried to rescue his parents and family who would not believe that the Germans had any intention of hurting the Jews. He could not motivate them to flee with him, so Chaim, his future wife, her sister and their parents became exiles escaping to Russia on foot
4.
Glass engraving
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Glass engraving is a form of decorative glasswork that involves engraving a glass surface or object. It is distinct from glass art in the sense, which refers to moulding and blowing glass. Some artists may combine two or more techniques, Glass engraving encompasses a variety of techniques. One notable form is intaglio work, with images and inscriptions cut into the surface of the glass through abrasion, Glass engraving tools are therefore small abrasive wheels and drills, with small lathes often used. Engraving wheels are made of copper, with a linseed oil. Other forms of engraving are stipple and drypoint in which the surface of the glass is abraded with the use of small diamond tipped burrs. The scratches and small dots made in this method can, in the hands of a skilled artist, be used to produce images of astonishing clarity, notable practitioners of this form are James Dennison Pender and the late Lawrence Whistler who began a revival in England. Sandblasting is yet another technique used in glass engraving, abrasive is sprayed through a sandblasting gun on to glass which is masked up by a piece of stencil in order to produce inscriptions. This is more of a glass engraving technique employed by companies like Crystal Galleries Ltd in order to engrave on crystal awards. Glass engraving is considered by many to be an art form. While this is far from accurate it is certainly a form that has seen its heyday come, despite this there are still many glass engravers who are producing bold dynamic and aesthetically challenging artworks. In the UK one of the most notable artists is Alison Kinnaird MBE, based in Scotland she splits her time between glass engraving and playing the traditional Scottish harp. In recent years these two apparently disparate mediums have been combined when she composed music to accompany her piece Psalmsong which is now installed in the Scottish Parliament building. The UK currently has a Guild of Glass engravers based in London and lists a number of well respected glass artists as members and these include Katherine Coleman MBE, Sally Scott, Tracey Sheppard, Dominic Fonde and Ronald Pennell. It has a gallery of members works with contact details for commissions. A general exhibition is held two years. The most resent ones at the FitzWilliam museum in Cambridge 2010, local branches in the UK meet for joint practical work, tutorials, and hold regional exhibitions. Meanwhile, the Czech republic having produced many world class glass artists can lay claim to one of the very best, every two years the Czech Republic hosts a conference aimed specifically at glass engravers
5.
Intaglio (printmaking)
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Intaglio is the family of printing and printmaking techniques in which the image is incised into a surface and the incised line or sunken area holds the ink. It is the direct opposite of a relief print, normally, copper or zinc plates are used as a surface or matrix, and the incisions are created by etching, engraving, drypoint, aquatint or mezzotint. Collagraphs may also be printed as intaglio plates, in etching, for example, the plate is covered in a resin ground or an acid-resistant wax material. Using an etching needle, or a tool, the image is engraved into the ground. The plate is dipped into acid. The acid bites into the surface of the plate where it was exposed, biting is a printmaking term to describe the acids etching, or incising, of the image. After the plate is bitten, the plate is removed from the acid bath. To print an intaglio plate, ink is applied to the surface by wiping and/or dabbing the plate to push the ink into the recessed lines, the plate is then rubbed with tarlatan cloth to remove most of the excess ink. The final smooth wipe is often done with newspaper or old public phone book pages, a damp piece of paper is placed on top of the plate, so that when going through the press the damp paper will be able to be squeezed into the plates ink-filled grooves. The paper and plate are covered by a thick blanket to ensure even pressure when going through the rolling press. The rolling press applies very high pressure through the blanket to push the paper into the grooves on the plate, the blanket is then lifted, revealing the paper and printed image. Martin Schongauer was one of the earliest known artists to exploit the copper-engraving technique, italian and Netherlandish engraving began slightly after the Germans, but were well developed by 1500. Drypoint and etching were also German inventions of the century, probably by the Housebook Master. In the nineteenth century, Viennese printer Karel Klíč introduced a combined intaglio, photogravure retained the smooth continuous tones of photography but was printed using a chemically-etched copper plate. This permitted a photographic image to be printed on regular paper, at one time intaglio printing was used for all mass-printed materials including banknotes, stock certificates, newspapers and magazines, fabrics, wallpapers and sheet music. Today intaglio engraving is largely used for paper or plastic currency, banknotes, passports, photogravure, an intaglio photo-printmaking process Rotogravure Line engraving Viscosity printing History of printing Intaglio and other printmaking definitions
6.
