1.
Oil sands
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Oil sands, or more technically bituminous sands, are a type of unconventional petroleum deposit. Natural bitumen deposits are reported in countries, but in particular are found in extremely large quantities in Canada. Other large reserves are located in Kazakhstan, Russia, and Venezuela, the estimated worldwide deposits of oil are more than 2 trillion barrels, the estimates include deposits that have not been discovered. Proven reserves of bitumen contain approximately 100 billion barrels, and total natural bitumen reserves are estimated at 249.67 Gbbl worldwide, of which 176.8 Gbbl, or 70. 8%, are in Alberta, Canada. Oil sands reserves have only recently been considered to be part of the oil reserves, as higher oil prices and new technology enable profitable extraction. Oil produced from bitumen sands is often referred to as oil or crude bitumen. Crude bitumen is a thick, sticky form of oil, so heavy. At room temperature, it is much like cold molasses, the World Energy Council defines natural bitumen as oil having a viscosity greater than 10,000 centipoise under reservoir conditions and an API gravity of less than 10° API. The Orinoco Belt in Venezuela is sometimes described as oil sands, Natural bitumen and extra-heavy oil differ in the degree by which they have been degraded from the original conventional oils by bacteria. According to the WEC, extra-heavy oil has a gravity of less than 10° API, according to the study ordered by the Government of Alberta and conducted by Jacobs Engineering Group, emissions from oil-sand crude are 12% higher than from conventional oil. The exploitation of bituminous deposits and seeps dates back to Paleolithic times, the earliest known use of bitumen was by Neanderthals, some 40,000 years ago. Bitumen has been found adhering to stone tools used by Neanderthals at sites in Syria, after the arrival of Homo sapiens, humans used bitumen for construction of buildings and waterproofing of reed boats, among other uses. In ancient Egypt, the use of bitumen was important in preparing Egyptian mummies, in ancient times, bitumen was primarily a Mesopotamian commodity used by the Sumerians and Babylonians, although it was also found in the Levant and Persia. The area along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was littered with hundreds of pure bitumen seepages, the Mesopotamians used the bitumen for waterproofing boats and buildings. In Europe, they were mined near the French city of Pechelbronn. The name tar sands was applied to bituminous sands in the late 19th, since then, coal gas has almost completely been replaced by natural gas as a fuel, and coal tar as a material for paving roads has been replaced by the petroleum product asphalt. Oil sands are now an alternative to conventional crude oil, in Canada, the First Nation peoples had used bitumen from seeps along the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers to waterproof their birch bark canoes from early prehistoric times. The Canadian oil sands first became known to Europeans in 1719 when a Cree native named Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample to Hudsons Bay Company fur trader Henry Kelsey, who commented on it in his journals
2.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
3.
Oil field
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An oil field or oilfield is a region with an abundance of oil wells extracting petroleum from below ground. Because the oil reservoirs typically extend over an area, possibly several hundred kilometres across. In addition, there may be exploratory wells probing the edges, pipelines to transport the oil elsewhere, because an oil field may be remote from civilization, establishing a field is often an extremely complicated exercise in logistics. This goes beyond requirements for drilling, to include associated infrastructure, for instance, workers require housing to allow them to work onsite for months or years. In turn, housing and equipment require electricity and water, in cold regions, pipelines may need to be heated. Also, excess gas may be burned off if there is no way to make use of it—which requires a furnace, chimney. More than 40,000 oil fields are scattered around the globe, on land, the largest are the Ghawar Field in Saudi Arabia and the Burgan Field in Kuwait, with more than 60 billion barrels estimated in each. Most oil fields are much smaller, according to the US Department of Energy, as of 2003 the US alone had over 30,000 oil fields. In the modern age, the location of oil fields with oil reserves is a key underlying factor in many geopolitical conflicts. The term oilfield is also used as a shorthand to refer to the petroleum industry. However, it is accurate to divide the oil industry into three sectors, upstream, midstream and downstream. Oil Fields from Space - nighttime satellite images showing fields around the world
4.
Extraction of petroleum
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Peak oil, an event based on M. King Hubberts theory, is the point in time when the maximum rate of extraction of petroleum is reached, after which it is expected to enter terminal decline. Peak oil theory is based on the rise, peak, fall. It is often confused with oil depletion, however, peak oil is the point of production, while depletion refers to a period of falling reserves. Some observers, such as petroleum industry experts Kenneth S. Predictions vary greatly as to exactly these negative effects would be. Oil production forecasts on which predictions of peak oil are based are made within a range which includes optimistic and pessimistic scenarios. Pessimistic predictions of future oil production made after 2007 stated either that the peak had already occurred, that oil production was on the cusp of the peak, or that it would occur shortly. Hubberts original prediction that US peak oil would be in about 1970 seemed accurate for a time, in addition, Hubberts original predictions for world peak oil production proved premature. The idea that the rate of oil production would peak and irreversibly decline is an old one, in 1919, David White, chief geologist of the United States Geological Survey, wrote of US petroleum. The peak of production will soon be passed, possibly within 3 years, in 1953, Eugene Ayers, a researcher for Gulf Oil, projected that if US ultimate recoverable oil reserves were 100 billion barrels, then production in the US would peak no later than 1960. If ultimate recoverable were to be as high as 200 billion barrels, likewise for the world, he projected a peak somewhere between 1985 and 2000. Ayers made his projections without a mathematical model, King Hubbert used statistical modelling in 1956 to accurately predict that United States oil production would peak between 1965 and 1971. Hubbert used a semi-logistical curved model and he assumed the production rate of a limited resource would follow a roughly symmetrical distribution. Depending on the limits of exploitability and market pressures, the rise or decline of production over time might be sharper or more stable. That model and its variants are now called Hubbert peak theory, they have used to describe and predict the peak and decline of production from regions, countries. The same theory has also applied to other limited-resource production. In a 2006 analysis of Hubbert theory, it was noted that uncertainty in real world oil production amounts, by comparing the fit of various other models, it was found that Hubberts methods yielded the closest fit over all, but that none of the models were very accurate. In 1956 Hubbert himself recommended using a family of possible production curves when predicting a production peak, more recently, the term peak oil was popularized by Colin Campbell and Kjell Aleklett in 2002 when they helped form the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas. In his publications, Hubbert used the peak production rate
5.
Natural gas
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It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
6.
Nitrogen
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Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7. It was first discovered and isolated by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish had independently done so at about the same time, Rutherford is generally accorded the credit because his work was published first. Nitrogen is the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, the name comes from the Greek πνίγειν to choke, directly referencing nitrogens asphyxiating properties. It is an element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in the Milky Way. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dinitrogen, a colourless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula N2, dinitrogen forms about 78% of Earths atmosphere, making it the most abundant uncombined element. Nitrogen occurs in all organisms, primarily in amino acids, in the nucleic acids, the human body contains about 3% nitrogen by mass, the fourth most abundant element in the body after oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the element from the air, into the biosphere and organic compounds, many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates, and cyanides, contain nitrogen. The extremely strong bond in elemental nitrogen, the second strongest bond in any diatomic molecule. Synthetically produced ammonia and nitrates are key industrial fertilisers, and fertiliser nitrates are key pollutants in the eutrophication of water systems. Apart from its use in fertilisers and energy-stores, nitrogen is a constituent of organic compounds as diverse as Kevlar used in high-strength fabric, Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class, including antibiotics. Many notable nitrogen-containing drugs, such as the caffeine and morphine or the synthetic amphetamines. Nitrogen compounds have a long history, ammonium chloride having been known to Herodotus. They were well known by the Middle Ages, alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis, as well as other nitrogen compounds such as ammonium salts and nitrate salts. The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia, celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold, the discovery of nitrogen is attributed to the Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air. Though he did not recognise it as a different chemical substance, he clearly distinguished it from Joseph Blacks fixed air. The fact that there was a component of air that does not support combustion was clear to Rutherford, Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as air or azote, from the Greek word άζωτικός. In an atmosphere of nitrogen, animals died and flames were extinguished
7.