Printmaking
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Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
7.
Wood engraving
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Wood engraving is a printmaking and letterpress printing technique, in which an artist works an image or matrix of images into a block of wood. Functionally a variety of woodcut, it uses relief printing, where the artist applies ink to the face of the block and prints using relatively low pressure. By contrast, ordinary engraving, like etching, uses a metal plate for the matrix, and is printed by the method, where the ink fills the valleys. As a result, wood engravings deteriorate less quickly than copper-plate engravings, Thomas Bewick developed the wood engraving technique at the end of the 18th century. His work differed from earlier woodcuts in two key ways, first, rather than using woodcarving tools such as knives, Bewick used an engravers burin. With this, he could create thin delicate lines, often creating large areas in the composition. Second, wood engraving traditionally uses the woods end grain—while the older technique used the side grain. The resulting increased hardness and durability facilitated more detailed images, wood-engraved blocks could be used on conventional printing presses, which were going through rapid mechanical improvements during the first quarter of the 19th century. The blocks were made the same height as, and composited alongside, the combination of this new wood engraving method and mechanized printing drove a rapid expansion of illustrations in the 19th century. Further, advances in stereotype let wood-engravings be reproduced onto metal, by the mid-19th century, many wood engravings rivaled copperplate engravings. In 15th and 16th-century Europe, woodcuts were a technique in printmaking and printing. They were still made for printing press work such as newspapers or almanacs. The beginnings of modern wood engraving techniques developed at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, Bewick generally engraved harder woods, such as boxwood, rather than the woods used in woodcuts, and he engraved the ends of blocks instead of the side. Finding a woodcutting knife not suitable for working against the grain in harder woods, Bewick used a burin, from the beginning of the nineteenth century Bewicks techniques gradually came into wider use, especially in Britain and the United States. Alexander Anderson introduced the technique to the United States, Bewicks work impressed him, so he reverse engineered and imitated Bewicks technique—using metal until he learned that Bewick used wood. This was, in ways a unnatural application, since engravers had to cut away almost all the surface of the block to produce the printable lines of the artists drawing. Nonetheless, it became the most common use of wood engraving, in the United States, wood-engraved publications also began to take hold, such as Harpers Weekly. A single design was divided into a grid, and each worked on a square
8.
Relief printing
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Relief printing is a process where protruding surface faces of the printing plate or block are inked, recessed areas are ink free. Printing the image is therefore a simple matter of inking the face of the matrix. A printing-press may not be needed as the back of the paper can be rubbed or pressed by hand with a tool such as a brayer or roller. The matrix in relief printing is classically created by starting with a flat original surface, the remaining areas of the original surface receive the ink. The relief family of techniques includes woodcut, metalcut, wood engraving, relief etching, linocut, rubber stamp, foam printing, potato printing, traditional text printing with movable type is also a relief technique. This meant that woodcuts were much easier to use as book illustrations, intaglio illustrations, such as engravings, had to be printed separately. Relief printing is one of the families of printmaking techniques, along with the intaglio. Modern developments have created other types, in contrast, in the intaglio process the recessed areas are the printed areas. The whole matrix is inked, and the ink then wiped away from the surface, much greater pressure is then needed to force the paper into the channels containing the ink, and a high-pressure press will normally be required. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, and drypoint, with planographic techniques, such as lithography, the entire surface of the matrix is flat, and some areas are treated to create the print image. Normally relief and intaglio techniques can only be mixed with others of the family in the same work. See also Relief printing techniques as used and described by French printmaker Dominique Lecomte
9.
Cartography
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Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively, the fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to, Set the maps agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing, traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. Represent the terrain of the object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections, eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the maps purpose. This is the concern of generalization, reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization, orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design, modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems. The earliest known map is a matter of debate, both because the term map isnt well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE, the oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, another depicts Babylon as being north of the world center. The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps since Anaximander in the 6th century BCE, in the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemys world map – the world known to Western society. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic, in ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, in the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and these charts may have been used for navigation. Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world, approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154
10.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
11.