Heat
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In physics, heat is the amount of energy flowing from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature difference, or by any means other than through work or the transfer of matter. Thus, energy exchanged as heat during a process changes the energy of each body by equal. The sign of the quantity of heat can indicate the direction of the transfer, for example from system A to system B, negation indicates energy flowing in the opposite direction. While heat flows spontaneously from hot to cold, it is possible to construct a heat pump or refrigeration system that does work to increase the difference in temperature between two systems, conversely, a heat engine reduces an existing temperature difference to do work on another system. Heat is a consequence of the motion of particles. When heat is transferred between two objects or systems, the energy of the object or systems particles increases, as this occurs, the arrangement between particles becomes more and more disordered. In other words, heat is related to the concept of entropy, historically, many energy units for measurement of heat have been used. The standards-based unit in the International System of Units is the joule, Heat is measured by its effect on the states of interacting bodies, for example, by the amount of ice melted or a change in temperature. The quantification of heat via the change of a body is called calorimetry. In calorimetry, sensible heat is defined with respect to a specific chosen state variable of the system, sensible heat causes a change of the temperature of the system while leaving the chosen state variable unchanged. Heat transfer that occurs at a constant system temperature but changes the state variable is called latent heat with respect to the variable, for infinitesimal changes, the total incremental heat transfer is then the sum of the latent and sensible heat. Physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his 1871 classic Theory of Heat, was one of many who began to build on the established idea that heat has something to do with matter in motion. This was the idea put forth by Benjamin Thompson in 1798. One of Maxwells recommended books was Heat as a Mode of Motion, Maxwell outlined four stipulations for the definition of heat, It is something which may be transferred from one body to another, according to the second law of thermodynamics. It is a quantity, and so can be treated mathematically. It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed into something that is not a material substance. Heat is one of the forms of energy and this was the way of the historical pioneers of thermodynamics. Maxwell writes that convection as such is not a purely thermal phenomenon, in thermodynamics, convection in general is regarded as transport of internal energy
8.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
9.
Viscosity
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The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the concept of thickness, for example. Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities. For a given velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluids viscosity, a fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, all fluids have positive viscosity, and are said to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a high viscosity, such as pitch. The word viscosity is derived from the Latin viscum, meaning mistletoe, the dynamic viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different speeds. It can be defined through the situation known as a Couette flow. This fluid has to be homogeneous in the layer and at different shear stresses, if the speed of the top plate is small enough, the fluid particles will move parallel to it, and their speed will vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u at the top. Each layer of fluid will move faster than the one just below it, in particular, the fluid will apply on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite one to the bottom plate. An external force is required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed. The magnitude F of this force is found to be proportional to the u and the area A of each plate. The proportionality factor μ in this formula is the viscosity of the fluid, the ratio u/y is called the rate of shear deformation or shear velocity, and is the derivative of the fluid speed in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Isaac Newton expressed the forces by the differential equation τ = μ ∂ u ∂ y, where τ = F/A. This formula assumes that the flow is moving along parallel lines and this equation can be used where the velocity does not vary linearly with y, such as in fluid flowing through a pipe. Use of the Greek letter mu for the dynamic viscosity is common among mechanical and chemical engineers. However, the Greek letter eta is used by chemists, physicists
10.
Liquefied petroleum gas
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It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. When specifically used as a fuel it is often referred to as autogas. Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are mostly propane, mostly butane and, most commonly, in the northern hemisphere winter, the mixes contain more propane, while in summer, they contain more butane. In the United States, mainly two grades of LPG are sold, commercial propane and HD-5 and these specifications are published by the Gas Processors Association and the American Society of Testing and Materials. Propane/butane blends are also listed in these specifications, propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually also present in small concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG to 5%, a powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected easily. The internationally recognized European Standard is EN589, in the United States, tetrahydrothiophene or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants, although neither is currently being utilized. It was first produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and it currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions. As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol. However, its energy density per unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil. As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at temperatures and pressures and is usually supplied in pressurised steel vessels. They are typically filled to 80–85% of their capacity to allow for expansion of the contained liquid. The ratio between the volumes of the gas and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure, and temperature. LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus will flow along floors and tend to settle in low spots, there are two main dangers from this. The first is an explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within the explosive limits. The second is due to LPG displacing air, causing a decrease in oxygen concentration. It can serve as fuel for cooking, central heating and to water heating and is a particularly cost-effective, LPG is used for cooking in many countries for economic reasons, for convenience or because it is the preferred fuel source. According to the 2011 census of India,33.6 million Indian households used LPG as cooking fuel in 2011, LPG is subsidised by the government in India
11.
Carbon dioxide flooding
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Carbon dioxide flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil. When a reservoir’s pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production, carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method. It is particularly effective in deeper than 2,500 ft. where CO2 will be in a supercritical state, with API oil gravity greater than 22–25°. By injecting CO2 into the reservoir, the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced, as an oil field matures and production rates decline, there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques. Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing productivity, options that include chemical injection, thermal/steam injection. Based on data-gathering and computer simulations, the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined, to increase the rate of oil production, the pressure within the reservoir must be increased. In CO2 flooding, the first step is injection of water into the reservoir, once the reservoir has sufficient pressure, the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells. The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil and this creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well. Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone. CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world, in connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming, CO2 flooding sequesters CO2 underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere. Mississippi Oil Journal Map Oil Well Map of EOR CO2 field in Brookhaven Mississippi Enhanced Oil Recovery Institute Enhanced Oil Recovery Institute
12.
Steam injection (oil industry)
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Steam injection is an increasingly common method of extracting heavy crude oil. It is considered an enhanced oil recovery method and is the type of thermal stimulation of oil reservoirs. There are several different forms of the technology, with the two main ones being Cyclic Steam Stimulation and Steam Flooding. Both are most commonly applied to oil reservoirs, which are relatively shallow, Steam injection is widely used in the San Joaquin Valley of California, the Lake Maracaibo area of Venezuela, and the oil sands of northern Alberta. Another contributing factor that enhances oil production during steam injection is related to near-wellbore cleanup and this method, also known as the Huff and Puff method, consists of 3 stages, injection, soaking, and production. It is quite common for wells to be produced in the cyclic steam manner for a few cycles before being put on a steam flooding regime with other wells, the mechanism proceeds through cycles of steam injection, soak, and oil production. First, steam is injected into a well at a temperature of 300 to 340° Celsius for a period of weeks to months, next, the well is allowed to sit for days to weeks to allow heat to soak into the formation. Finally, the hot oil is pumped out of the well for a period of weeks or months, once the production rate falls off, the well is put through another cycle of injection, soak and production. This process is repeated until the cost of injecting steam becomes higher than the money made from producing oil, the CSS method has the advantage that recovery factors are around 20 to 25% and the disadvantage that the cost to inject steam is high. Canadian Natural Resources use employs cyclic steam or huff and puff technology to develop bitumen resources and this technology requires one well bore and the production consists of the injection and production phases. First steam is injected for several weeks, mobilizing cold bitumen, then the flow on the injection well is reversed producing oil through the same injection well bore. The injection and production phases together comprise one cycle, Steam is re-injected to begin a new cycle when oil production rates fall below a critical threshold due to the cooling of the reservoir. In a steam flood, sometimes known as a drive, some wells are used as steam injection wells. Two mechanisms are at work to improve the amount of oil recovered, the first is to heat the oil to higher temperatures and to thereby decrease its viscosity so that it more easily flows through the formation toward the producing wells. A second mechanism is the physical displacement employing in a similar to water flooding. While more steam is needed for this method than for the cyclic method, the intent is to reduce the viscosity of the bitumen to the point where gravity will pull it down into the producing well. In 2011 Laricina Energy combined solvent injection with steam injection in a process called solvent cyclic steam-assisted gravity drainage, Laricina claims that combining solvents with steam reduces the overall steam oil ratio for recovery by 30%. Downhole steam generators were first proposed by the oil companies in the early 1960s
13.
Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery
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Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery is a form of thermal enhanced oil recovery, a technique applied by oil producers to extract more oil from maturing oil fields. Solar EOR uses solar arrays to concentrate the sun’s energy to heat water. The steam is injected into an oil reservoir to reduce the viscosity, or thin, thermal recovery processes, also known as steam injection, have traditionally burned natural gas to produce steam. Solar EOR is proving to be an alternative to gas-fired steam production for the oil industry. Solar EOR can generate the same quality steam as natural gas and this method of integrating solar EOR will displace larger amounts of gas consumption without affecting oil output. While there are types of solar-to-steam technologies, often referred to as solar thermal or concentrated solar power. The sun’s energy is reflected on the boiler to produce steam, for EOR, the process ends at steam production. The steam is fed into distribution headers which lead to injection wells, the enclosed trough architecture encapsulates the solar thermal system within a greenhouse-like glasshouse. The glasshouse creates an environment to withstand the elements that can negatively impact reliability. Lightweight curved solar-reflecting mirrors are suspended within the glasshouse structure, a single-axis tracking system positions the mirrors to track the sun and focus its light onto a network of stationary steel pipes, also suspended from the glasshouse structure. Steam is generated directly, using oil field-quality water, as water flows from the throughout the length of the pipes. The steam produced is then fed directly to the existing steam distribution network. Sheltering the mirrors from the wind allows them to higher temperature rates. GlassPoint Solar partnered with Berry Petroleum, California’s largest independent oil producer, commissioned in February 2011, the project is located on a 100-year-old McKittrick Oil Field in McKittrick, California. Coined the Kern County 21Z Solar Project, the system spans roughly one acre and will produce one million Btus per hour of solar heat. The solar EOR project was constructed in less than six weeks and is the first installation of GlassPoints enclosed trough technology in an oil field. In October 2011, Chevron Corp. and BrightSource Energy revealed a 29-megawatt solar- to-steam facility at the Coalinga Oil Field in Fresno County, BrightSource was contracted to provide the technology, engineering and production and construction services, and Chevron Technology Ventures will manage operations of the project. The facility began construction in 2009 and it was reported that Chevron spent more than its $28 million on the contract, and BrightSource has lost at least $40 million on the project and disclosed it will lose much more
14.
Oman
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Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is an Arab country on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast, the Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman forming Musandams coastal boundaries. From the late 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was an empire, vying with Portugal and Britain for influence in the Persian Gulf. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence or control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to modern-day Iran and Pakistan, as its power declined in the 20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the United Kingdom. Historically, Muscat was the trading port of the Persian Gulf region. Muscat was also among the most important trading ports of the Indian Ocean, the Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said has been the hereditary leader of the country since 1970. Sultan Qaboos is the current ruler in the Middle East. Oman has modest oil reserves, ranking 25th globally, nevertheless, in 2010 the UNDP ranked Oman as the most improved nation in the world in terms of development during the preceding 40 years. A significant portion of its economy is tourism and trade of fish, dates and this sets it apart from its neighbors solely oil-dependent economies. Oman is categorized as an economy and ranks as the 74th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old and this supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene. Dereaze, located in the city of Ibri, is the oldest known settlement in the area. Archaeological remains have been discovered here from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, findings have included stone implements, animal bones, shells and fire hearths, with the latter dating back to 7615 BC as the oldest signs of human settlement in the area. Other discoveries include hand-molded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze Age marks, heavy flint implements, pointed tools, sumerian tablets refer to a country called Magan or Makan, a name believed to refer to Omans ancient copper mines. Mazoon, another used for the region, is derived from the word muzn. The present-day name of the country, Oman, is believed to originate from the Arab tribes who migrated to its territory from the Uman region of Yemen. Many such tribes settled in Oman, making a living by fishing, herding or stock breeding, from the 6th century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, Oman was controlled and/or influenced by three Persian dynasties, the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids. A few scholars believe that in the 6th century BC, the Achaemenids exerted a strong degree of control over the Omani peninsula, Central Oman has its own indigenous so-called Late Iron Age cultural assemblage, the Samad al-Shan
15.
Petroleum Development Oman
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Petroleum Development Oman is the major oil exploration and production company in the Sultanate of Oman. It accounts for about 70% of the crude oil production. The Company is owned by the Government of Oman, the Shell Group, Total, Gas fields and processing plants are operated by PDO exclusively on behalf of the Government. A geological survey of the country in 1925 by the DArcy Exploration Company found no evidence of oil. Twelve years later, however, when geologists began intensively searching for oil in neighboring Saudi Arabia, pausing only for the Second World War, exploration for oil was underway in Oman. The exploration and production operations were to be run on behalf of the IPC by Petroleum Development Ltd, the remaining 5% stake was held by a fifth shareholder, Partex, representing the interests of the oil magnate, Calouste Gulbenkian. Having landed at Duqm in February 1954, IPC geologists were faced with tribal conflicts which made access to the most promising oil prospect, Jebel Fahud and they reached the jebel in October 1954 and began to survey the surrounding terrain. Supplies had to be transported from Duqm, in January 1956 the company started drilling its first well at Fahud but the hardships were all in vain, the well was dry. Later, when the line was switched to the Sumail Gap, warring tribes were able to disrupt convoys. Only Shell and Partex opted to remain in Oman to continue the search for oil and their optimism was soon to pay off, however, they struck commercial oil at Yibal in April 1962 — and from these inauspicious beginnings an oil-producing nation was born. In 1963 the Natih field was discovered, followed closely by success at Fahud, investment in a pipeline to the coast and all the other hardware necessary to transport and export Omans crude could now be made. A 276-kilometre pipeline requiring 60,000 tons of pipe was laid. The first export of Omani oil took place on 27 July 1967, the original debit note shows that the consignment consisted of 543,800 barrels of oil valued at $1.42 a barrel. On 23 July 1970 His Majesty Sultan Qaboos took over from his father as ruler of the country and he made his first visit to the PD offices on 18 August 1970. All through the 1970s, PD strove to maintain its production, some significant discoveries early in the decade contributed to that objective, Ghaba North in 1972, followed by Saih Nihayda, Saih Rawl, Qarn Alam and Habur. All five fields were on stream by 1975, the oil being transported via a new 20-inch pipeline to the main pipeline 75 kilometers east of Fahud. Thanks in part to new sources of oil, production averaged a respectable 341,000 barrels per day in The first half of the 1970s was important for other reasons as well. On 1 January 1974 the Government of Oman acquired a 25% shareholding in the Petroleum Development, six months later the shareholding was increased to 60%, as a result, the foreign interest in PD was now made up of the Shell, Compagnie Française des Petroles and Partex
16.
GlassPoint Solar
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GlassPoint Solar is a private company founded in 2009 that designs and manufactures solar steam generators that use solar thermal technology to generate steam for enhanced oil recovery. GlassPoint’s enclosed trough technology encloses lightweight mirrors in a standard agricultural greenhouse, concentrating the sun’s energy to heat water, the steam is then injected in an oil reservoir to aid the extraction of heavy crude. The company’s solar thermal technology uses trough-shaped mirrors, standard piping, the company is based in Fremont, California, with offices in Bakersfield, California, Muscat, Oman, Kuwait City, Kuwait and Shenzhen, China. In December 2012, GlassPoint announced $26 million in Series B financing, investors in the round included Royal Dutch Shell, RockPort Capital, Nth Power and Chrysalix Energy Venture Capital. In September 2014, GlassPoint announced $53 million in Series C financing, investors in the round included Royal Dutch Shell, State General Reserve Fund of Oman, RockPort Capital, Nth Power and Chrysalix Energy Venture Capital. To date, GlassPoint has a total of $86.7 million in funding, in July 2015, GlassPoint announced a deal worth $600 million with Petroleum Development Oman to build one of the worlds largest solar projects, named Miraah, meaning mirror in Arabic. In 2011, GlassPoint deployed the world’s first commercial solar EOR project at an oil field operated by Berry Petroleum in Kern County, built in less than six weeks, the system uses the sun’s radiant heat to produce approximately 1 million British Thermal Units per hour of solar heat. GlassPoint partnered with local firms TJ Cross Engineers and PCL Industrial Services to construct the system, the enclosed trough system preheats water to 190°F used as feedwater for Berry Petroleum’s gas-fired steam generators. The system produces an average of 50 tons of emissions-free steam daily and this system is now in daily operation generating an average of 50 tons of emissions-free steam per day that feeds directly into existing thermal EOR operations at PDO’s Amal West oilfield. The system was completed on time, on budget, and with no Lost Time Injuries demonstrating GlassPoint and PDO’s shared commitment to health, safety, security, the system recorded 98. 6% uptime and maintained regular operations during severe dust and sand storms. The automated roof-washing unit proved particularly effective in all weather events, in July 2015, Petroleum Development Oman and GlassPoint Solar announced that they signed an agreement to build a 1 GWth solar field. The project, named Miraah, will be the worlds largest solar field measured by peak thermal capacity, GlassPoint claims its technology can help oil operators free natural gas currently burned for EOR by up to 80%. This gas can be redirected to higher value applications, such as desalination, industrial development or export as LNG, new supply chains associated with solar EOR industries can generate significant societal value as well. For example, a recent Ernst & Young report confirmed that full-scale solar EOR deployment in Oman could create thousands of direct, indirect and induced jobs in Oman alone. Additionally, solar EOR can inject more than US$12 billion to the Omani GDP over the next decade, Solar EOR can generate similar economic benefits in other countries producing heavy oil with abundant sunlight and scarce natural gas resources. Commercial Technology of the Year Award Oil & Gas Middle East Awards 2013, enhanced Oil Recovery Award MEED Quality Awards 2014
17.