Etching
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Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types of material, as a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today. In a number of variants such as microfabrication etching and photochemical milling it is a crucial technique in much modern technology. In traditional pure etching, a plate is covered with a waxy ground which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with an etching needle where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece. The échoppe, a tool with an oval section, is also used for swelling lines. The plate is dipped in a bath of acid, technically called the mordant or etchant. The acid bites into the metal where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate, the remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, the plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper. The paper picks up the ink from the lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times, typically several hundred impressions could be printed before the shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process, Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving or aquatint. The process as applied to printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, Hopfer was a craftsman who decorated armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking, using iron plates. Apart from his prints, there are two examples of his work on armour, a shield from 1536 now in the Real Armeria of Madrid. The switch to copper plates was made in Italy. On the other hand, the handling of the ground and acid need skill and experience, prior to 1100 AD, the New World Hohokam independently utilized the technique of acid etching in marine shell designs. Jacques Callot from Nancy in Lorraine made important technical advances in etching technique and he developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do. Callot also appears to have responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for the etching ground
12.
Mezzotint
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Mezzotint is a printmaking process of the intaglio family, technically a drypoint method. It was the first tonal method to be used, enabling half-tones to be produced without using line- or dot-based techniques like hatching, cross-hatching or stipple. Mezzotint achieves tonality by roughening the plate with thousands of little dots made by a tool with small teeth. In printing, the pits in the plate hold the ink when the face of the plate is wiped clean. A high level of quality and richness in the print can be achieved, the mezzotint printmaking method was invented by the German amateur artist Ludwig von Siegen. His earliest mezzotint print dates to 1642 and is a portrait of Countess Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg and this was made by working from light to dark. The rocker seems to have been invented by Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a cavalry commander in the English Civil War, who was the next to use the process. Sir Peter Lely saw the potential for using it to publicise his portraits, the process was especially widely used in England from the mid-eighteenth century, to reproduce portraits and other paintings. Since the mid-nineteenth century it has relatively little used. Robert Kipniss and Peter Ilsted are two notable 20th-century exponents of the technique, M. C, British mezzotint collecting was a great craze from about 1760 to the Great Crash of 1929, also spreading to America. The favourite period to collect was roughly from 1750 to 1820, leading collectors included William Eaton, 2nd Baron Cheylesmore and the Irishman John Chaloner Smith. This became the most common method, the whole surface of a metal, usually copper, plate is roughened evenly, manually with a rocker, or mechanically. If the plate were printed at this point it would show as solid black, a burnisher has a smooth, round end, which flattens the minutely protruding points comprising the roughened surface of the metal printing plate. Areas smoothed completely flat will not hold ink at all, such areas will print white, by varying the degree of smoothing, mid-tones between black and white can be created, hence the name mezzo-tinto which is Italian for half-tone or half-painted. This is called working from dark to light, or the subtractive method, alternatively, it is possible to create the image directly by only roughening a blank plate selectively, where the darker parts of the image are to be. This is called working from light to dark, or the additive method, the first mezzotints by Ludwig von Siegen were made in this way. Especially in this method, the mezzotint can be combined with other techniques, such as engraving, on areas of the plate not roughened. The plate is put through a printing press next to a sheet of paper
13.