Aera Energy
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Aera Energy LLC is a natural gas, oil exploration and production company jointly owned by Shell Oil Company and ExxonMobil headquartered in Bakersfield, California. In addition, Aera Energy LLC is a California limited liability company, Aera is operated as a stand-alone company through its board of managers.1 Most of Aera’s production is located in the San Joaquin Valley. The company also has oil field operations in Ventura, Monterey, Aera produces nearly 25 percent of California’s oil and natural gas. The work force needs of Aera are provided by Aera Energy Services Company, Aera and Aera Services employ about 1,370 people and hundreds of contractor companies. Aera Energy LLC owns and operates the oil and natural gas producing assets, Aera Energy Services Company provides the work force for Aera Energy LLC. Mobil California Exploration & Producing Asset Company contributed its assets to Aera as part of a merger with CalResources LLC effective June 1,1997, ARCO traded California oil and natural gas production assets to Mobil which contributed those assets to Aera Energy LLC. Shell is the majority owner of Aera, ExxonMobil is the minority owner of Aera. Toll Brothers is a builder for Aeras Vista del Verde real estate development in Yorba Linda. The PACE labor union represents some Aera employees, the preserve encompasses the last two miles of riparian habitat along the Kern River, where it drains into Buena Vista Lake. Established in 1992 by ARCO and the California Department of Fish and Game, the master planned community of Vista Del Verde, Aera’s first real estate development, followed the decommissioning and cleanup of the 850-acre Yorba Linda oil field. The community includes housing, parks, a school. Two additional real estate projects are being planned, part of the larger Brea-Olinda Oil Field, the property has been used for oil operations dating back to the 1890s and cattle grazing operations since the 1850s. Aera is pursuing approvals to develop this property for residential and commercial uses while devoting more than 1,500 acres to recreation uses, the project will also preserve and enhance a wildlife corridor to improve regional open space connectivity. Additionally, Aera owns a 50 percent interest in approximately 400 acres known as the Newport Banning Ranch property on the edge of the city of Newport Beach. The project would remove oil facilities and restore the surface of most of the oil operations areas on the property, in 2002 Aeras Belridge Producing Complex won the prestigious North American Maintenance Excellence Award for its maintenance and reliability program and results. 8 In 2004 Aeras North Midway Sunset Unit was awarded a NAME Award.8 Aera is the first oil exploration and production company to win the award given only to manufacturing organizations. In 2011 Aera’s development team was awarded the Association for Manufacturing Excellence Manufacturing Excellence Award, Aera is the first energy company to receive the award.9 Shell Oil ExxonMobil Aera Energy LLC. Archived from the original on August 7,2010, archived from the original on September 30,2007
18.
South Belridge Oil Field
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The South Belridge Oil Field is a large oil field in northwestern Kern County, San Joaquin Valley, California, about forty miles west of Bakersfield. Discovered in 1911, and having a production of over 1. Its estimated remaining reserves, as of the end of 2008, were around 494 million barrels, the second-largest in the state, the principal operator on the field was Aera Energy LLC, a joint venture between Royal Dutch Shell and ExxonMobil. Additionally, the field included the only onshore wells in California owned and operated by ExxonMobil, the oil field is located along State Route 33, between the junctions with State Route 58 on the south and State Route 46 on the north. The field is ten miles long by two wide, and encompasses 9,420 productive acres. Elevations on the oil field range from approximately 450 to 700 feet, in spite of this seeming sterility, species such as the endangered San Joaquin kit fox continue to use areas of oil field development as habitat. The South Belridge Field is an anticline, in which the oil has collected in pools in structural traps sealed by both above-lying impermeable units as well as tar seals. Most of the oil has pooled in the Tulare Formation, of Pleistocene age, the oil itself probably originated in the underlying Monterey Formation, migrating upward to structural and stratigraphic traps over time. A total of six oil pools have been found in the South Belridge, the Tulare, Etchegoin, Diatomite, Antelope Shale, McDonald, and Devilwater-Gould. Both the Tulare and Diatomite were discovered in 1911, and these are both the largest and nearest the surface, with depths of 400 and 1,000 feet respectively. The Antelope Shale, at 4,000 feet, and the McDonald, at 6,700, are the deepest working pools, and are both in the Monterey Formation itself. The Devilwater-Gould, found in 1980 at a depth of 8,200 feet, only produced from one well for nine months, and was abandoned. Only two of the pools contained significant enough reserves to be subject to enhanced recovery projects, the Tulare and Diatomite, both of which have been steamflooded, waterflooded, and fireflooded. Operators began steamflooding the Tulare Formation in 1963 in order to increase production rates, as of 1997, Belridge Oil Company discovered the field. It retained control of operations until 1979 when Shell Oil purchased the company along with most of the rights on the South Belridge Field for $3.65 billion. Currently Aera Energy LLC is the operator on the field. As of the end of 2006 Aera Energy was the second-largest producer of oil in California, California Oil and Gas Fields, Volumes I, II and III. Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III, California Department of Conservation, Division of Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources
19.
Bakersfield, California
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Bakersfield is a city in California, United States, and the county seat of Kern County. It covers about 142 square miles near the end of the San Joaquin Valley. Bakersfields population is approximately 365,000, making it the ninth-most populous city in California, the Bakersfield–Delano Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Kern County, had a 2010 census population of 839,631, making it the 62nd largest metropolitan area in the United States. The more built-up urban area that includes Bakersfield and areas immediately around the city, such as East Bakersfield, the city is a significant hub for both agriculture and oil production. Kern County is the most productive oil producing county, and the fourth most productive county in the United States. Industries include natural gas and other energy extraction, aerospace, mining, petroleum refining, manufacturing, distribution, food processing, the city is also the birthplace of the country music genre known as the Bakersfield sound. Archaeological evidence indicates the presence of Native American settlements dating back thousands of years, the Yokuts lived in lodges along the branches of the Kern River Delta and hunted antelope, tule elk, deer, bear, fish, and game birds. In 1776, Spanish missionary Father Francisco Garcés became the first European to explore the area, following the discovery of gold in California in 1848, settlers flooded into the San Joaquin Valley. In 1851, gold was discovered along the Kern River in the southern Sierra Nevada, the Bakersfield area, once a tule-reed-covered marshland, was first known as Kern Island to the handful of pioneers who built log cabins there in 1860. The area was subject to flooding from the Kern River, which occupied what is now the downtown area. In 1862, disastrous floods swept away the original settlement founded in 1860 by the German-born Christian Bohna, among those attracted to the area by the California gold rush was Thomas Baker, a lawyer and former colonel in the militia of Ohio, his home state. Baker moved to the banks of the Kern River in 1863, at what became known as Bakers Field, by 1870, with a population of 600, what is now known as Bakersfield was becoming the principal town in Kern County. In 1873, Bakersfield was officially incorporated as a city, alexander Mills was hired as the city marshal, a man one historian would describe as. An old man by the time he became Marshal of Bakersfield, but he was a Kentuckian, a handy man with a gun, and not lacking in initiative and resource when the mood moved him. Businessmen and others began to resent Mills, who was cantankerous, wanting to fire him but fearing reprisals, they came up with a scheme to disincorporate, effectively leaving him without an employer. According to local historian Gilbert Gia, the city was also failing to collect the taxes it needed for services, in 1876, the city voted to disincorporate. For the next 22 years, a citizens council managed the community, by 1880, the town had a population of 801, and by 1890, it had a population of 2,626. Migration from Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Southern California brought new residents, the city reincorporated on January 11,1898
20.
Solar energy
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Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, the large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity. The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the potential of solar energy was 1. This is several times larger than the world energy consumption. In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that the development of affordable, inexhaustible, hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments, they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared. The Earth receives 174,000 terawatts of incoming solar radiation at the upper atmosphere, approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of light at the Earths surface is mostly spread across the visible. Most of the population live in areas with insolation levels of 150-300 watts/m². Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earths land surface, oceans – which cover about 71% of the globe –, warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches an altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C. By photosynthesis, green plants convert solar energy into stored energy, which produces food, wood. The total solar energy absorbed by Earths atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules per year, in 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass, geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day, cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells. In addition, land availability has an effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused
21.
Petroleum industry
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The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting, and marketing of petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline, Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, synthetic fragrances, and plastics. The industry is divided into three major components, upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are included in the downstream category. Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrial civilization in its current configuration, and thus is a critical concern for many nations. Oil accounts for a percentage of the world’s energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia. Other geographic regions consumption patterns are as follows, South and Central America, Africa, the world consumes 30 billion barrels of oil per year, with developed nations being the largest consumers. The United States consumed 25% of the oil produced in 2007, the production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the worlds largest industry in terms of dollar value. Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations and it consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat, Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by humans for over 5000 years. Oil in general has been used since early history to keep fires ablaze. Its importance to the world economy evolved slowly, with oil used for lighting in the 19th century and wood. The Industrial Revolution generated an increasing need for energy which was met mainly by coal, Imperial Russia produced 3,500 tons of oil in 1825 and doubled its output by mid-century. Batum is renamed to Batumi in 1936, at the turn of the 20th century, Imperial Russias output of oil, almost entirely from the Apsheron Peninsula, accounted for half of the worlds production and dominated international markets. Nearly 200 small refineries operated in the suburbs of Baku by 1884, as a side effect of these early developments, the Apsheron Peninsula emerged as the worlds oldest legacy of oil pollution and environmental negligence. In 1846, Baku the first ever well drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration, in 1878, Ludvig Nobel and his Branobel company revolutionized oil transport by commissioning the first oil tanker and launching it on the Caspian Sea. Samuel Kier established Americas first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh avenue near Grant Street, one of the first modern oil refineries were built by Ignacy Łukasiewicz near Jasło, Poland in 1854–56. These were initially small as demand for refined fuel was limited, the refined products were used in artificial asphalt, machine oil and lubricants, in addition to Łukasiewiczs kerosene lamp
22.