Old master print
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An old master print is a work of art produced by a printing process within the Western tradition. Fifteenth-century prints are rare that they are classed as old master prints even if they are of crude or merely workmanlike artistic quality. A date of about 1830 is usually taken as marking the end of the period whose prints are covered by this term, the main techniques used, in order of their introduction, are woodcut, engraving, etching, mezzotint and aquatint, although there are others. Different techniques are combined in a single print. With rare exceptions printed on textiles, such as silk, or on vellum, many great European artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, Rembrandt, and Francisco Goya, were dedicated printmakers. In their own day, their international reputations largely came from their prints, influences between artists were also mainly transmitted beyond a single city by prints, for the same reason. Prints therefore are frequently brought up in detailed analyses of individual paintings in art history, today, thanks to colour photo reproductions, and public galleries, their paintings are much better known, whilst their prints are only rarely exhibited, for conservation reasons. But some museum print rooms allow visitors to see their collection, the oldest technique is woodcut, or woodblock printing, which was invented as a method for printing on cloth in China, and perhaps separately in Egypt in the Byzantine period. This had reached Europe via the Byzantine or Islamic worlds before 1300, religious images and playing cards are documented as being produced on paper, probably printed, by a German in Bologna in 1395. However, the most impressive printed European images to survive from before 1400 are printed on cloth, for use as hangings on walls or furniture, including altars, some were used as a pattern to embroider over. Some religious images were used as bandages, to speed healing, the earliest print images are mostly of a high artistic standard, and were clearly designed by artists with a background in painting. Whether these artists cut the blocks themselves, or only inked the design on the block for another to carve, is not known, the great majority of surviving 15th-century prints are religious, although these were probably the ones more likely to survive. Their makers were sometimes called Jesus maker or saint-maker in documents, as with manuscript books, monastic institutions sometimes produced, and often sold, prints. No artists can be identified with specific woodcuts until towards the end of the century, the little evidence we have suggests that woodcut prints became relatively common and cheap during the fifteenth century, and were affordable by skilled workers in towns. For example, what may be the earliest surviving Italian print, the school caught fire, and the crowd who gathered to watch saw the print carried up into the air by the fire, before falling down into the crowd. This was regarded as an escape and the print was carried to Forlì Cathedral. Like the majority of prints before approximately 1460, only a single impression of this print has survived, Woodcut blocks are printed with light pressure, and are capable of printing several thousand impressions, and even at this period some prints may well have been produced in that quantity. Many prints were hand-coloured, mostly in watercolour, in fact the hand-colouring of prints continued for many centuries, Italy, Germany, France and the Netherlands were the main areas of production, England does not seem to have produced any prints until about 1480
14.
Line engraving
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Line engraving is a term for engraved images printed on paper to be used as prints or illustrations. The term is now less used and when is, it is mainly in connection with 18th or 19th century commercial illustrations for magazines and books. Copperplate engraving is somewhat outdated term for engravings. Engraving for the purpose of printmaking creates plates for intaglio printing, intaglio engravings are made by carving into a plate of a hard substance such as copper, zinc, steel, or plastic. Afterward ink is rubbed into the areas and away from the flat surface. Moistened paper is placed over the plate and both are run through the rollers of an intaglio press, the pressure exerted by the press on the paper pushes it into the engraved lines and prints the image made by those lines. In an intaglio print, the lines print black. Wood engraving is a printing technique, with the images made by carving into fine-grained hardwood blocks. In a relief print, the lines show white. The art of engraving has been practiced from the earliest ages, jewelry and many types of fine metal works frequently are engraved as well as furniture. Engraving often is used as an embellishment of knives, swords, guns, the important discovery which made line engraving one of the multiplying arts was the accidental discovery of how to print an incised line. This method was known for time before its real utility was realized. The resulting design, called a niello, was higher in contrast and thus. As this enamel was difficult to remove, goldsmiths developed alternate means of viewing their work still in progress. They would take a sulfur cast of the work on a matrix of fine clay and it was discovered later that a proof could be taken on damped paper by filling the engraved lines with ink and wiping it off the surface of the plate. Pressure was then applied to push the paper into the hollowed lines and this was the beginning of plate printing. This convenient way of proofing a niello saved the effort of producing a cast, although goldsmiths continued to engrave nielli to ornament plates and furniture, it was not until the late 15th century that the new method of printing was implemented. In early Italian and German prints, the line is used with such perfect simplicity of purpose that the methods of the artists are as obvious as if we saw them actually at work
15.
Steel engraving
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Steel engraving is a technique for printing illustrations based on steel instead of copper. It has been used in artistic printmaking, although it was much used for reproductions in the 19th century. Steel engraving was introduced in 1792 by Jacob Perkins, an American inventor, for banknote printing, the new technique only partially replaced the other commercial techniques of that time such as woodcut, wood engraving, copper engraving and later lithography. All the illustrations in the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1911 are steel engravings, Engraving is done with a burin, which is a small bar of hardened steel with a sharp point. It is pushed along the plate to produce thin furrowed lines and this is followed by the use of a scraper to remove any burs, since they would be an impediment during the subsequent inking process. Steel plates are very hard for this technique, which is used on softer copper plates. So steel engraving also used etching, where acid creates the lines in the plates in the pattern made by removing a thin coating of acid-resistant ground by tools. Roulettes of different types were used together with the burin and needle to create densely packed marks which appear as tonal to the eye, true burin engraving was generally used to finish the etched image. First a broad, general outline is made on the plate before starting the detailed image, Engraving will produce a printed reverse or mirror image of the image on the plate. Steel plates can be hardened to ensure that they can print thousands of times with little wear. From about 1860 the steel-facing of copper plates became widely used and it can be very difficult to distinguish between engravings on steel and steel-faced copper, other than by date. The most reliable way of distinguishing between unfaced copper engraving and steel or steel-faced engraving is the lightness and delicacy of the lines in the latter. Until around 1820 copper plates were the medium used for engraving. Copper, being a metal, was easy to carve or engrave. Engravers then reworked a worn plate by retracing the previous engraving to sharpen the image again, another advantage to using copper is that it is a soft metal and can be corrected or updated with a reasonable amount of effort. For this reason, copper plates were the medium of printing for mapmakers. During the 1820s steel began to copper as the preferred medium of commercial publishers for illustration. Steel engraving produced plates with shaper, harder, more distinct lines, also, the harder steel plates produced much longer wearing dies that could strike thousands of copies before they would need any repair or refurbishing engraving
16.
Goldsmith
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A goldsmith is a metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals. Goldsmiths must be skilled in forming metal through filing, soldering, sawing, forging, casting, the trade has very often included jewellery-making skills, as well as the very similar skills of the silversmith. Many universities and junior colleges also offer goldsmithing, silversmithing, compared to other metals, gold is malleable, ductile, rare, and it is the only solid metallic element with a yellow color. It may easily be melted, fused, and cast without the problems of oxides and gas that are problematic with other such as bronzes. It is fairly easy to weld, wherein similarly to clay two small pieces may be pounded together to make one larger piece. Gold is classified as a noble metal—because it does not react with most elements and it usually is found in its native form, lasting indefinitely without oxidization and tarnishing. Gold has been worked by humans in all cultures where the metal is available, either indigenously or imported, and the history of these activities is extensive. Superbly made objects from the ancient cultures of Africa, Asia, Europe, India, North America, Mesoamerica, some pieces date back thousands of years and were made using many techniques that still are used by modern goldsmiths. Techniques developed by some of those goldsmiths achieved a level that was lost and remained beyond the skills of those who followed. In medieval Europe goldsmiths were organized into guilds and usually were one of the most important, the guild kept records of members and the marks they used on their products. These records, when they survive, are useful to historians. Goldsmiths often acted as bankers, since they dealt in gold and had sufficient security for the storage of valuable items. The Sunar caste is one of the oldest communities in goldsmithing in India, in India, Vishwakarma are the goldsmith caste. The printmaking technique of engraving developed among goldsmiths in Germany around 1430, the notable engravers of the fifteenth century were either goldsmiths, such as Master E. S. or the sons of goldsmiths, such as Martin Schongauer and Albrecht Dürer. A goldsmith might have an array of skills and knowledge at their disposal. Gold, being the most malleable metal of all, offers opportunities for the worker. In todays world a variety of other metals, especially platinum alloys. 24 Carat is pure gold and historically, was known as fine gold, because it is so soft, however,24 Carat gold is rarely used
17.