Surface tension
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Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it acquire the least surface area possible. Surface tension allows insects, usually denser than water, to float, at liquid-air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other than to the molecules in the air. The net effect is a force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces, because of the relatively high attraction of water molecules for each other through a web of hydrogen bonds, water has a higher surface tension compared to that of most other liquids. Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of capillarity, Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent, but when referring to energy per unit of area, it is common to use the surface energy. In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy, the cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, the molecules at the surface do not have the same molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area, Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a shape by the imbalance in cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be approximately spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary wall tension of the surface according to Laplaces law. Another way to view surface tension is in terms of energy, a molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone. The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, for the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized quantity of boundary molecules results in a surface area. As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can, since any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area, a higher energy will also result. Consequently, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy. Bubbles in pure water are unstable, the addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles
23.
Alkaline
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Alkalinity is the name given to the quantitative capacity of an aqueous solution to neutralize an acid. Measuring alkalinity is important in determining a streams ability to neutralize acidic pollution from rainfall or wastewater and it is one of the best measures of the sensitivity of the stream to acid inputs. There can be changes in the alkalinity of streams and rivers in response to human disturbances. Alkalinity is related to the pH of a solution, but measures a different property, roughly, the alkalinity of a solution is a measure of how strong the bases are in a solution, whereas the pH measures the amount of chemical bases. A good example is a solution, which can have many available bases despite having only a moderate pH level. Alkalinity roughly refers to the amount of bases in a solution that can be converted to uncharged species by a strong acid. The cited author, James Drever, provides an equation expressed in terms of molar equivalents, which means the number of moles of each ion type multiplied by the charge of the ion. For example,1 mole of HCO31− in solution represents 1 molar equivalent, the total charge of a solution always equals zero. On the left-hand side of the equation is the sum of conservative cations minus the sum of conservative anions, balancing this on the right side is the sum of the anions that could be neutralized by added H+ ions minus H+ ions already present, as indicated by the pH. This right side term is called total alkalinity and it is, quoting Drever, formally defined as the equivalent sum of the bases that are titratable with strong acid. The listing of ions shown on the right in Drever was mHCO3− + 2mCO32− + mB4− + mH34− + mHS− + morganic anions + mOH− - mH+, total alkalinity is measured by adding a strong acid until all the anions listed above are converted to uncharged species. The total alkalinity is not affected by temperature, pressure, or pH, though the values of individual constituents are, Drever further notes that in most natural waters, all ions except HCO3− and CO3−2 have low concentrations. Thus carbonate alkalinity, which is equal to mHCO3− + 2mCO3−2 is also equal to the total alkalinity. Alkalinity or AT measures the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the point of carbonate or bicarbonate. The alkalinity is equal to the sum of the bases in solution. Other common natural components that can contribute to alkalinity include borate, hydroxide, phosphate, silicate, dissolved ammonia, the bases of some organic acids. Solutions produced in a laboratory may contain a virtually limitless number of bases that contribute to alkalinity, Alkalinity is usually given in the unit mEq/L. Commercially, as in the pool industry, alkalinity might also be given in parts per million of equivalent calcium carbonate
24.
Corrosive substance
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A corrosive substance is one that will destroy and damage other substances with which it comes into contact. It may attack a variety of materials, including metals and various organic compounds. The word corrosive is derived from the Latin verb corrodere, which means to gnaw, sometimes the word caustic is used as a synonym but caustic generally refers only to strong bases, particularly alkalis, and not to acids, oxidizers, or other non-alkaline corrosives. A low concentration of a substance is usually an irritant. Corrosion of non-living surfaces such as metals is a distinct process, for example, a water/air electrochemical cell corrodes iron to rust. In the Globally Harmonized System, both rapid corrosion of metals and chemical corrosion of skin qualify for the corrosive symbol. Corrosives are different from poisons in that corrosives are immediately dangerous to the tissues they contact, colloquially, corrosives may be called poisons but the concepts are technically distinct. However, there is nothing which precludes a corrosive from being a poison, common corrosives are either strong acids, strong bases, or concentrated solutions of certain weak acids or weak bases. They can exist as any state of matter, including liquids, solids, gases and their action on living tissue is mainly based on acid-base reactions of amide hydrolysis, ester hydrolysis and protein denaturation. Proteins are destroyed via amide hydrolysis while lipids are decomposed by ester hydrolysis and these reactions lead to chemical burns and are the mechanism of the destruction posed by corrosives. Some corrosives possess other properties which may extend their corrosive effects on living tissue. For example, sulfuric acid at a concentration is also a strong dehydrating agent, capable of dehydrating carbohydrates. This results in secondary thermal burns in addition to the chemical burns, some corrosives, such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid, are strong oxidizing agents as well, which significantly contributes to the extra damage caused. Hydrofluoric acid does not necessarily cause noticeable damage upon contact, but produces tissue damage, zinc chloride solutions are capable of destroying cellulose and corroding through paper and silk since the zinc cations in the solutions specifically attack hydroxyl groups, acting as a Lewis acid. In addition, some chemicals, mostly acids such as hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, are volatile. Inhalation can damage the respiratory tract, corrosive substances are most hazardous to eyesight. A drop of a corrosive may cause blindness within 2–10 seconds through opacification or direct destruction of the cornea, ingestion of corrosives can induce severe consequences, including serious damage of the gastrointestinal tract, which can lead to vomiting, severe stomach aches, and death. Common corrosive chemicals are classified into, Acids Strong acids – the most common are acid, nitric acid
25.
Organic acid
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An organic acid is an organic compound with acidic properties. The most common organic acids are the carboxylic acids, whose acidity is associated with their carboxyl group –COOH, sulfonic acids, containing the group –SO2OH, are relatively stronger acids. Alcohols, with –OH, can act as acids but they are very weak. The relative stability of the base of the acid determines its acidity. Other groups can also confer acidity, usually weakly, the thiol group –SH, the group. In biological systems, organic compounds containing these groups are referred to as organic acids. In general, organic acids are acids and do not dissociate completely in water. Lower molecular mass organic acids such as formic and lactic acids are miscible in water, on the other hand, most organic acids are very soluble in organic solvents. P-Toluenesulfonic acid is a strong acid used in organic chemistry often because it is able to dissolve in the organic reaction solvent. Exceptions to these solubility characteristics exist in the presence of other substituents that affect the polarity of the compound. The pKa a logarithmic measure of the dissociation constant, categorizes the strength of an acid, the lower or more negative the number. It should not be confused with pH, the measure of actual hydrogen ion concentration. Phenol C6H5OH The 19th century name carbolic acid came from the original German name karbolsäure and it is a weak, non-carboxylic acid, but is corrosive and causes chemical burns on the skin due to a protein-degenerating effect. Uric acid C5H4N4O3 Uric acid is a purine derivative which is a diprotic acid but not a carboxylic one. Taurine C2H7NO3S One of the few natural sulfonic acids, discovered in bile, p-Toluenesulfonic acid CH3C6H4SO3H A strong acid that, unlike some strong mineral acids, is non-oxidizing. Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid CF3SO3H One of the strongest acids in existence, organic or inorganic, about a thousand times stronger than sulfuric acid, first synthesized in 1954, it also resists oxidation/reduction reactions and does not sulfonate substrates like sulfuric or chlorosulfonic acid. Aminomethylphosphonic acid A strong phosphonic acid Simple organic acids like formic or acetic acids are used for oil and these organic acids are much less reactive with metals than are strong mineral acids like hydrochloric acid or mixtures of HCl and hydrofluoric acid. For this reason, organic acids are used at temperatures or when long contact times between acid and pipe are needed
26.
Soap
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In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, in industry they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier, soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, three molecules of fatty acids attach to a molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye, induces saponification, the glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses. Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap, many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils, in ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil. When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, for example, oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat solubilizes into the water. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water, the type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases, soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have made from triglycerides. Triglyceride is the name for the triesters of fatty acids. Tallow, i. e. rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals and its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps, Soap made from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, and is reputed for being extra mild. The term Castile is also applied to soaps from a mixture of oils. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon, a formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC
27.
Interfacial tension
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Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it acquire the least surface area possible. Surface tension allows insects, usually denser than water, to float, at liquid-air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other than to the molecules in the air. The net effect is a force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces, because of the relatively high attraction of water molecules for each other through a web of hydrogen bonds, water has a higher surface tension compared to that of most other liquids. Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of capillarity, Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent, but when referring to energy per unit of area, it is common to use the surface energy. In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy, the cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, the molecules at the surface do not have the same molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area, Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a shape by the imbalance in cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be approximately spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary wall tension of the surface according to Laplaces law. Another way to view surface tension is in terms of energy, a molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone. The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, for the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized quantity of boundary molecules results in a surface area. As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can, since any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area, a higher energy will also result. Consequently, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy. Bubbles in pure water are unstable, the addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles
28.
Surfactant
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Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, the term surfactant is a blend of surface active agent. In the United States National Library of Medicines Medical Subject Headings vocabulary, for the more general meaning, surface active agent/s is the heading. Surfactants are usually organic compounds that are amphiphilic, meaning they contain both hydrophobic groups and hydrophilic groups, therefore, a surfactant contains both a water-insoluble component and a water-soluble component. Surfactants will diffuse in water and adsorb at interfaces between air and water or at the interface between oil and water, in the case where water is mixed with oil. The water-insoluble hydrophobic group may extend out of the water phase, into the air or into the oil phase. World production of surfactants is estimated at 15 Mton/y, of which half are soaps. Other surfactants produced on a large scale are linear alkylbenzenesulfonates, lignin sulfonates, fatty alcohol ethoxylates. Other types of aggregates can also be formed, such as spherical or cylindrical micelles or lipid bilayers, the shape of the aggregates depends on the chemical structure of the surfactants, namely the balance in size between hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. A measure of this is the HLB, Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance, Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquid-air interface. The relation that links the surface tension and the excess is known as the Gibbs isotherm. The dynamics of adsorption depend on the coefficient of the surfactant. As the interface is created, the adsorption is limited by the diffusion of the surfactant to the interface, in some cases, there can exist an energetic barrier to adsorption or desorption of the surfactant. If such a barrier limits the rate, the dynamics are said to be ‘kinetically limited. Such energy barriers can be due to steric or electrostatic repulsions, the surface rheology of surfactant layers, including the elasticity and viscosity of the layer, play an important role in the stability of foams and emulsions. Interfacial and surface tension can be characterized by classical methods such as the -pendant or spinning drop method, surface rheology can be characterized by the oscillating drop method or shear surface rheometers such as double-cone, double-ring or magnetic rod shear surface rheometer. In solution, detergents help solubilize a variety of species by dissociating aggregates. Popular surfactants in the laboratory are SDS and CTAB
29.
Sulfonate
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A sulfonate is a salt or ester of a sulfonic acid. It contains the functional group R-SO3−, anions with the general formula RSO3− are called sulfonates. They are the bases of sulfonic acids with formula RSO2OH. As sulfonic acids tend to be acids, the corresponding sulfonates are weak bases. Due to the stability of sulfonate anions, the cations of sulfonate salts such as scandium triflate have application as Lewis acids, a classic organic reaction for the preparation of sulfonates is that of alkyl halides with sulfites such as sodium sulfite, first described by Adolph Strecker in 1868. The general reaction is, RX + M2SO3 → RSO3M + MX Iodide is used as a catalyst, esters with the general formula R1SO2OR2 are called sulfonic esters. Individual members of the category are named analogously to how ordinary carboxyl esters are named, for example, if the R2 group is a methyl group and the R1 group is a trifluoromethyl group, the resulting compound is methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate. Sulfonic esters are used as reagents in organic synthesis, chiefly because the RSO3− group is a leaving group. Methyl triflate, for example, is a methylating reagent. Sulfonates are commonly used to confer water solubility to protein crosslinkers such as N-hydroxysulfosuccinimide, BS3, Sulfo-SMCC, cyclic sulfonic esters are called sultones. Some sultones are short-lived intermediates, used as alkylating agents to introduce a negatively charged sulfonate group. In the presence of water, they hydrolyze to the hydroxy sulfonic acids. Sultone oximes are key intermediates in the synthesis of the anti-convulsant drug zonisamide, tisocromide is an example of a sultone. Mesylate, CH3SO3− Triflate, CF3SO3− Ethanesulfonate, C2H5SO3− Tosylate, CH3C6H4SO3− Benzenesulfonic acid, C6H5SO3− Closilate, ClC6H4SO3− Camphorsulfonate, SO3− Sulfate Sulfoxide Sulfonyl
30.
Biosurfactant
–
Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, the term surfactant is a blend of surface active agent. In the United States National Library of Medicines Medical Subject Headings vocabulary, for the more general meaning, surface active agent/s is the heading. Surfactants are usually organic compounds that are amphiphilic, meaning they contain both hydrophobic groups and hydrophilic groups, therefore, a surfactant contains both a water-insoluble component and a water-soluble component. Surfactants will diffuse in water and adsorb at interfaces between air and water or at the interface between oil and water, in the case where water is mixed with oil. The water-insoluble hydrophobic group may extend out of the water phase, into the air or into the oil phase. World production of surfactants is estimated at 15 Mton/y, of which half are soaps. Other surfactants produced on a large scale are linear alkylbenzenesulfonates, lignin sulfonates, fatty alcohol ethoxylates. Other types of aggregates can also be formed, such as spherical or cylindrical micelles or lipid bilayers, the shape of the aggregates depends on the chemical structure of the surfactants, namely the balance in size between hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. A measure of this is the HLB, Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance, Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquid-air interface. The relation that links the surface tension and the excess is known as the Gibbs isotherm. The dynamics of adsorption depend on the coefficient of the surfactant. As the interface is created, the adsorption is limited by the diffusion of the surfactant to the interface, in some cases, there can exist an energetic barrier to adsorption or desorption of the surfactant. If such a barrier limits the rate, the dynamics are said to be ‘kinetically limited. Such energy barriers can be due to steric or electrostatic repulsions, the surface rheology of surfactant layers, including the elasticity and viscosity of the layer, play an important role in the stability of foams and emulsions. Interfacial and surface tension can be characterized by classical methods such as the -pendant or spinning drop method, surface rheology can be characterized by the oscillating drop method or shear surface rheometers such as double-cone, double-ring or magnetic rod shear surface rheometer. In solution, detergents help solubilize a variety of species by dissociating aggregates. Popular surfactants in the laboratory are SDS and CTAB
31.
Rhamnolipid
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Rhamnolipids are a class of glycolipid produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, amongst other organisms, frequently cited as the best characterised of the bacterial surfactants. They have a head group, in this case a rhamnose moiety. Specifically there are two classes of rhamnolipids, mono-rhamnolipids and di-rhamnolipids, which consist of one or two rhamnose groups respectively. Rhamnolipids are also heterogeneous in the length and degree of branching of the HAA moiety, which varies with the media used. The first genes discovered in a screen for mutants unable to produce rhamnolipids were rhlA. They are arranged in an operon, adjacent to rhlRI, a regulator of quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. RhlA was subsequently shown to be involved in the production of the precursor to RHLs, RhlB adds a rhamnose group to the HAA precursor to form mono-rhamnolipid. Therefore, the products of the operon, RhlA and RhlB, catalyse the formation of HAAs. RhlA is an α, β hydrolase and this fold is a common structural motif in fatty acid synthetic proteins and RhlA shows homology to transacylases. Furthermore, RhlA preferentially interacts with hydroxyacyl-ACP with a chain length of ten carbon residues. The hydroxyacyl-ACP substrate of RhlA is the product of FabG, a protein which encodes the NADPH-dependent β-keto-acyl-ACP reductase required for fatty acid synthesis and it is a member of the FASII cycle along with FabI and FabA, which synthesise the precursors utilised by FabG. Another gene necessary for synthesis of di-rhamnolipids, rhlC, has also been identified, RhlC catalyses the addition of the second rhamnose moiety to mono-rhamnolipids forming di-rhamnolipids, hence is often labelled rhamnosyltransferase 2. Like rhlA and rhlB, rhlC is thought to be an ancestral gene controlled by the quorum sensing system as rhlA. The rhamnose moiety for mono- and di-rhamnolipids is derived from AlgC activity, AlgC produces sugar precursors directly for alginate and lipopolysaccharide as well as rhamnolipids. Finally, dTDP-6-deoxy-L-lyxo-4-hexulose is converted to dTDP-L-rhamnose by RmlD, the rhamnose can then be used in the synthesis of rhamnolipids by RhlB and RhlC. The complete pathway of biosynthesis of rhamnolipids has not been confirmed, in summary, mono- and di- rhamnolipids are produced by sequential rhamnosyltransferase reactions catalysed by RhlB and RhlC respectively. The substrate for RhlB is the fatty acid moiety of the detergent, the reason that Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces rhamnolipids is the subject of much speculation. These functions fall broadly into five categories, described below, as mentioned previously, Pseudomonas aeruginosa has the ability to metabolise a variety of substrates including n-alkanes, hexadecane and oils
32.