Gunsmith
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A gunsmith is a person who repairs, modifies, designs, or builds guns. This occupation differs from an armorer, a gunsmith does factory level repairs, renovation, and makes modifications and alterations for special uses. Gunsmiths may also apply carvings, engravings and other features to an otherwise finished gun. Due to the breadth of subject matter to be mastered. Alternatively, some gunsmiths learn many of the skills of the trade, the primary technical responsibility of gunsmiths is to ensure that the guns work and function safely. They accomplish this firstly by always properly observing gun safety handling procedures and they accomplish this secondly by inspecting guns to ensure safe mechanical operation. Some of those around them are, Improper Assembly Missing Parts Cracks, all cracked parts are cause for concern, bore Obstructions, being either dented or bent barrels, or foreign material in barrels. Improper Headspace, dimensions concerning the locations of the chamber. Safety-Mechanism Malfunctions, potentially allowing a gun with the safety mechanism supposedly engaged to unexpectedly fire, worn Sear Edges, potentially allowing a firearm to unexpectedly fire when the safety mechanism is disengaged. Firing-Pin Tips Deformed, leading to the possibility of primer-rupture, many failure modes are dependent on the particular model of firearm. Disassemble, clean, inspect, lubricate & reassemble, Repair burred or damaged parts with files & stones. Replace defective parts with factory-made replacements, hand-fitting as necessary, add after-market customizations, sling-swivels recoil-pads iron-sights scopes grip caps butt plates Repair and re-finish wooden stock parts. Deepen or clean up worn or damaged engravings & markings, re-crown damaged muzzles on a lathe. Install or repair rib on shotgun barrels, or repair double-barrel assemblies, troubleshoot and repair feeding, ejecting & firing problems. Test-fire guns with conventional loads to ensure proper operation, fabricate wooden stocks to customer specifications and body dimensions. Fit same to existing receiver and barrel, glass-bed actions to stocks to improve accuracy. Remove existing metal finish, and re-blue metal parts, fabricate replacement parts from metal stock. Modify trigger-pull weight through careful stoning of trigger mechanism parts, fire proof-loads through weapons to ensure sufficient strength of parts under over-load conditions
18.
Photoengraving
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Normally applied to metal, it can also be used on glass, plastic and other materials. A photoresist is selected which is resistant to the acid or other etching compound to be used. It may be a liquid applied by brushing, spraying, pouring or other means and then allowed to set, or it may come in sheet form and be applied by laminating. It is then exposed to strong ultraviolet light—through a photographic, mechanically printed. Alternatively, a lens may be used to project an image directly onto it, typically, the photoresist is hardened where it receives sufficient exposure to light, but some photoresists are initially hard and are then softened by exposure. A solvent is used to wash away the parts, laying bare the underlying material. The remaining photoresist is removed after the operation is complete. In the graphic arts, photoengraving is used to printing plates for various printing processes, reproducing a wide variety of graphics such as lettering, line drawings. The same procedure is used to make printed circuit boards, foil-stamping dies and it is also used to make nameplates, commemorative plaques and other decorative engravings. It can be used to make flat springs, levers, gears, a very high degree of precision is possible. In these applications, it is properly called photochemical machining, but the terms photochemical milling, a similar process called photolithography is used to make integrated circuits. One method of photoengraving produces a depression in the metal. This is used for printing plates or for decorative purposes. It is also the method used for printed circuit boards. The engraving is usually made in copper or brass, the process can be done in open trays but is much more effective if the etchant is sprayed onto the metal. When ferric chloride is used as the etchant, no metal parts other than titanium can be used in the etching equipment, decorative engraving is often filled by spray-painting then sanding to remove the paint from the raised parts of the engraving. Another method produces a deep engraving with sloped shoulders, in this method, the metal is held face down and a mixture of nitric acid and a soap-like oil is splashed onto it. As the acid etches the surface, the oil adheres to the edges of the exposed area and this progressively reduces the area being etched, resulting in a sloped edge, a single dot will end up as a cone-shaped mound protruding from the etched area
19.