Emulsion
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An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible. Emulsions are part of a general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids, in an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, mayonnaise, the word emulsion comes from the Latin word for to milk, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. Two liquids can form different types of emulsions, as an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they can form an emulsion, wherein water is the dispersed phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and an oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion, emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the matrix are usually assumed to be statistically distributed. The term emulsion is used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix, nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a phase, with the boundary between the phases called the interface. Emulsions tend to have an appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally, if the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency and low-wavelength light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the Tyndall effect. If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths and this phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil, two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that lightwaves are scattered by the only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused, the required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications, in addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels
33.
Microorganism
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A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also contains some fungi, algae, and some such as rotifers. Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages, some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. In July 2016, scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all life, including microorganisms. Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined, the mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon, out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons. Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earths oceans, in August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica. According to one researcher, You can find microbes everywhere — theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a part of the nitrogen cycle. Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology, both in food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic, causing disease and even death in plants, Robert Hooke coined the term cell after viewing plant cells under his microscope. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe microorganisms in 1673, later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases, single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, so, for most of the history of life on Earth, the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, the possible existence of microorganisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the 17th century
34.
Hydrocarbon
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In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one atom has been removed are functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons, the classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry are as follows, Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen, the formula for acyclic saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2. The most general form of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2, where r is the number of rings and those with exactly one ring are the cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as linear or branched species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property, hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are called structural isomers. As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms and those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula CnH2n and those containing triple bonds are called alkyne. Those with one triple bond have the formula CnH2n−2, aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring. Hydrocarbons can be gases, liquids, waxes or low melting solids or polymers, in terms of shells, carbon consists of an incomplete outer shell, which comprises 4 electrons, and thus has 4 electrons available for covalent or dative bonding. Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system, lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturns largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, hydrocarbons are a primary energy source for current civilizations. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a fuel source. In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt, mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in preference to the chlorofluorocarbons as a propellant for aerosol sprays, due to chlorofluorocarbons impact on the ozone layer. Methane and ethane are gaseous at ambient temperatures and cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. Propane is however easily liquefied, and exists in propane bottles mostly as a liquid, butane is so easily liquefied that it provides a safe, volatile fuel for small pocket lighters
35.
Molasses
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Molasses, or black treacle, is a viscous by-product of refining sugarcane or sugar beets into sugar. Molasses varies by amount of sugar, method of extraction, sugarcane molasses is agreeable in taste and aroma, and is primarily used for sweetening and flavoring foods in U. S. Canada and elsewhere, while sugar beet molasses is foul-smelling and unpalatable, so it is used as an animal feed additive in Europe and Russia. It is a component of fine commercial brown sugar. Sweet sorghum syrup may be colloquially called sorghum molasses in the southern United States, similar products include treacle, honey, maple syrup, corn syrup, and invert syrup. Most of these alternative syrups have milder flavors, cane molasses is a common ingredient in baking and cooking. To make molasses, sugar cane is harvested and stripped of leaves and its juice is extracted, usually by cutting, crushing, or mashing. The juice is boiled to concentrate it, promoting sugar crystallization, the result of this first boiling is called first syrup, and it has the highest sugar content. First syrup is usually referred to in the Southern states of the U. S. as cane syrup, second molasses is created from a second boiling and sugar extraction, and has a slightly bitter taste. The third boiling of the sugar syrup yields dark, viscous blackstrap molasses, the majority of sucrose from the original juice has crystallized and been removed. The caloric content of blackstrap molasses is mostly due to the remaining sugar content. Blackstrap is also a source of potassium. Blackstrap molasses has long been sold as a dietary supplement, blackstrap molasses is significantly more bitter than regular molasses. It is sometimes used in baking or for producing ethanol, as an ingredient in cattle feed, the term black-strap or blackstrap is an Americanism dating from 1875 or before. Its first known use is in a book by detective Allan Pinkerton in 1877, Molasses made from sugar beets differs from sugarcane molasses. Only the syrup left from the final stage is called molasses. Intermediate syrups are called high green and low green, and these are recycled within the plant to maximize extraction. Beet molasses is 50% sugar by dry weight, predominantly sucrose, beet molasses is limited in biotin for cell growth, hence, it may be supplemented with a biotin source
36.
Four Corners
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The Four Corners is a region of the United States consisting of the southwestern corner of Colorado, southeastern corner of Utah, northeastern corner of Arizona, and northwestern corner of New Mexico. It is the location in the United States where four states meet. Most of the Four Corners region belongs to semi-autonomous Native American nations, the largest of which is the Navajo Nation, followed by Hopi, Ute, and Zuni tribal reserves and nations. The Four Corners region is part of a region known as the Colorado Plateau and is mostly rural, rugged. In addition to the monument, commonly visited areas within Four Corners include Monument Valley, Mesa Verde National Park, Chaco Canyon, the most populous city in the Four Corners region is Farmington, New Mexico, followed by Durango, Colorado. The United States acquired the four corners region from Mexico after the end of the Mexican–American War in 1848, in 1863 Congress created Arizona Territory from the western part of New Mexico Territory. The boundary was defined as a line running due south from the southwest corner of Colorado Territory and this was an unusual act of Congress, which almost always defined the boundaries of new territories as lines of latitude or longitude, or following rivers. By defining one boundary as starting at the corner of another Congress ensured the creation of four states meeting at a point. The area was first surveyed by the U. S. Government in 1868 as part of an effort to make Colorado Territory into a state, the first marker was placed at the spot in 1912. The first Navajo tribal government was established in 1923 to regulate a number of oil exploration activities on Navajo land. The Four Corners Area is defined as a circle around the Four corners located at 36°59′56. 3″N 109°02′42. 6″W, the Four Corners is part of the high Colorado Plateau. This makes it a center for systems, which stabilize on the plateau then proceed eastward through Colorado. This weather system creates snow and rain fall over the central United States, protected areas in the Four Corners area include Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Hovenweep National Monument, Mesa Verde National Park, and Monument Valley. Mountain Ranges in the Four Corners include Sleeping Ute Mountains, Abajo Mountains, the Four Corners Monument itself is administered by the Navajo Nation Department of Parks and Recreation. Other tribal nations within the Four Corners region include the Hopi, the Four Corners is home to the capital of the Navajo tribal government at Window Rock, Arizona. The Ute Mountain Ute Tribal headquarters are located at Towaoc, Colorado, the Four Corners region is mostly rural. The economic hub, largest city, and only area in the region is Farmington. The populated settlement closest to the center of Four Corners is Teec Nos Pos, other cities in the region include Cortez and Durango in Colorado, Monticello and Blanding in Utah, Kayenta and Chinle in Arizona, and Shiprock, Aztec, and Bloomfield in New Mexico
37.
Beverly Hills Oil Field
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The Beverly Hills Oil Field is a large and currently active oil field underneath part of the city of Beverly Hills, California, USA, and portions of the adjacent city of Los Angeles. Annual production from the field was 1, the three largest operators as of 2009 were independent oil companies Plains Exploration & Production, BreitBurn Energy, and Venoco, Inc. The field is long and narrow, about four miles long by a half-mile to mile across. From north to south the field is much narrower, extending near the middle of the field from near Monte Mar Drive in Los Angeles to about two blocks north of Olympic Blvd in Beverly Hills. The total productive area of the field, projected to ground surface, in most oil fields, wells are drilled at optimum spacing for petroleum extraction with the boreholes going straight down into the target formations. This facility also houses storage tanks, several oil-water separator units, a house, compressor house. A facility similar to the one adjacent to Beverly Hills High School, yet another drilling island, the largest of the four, containing over fifty active wells and operated by Plains Exploration & Production, is north of Pico between Genesee Avenue and Spaulding Avenue. This drilling island also contains wells that angle northeast into the Salt Lake Oil Field and this small drilling island includes 12 active wells directionally drilled into the Beverly Hills Oil Field, as well as several others drilled into the Cheviot Hills Field. The operators of a fifth drilling island, located at the corner of Avenue of the Stars and Constellation Boulevard in Century City. Originally constructed in the 1950s on what was then an unused back lot of Twentieth Century Fox Studios, its production declined in the 1970s. Land use changes and soaring real estate values contributed to its elimination, the city of Los Angeles handles all building permits and air permitting issues for the oil field. The field is an anticlinal structure with oil trapped by a combination of structural. Bounding the field on the south is the Brentwood-Las Cienegas Fault, the minimum depth to the larger deposits of profitably extractable oil varies from about 5600 to about 7,200 feet below ground surface, or 5400 to 7,000 feet below sea level. Oil in these sands is mainly found in structures, in which oil is trapped in more permeable sub-units within impermeable sands. Beneath the Ogden Sand is a nodular shale unit, also grouped with the Modelo, both the Ogden and the Hauser are richly productive, while a few oil-bearing pinch-outs are found in the D/M sand, which otherwise forms an impermeable cap to the Hauser. The deepest unit in the field which is being pumped is a portion of the Ogden Sands in the East Area of the field, discovered in 1967 and they do not state what percentage of that reserve is recoverable using current technologies. Oil was discovered in the northern Los Angeles basin in 1893, not far from the city center, and development of the Los Angeles City Oil Field was fast. In July 1900, W. W. Orcutt drilled into the Wolfskill zone of the Repetto Sands, about 2,500 feet below ground surface and it reached its peak production quickly, within two years of discovery, reporting 11.8 million barrels for 1968
38.