Laser engraving
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Laser engraving, which is a subset of laser marking, is the practice of using lasers to engrave an object. The impact of laser marking has been more pronounced for specially designed laserable materials and these include laser-sensitive polymers and novel metal alloys. The term laser marking is used as a generic term covering a broad spectrum of surfacing techniques including printing, hot-branding. The machines for laser engraving and laser marking are the same, a laser engraving machine can be thought of as three main parts, a laser, a controller, and a surface. The laser is like a pencil - the beam emitted from it allows the controller to trace patterns onto the surface, the controller controls the direction, intensity, speed of movement, and spread of the laser beam aimed at the surface. The surface is picked to match what the laser can act on, sometimes the laser is stationary and the workpiece moves. Sometimes the workpiece moves in the Y axis and the laser in the X axis, a second genre is for cylindrical workpieces where the laser effectively traverses a fine helix and on/off laser pulsing produces the desired image on a raster basis. In the third method, both the laser and workpiece are stationary and galvo mirrors move the beam over the workpiece surface. Laser engravers using this technology can work in either raster or vector mode, the point where the laser touches the surface should be on the focal plane of the lasers optical system, and is usually synonymous with its focal point. This point is small, perhaps less than a fraction of a millimeter. Only the area inside this focal point is significantly affected when the beam passes over the surface. The energy delivered by the changes the surface of the material under the focal point. It may heat up the surface and subsequently vaporize the material, or perhaps the material may fracture, cutting through the paint of a metal part is generally how material is laser engraved. A laser can remove material very efficiently because the beam can be designed to deliver energy to the surface in a manner which converts a high percentage of the light energy into heat. The beam is focused and collimated - in most non-reflective materials like wood, plastics and enamel surfaces. However, because of this efficiency, the equipment used in laser engraving may heat up rather quickly, elaborate cooling systems are required for the laser. Alternatively, the beam may be pulsed to decrease the amount of excessive heating. Different patterns can be engraved by programming the controller to traverse a path for the laser beam over time
20.
Engraved gem
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An engraved gem is a small gemstone, usually semi-precious, that has been carved, in the Western tradition normally with images or inscriptions only on one face. The engraving of gemstones was a luxury art form in the ancient world. Strictly speaking, engraving means carving in intaglio, but relief carvings are covered by the term. This article uses cameo in its sense, to denote a carving exploiting layers of differently coloured stone. The activity is also called gem carving, and the artists gem-cutters, vessels like the Cup of the Ptolemies and heads or figures carved in the round are also known as hardstone carvings and similar terms. Glyptics, or glyptic art, covers the field of small carved stones, including seals and inscriptions. A finely carved seal was practical, as it made more difficult – the distinctive personal signature did not really exist in antiquity. Gems were mostly cut by using abrasive powder from harder stones in conjunction with a hand-drill, emery has been mined for abrasive powder on Naxos since antiquity. Some early types of seal were cut by hand, rather than a drill, there is no evidence that magnifying lenses were used by gem cutters in antiquity. A medieval guide to gem-carving techniques survives from Theophilus Presbyter, byzantine cutters used a flat-edged wheel on a drill for intaglio work, while Carolingian ones used round-tipped drills, it is unclear where they learnt this technique from. In intaglio gems at least, the cut surface is usually very well preserved. The colour of several gemstones can be enhanced by a number of methods, using heat, sugar. Many of these can be shown to have used since antiquity – since the 7th millennium BC in the case of heating. The technique has an ancient tradition in the Near East, and is represented in all or most early cultures from the area, and these were made in various types of stone, not all hardstone. The Greek tradition emerged in Ancient Greek art under Minoan influence on mainland Helladic culture, pre-Hellenic Ancient Egyptian seals tend to have inscriptions in hieroglyphs rather than images. The Biblical Book of Exodus describes the form of the hoshen, round or oval Greek gems are found from the 8th and 7th centuries BC, usually with animals in energetic geometric poses, often with a border marked by dots or a rim. Early examples are mostly in softer stones, Gems of the 6th century are more often oval, with a scarab back, and human or divine figures as well as animals, the scarab form was apparently adopted from Phoenicia. The forms are sophisticated for the period, despite the small size of the gems
21.
Relief
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Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise, to create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. What is actually performed when a relief is cut in from a surface of stone or wood is a lowering of the field. The technique involves considerable chiselling away of the background, which is a time-consuming exercise. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be just added to or raised up from the background, and monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting. There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the form from the field. There is also sunk relief, which was restricted to Ancient Egypt. However the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only used to discuss most work. Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, works in the technique are described as in relief, and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is a relief. Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of settings. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with figures and very active poses, such as battles. Most ancient architectural reliefs were painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. Rock reliefs are carved into solid rock in the open air. This type is found in cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. A stele is a standing stone, many of these carry reliefs. The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are often combined in a single work. In particular, most later high reliefs contain sections in low relief, a low relief or bas-relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. Other versions distort depth much less and it is a technique which requires less work, and is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required
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