Beverly Hills, California
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Beverly Hills is a city in Los Angeles County, California, United States, surrounded by the cities of Los Angeles and West Hollywood. By 2013, its population had grown to 34,658, sometimes referred to as 90210, one of its primary ZIP codes, it was home to many actors and celebrities throughout the 20th century. The city includes the Rodeo Drive shopping district and the Beverly Hills Oil Field, gaspar de Portolá arrived in the area that would later become Beverly Hills on August 3,1769, travelling along native trails which followed the present-day route of Wilshire Boulevard. The area was settled by Maria Rita Quinteros de Valdez and her husband in 1828 and they called their 4,500 acres of property the Rancho Rodeo de las Aguas. in 1854, she sold the ranch to Benjamin Davis Wilson and Henry Hancock. By the 1880s, the ranch had been subdivided into parcels of 75 acres and was being bought up by anglos from Los Angeles. Henry Hammel and Andrew H. Denker acquired most of it, at this point, the area was known as the Hammel and Denker Ranch. By 1888, Denker and Hammel were planning to build a town called Morocco on their holdings and they did not find enough to exploit commercially by the standards of the time, though. In 1906, therefore, they reorganized as the Rodeo Land and Water Company, renamed the property Beverly Hills, subdivided it, the development was named Beverly Hills after Beverly Farms in Beverly, Massachusetts and because of the hills in the area. The first house in the subdivision was built in 1907, although sales remained slow, Beverly Hills was one of many all-white planned communities started in the Los Angeles area around this time. Restrictive covenants prohibited non-whites from owning or renting property unless they were employed as servants by white residents and it was also forbidden to sell or rent property to Jews in Beverly Hills. Burton Green began construction on The Beverly Hills Hotel in 1911, the hotel was finished in 1912. The visitors drawn by the hotel were inclined to purchase land in Beverly Hills and that same year, the Rodeo Land and Water Company decided to separate its water business from its real estate business. The Beverly Hills Utility Commission was split off from the company and incorporated in September 1914, buying all of the utilities-related assets from the Rodeo Land. In 1919, Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford bought land on Summit Drive and built a mansion, finished in 1921, the glamor associated with Fairbanks and Pickford as well as other movie stars who built mansions in the city contributed to its growing appeal. By the early 1920s the population of Beverly Hills had grown enough to make the water supply a political issue, in 1923 the usual solution, annexation to the city of Los Angeles, was proposed. There was considerable opposition to annexation among such famous residents as Pickford, Fairbanks, Will Rogers, the Beverly Hills Utility Commission, opposed to annexation as well, managed to force the city into a special election and the plan was defeated 337 to 507. In 1925, Beverly Hills approved an issue to buy 385 acres for a new campus for UCLA. The cities of Los Angeles, Santa Monica and Venice also issued bonds to pay for the new campus
39.
Paraffin wax
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Paraffin wax is a white or colourless soft solid derivable from petroleum, coal or oil shale, that consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between twenty and forty carbon atoms. It is solid at room temperature and begins to melt above approximately 37 °C, common applications for paraffin wax include lubrication, electrical insulation, and candles, dyed paraffin wax can be made into crayons. It is distinct from kerosene, another product that is sometimes called paraffin. Paraffin candles are odorless, and bluish-white in color, paraffin wax was first created in the 1850s, and marked a major advancement in candlemaking technology, as it burned more cleanly and reliably than tallow candles, and was cheaper to produce. In chemistry, paraffin is used synonymously with alkane, indicating hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2, the name is derived from Latin parum + affinis, meaning lacking affinity or lacking reactivity, referring to paraffins unreactive nature. Paraffin wax is mostly found as a white, odorless, tasteless, waxy solid and it is insoluble in water, but soluble in ether, benzene, and certain esters. Paraffin is unaffected by most common chemical reagents but burns readily and its heat of combustion is 42 kJ/g. Paraffin wax is an excellent electrical insulator, with a resistivity of between 1013 and 1017 ohm metre and this is better than nearly all other materials except some plastics. It is a neutron moderator and was used in James Chadwicks 1932 experiments to identify the neutron. Paraffin wax is an excellent material for storing heat, with a heat capacity of 2. 14–2.9 J g−1 K−1. Paraffin wax phase-change cooling coupled with retractable radiators was used to cool the electronics of the Lunar Rover, wax expands considerably when it melts and this allows its use in wax thermostatic element thermostats for industrial, domestic and, particularly, automobile purposes. Paraffin wax was first created in the 1850s when chemists first developed the means to efficiently separate, paraffin represented a major advance in the candlemaking industry because it burned more cleanly and reliably, and was cheaper to manufacture than any other candle fuel. Paraffin wax initially suffered from having a low melting point, however, the production of paraffin wax enjoyed a boom in the early 20th century as a result of the growth of the meatpacking and oil industries, which created paraffin and stearic acid as byproducts. The feedstock for paraffin is slack wax, which is a mixture of oil and wax, the first step in making paraffin wax is to remove the oil from the slack wax. The oil is separated through crystallization, most commonly, the slack wax is heated, mixed with one or more solvents such as a ketone and then cooled. As it cools wax crystallizes out of the solution, leaving only oil in the solution and this mixture is filtered into two streams, solid and liquid. After the solvent is recovered by distillation, the products are called product wax. The lower the percentage of oil in the wax the more refined it is considered, the product wax may be further processed to remove colors and odors
40.
Supercritical fluid
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A supercritical fluid is any substance at a temperature and pressure above its critical point, where distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist. It can effuse through solids like a gas, and dissolve materials like a liquid, in addition, close to the critical point, small changes in pressure or temperature result in large changes in density, allowing many properties of a supercritical fluid to be fine-tuned. Supercritical fluids are suitable as a substitute for organic solvents in a range of industrial, carbon dioxide and water are the most commonly used supercritical fluids, being used for decaffeination and power generation, respectively. In general terms, supercritical fluids have properties between those of a gas and a liquid, in Table 1, the critical properties are shown for some components, which are commonly used as supercritical fluids. Table 2 shows density, diffusivity and viscosity for typical liquids, gases, in addition, there is no surface tension in a supercritical fluid, as there is no liquid/gas phase boundary. By changing the pressure and temperature of the fluid, the properties can be tuned to be more liquid- or more gas-like, one of the most important properties is the solubility of material in the fluid. Solubility in a supercritical fluid tends to increase with density of the fluid, since density increases with pressure, solubility tends to increase with pressure. The relationship with temperature is a more complicated. At constant density, solubility will increase with temperature, however, close to the critical point, the density can drop sharply with a slight increase in temperature. Therefore, close to the temperature, solubility often drops with increasing temperature. All supercritical fluids are completely miscible with each other so for a mixture a single phase can be guaranteed if the point of the mixture is exceeded. The critical point of a mixture can be estimated as the arithmetic mean of the critical temperatures and pressures of the two components, Tc = x TcA + x TcB. For greater accuracy, the point can be calculated using equations of state, such as the Peng Robinson. Other properties, such as density, can also be calculated using equations of state, figures 1 and 2 show projections of a phase diagram. This can be observed in the phase diagram for carbon dioxide. At well below the temperature, e. g.280 K, as the pressure increases. The system consists of 2 phases in equilibrium, a dense liquid, as the critical temperature is approached, the density of the gas at equilibrium becomes higher, and that of the liquid lower. At the critical point, there is no difference in density, thus, above the critical temperature a gas cannot be liquefied by pressure
41.
Propane
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Propane is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula C3H8, a gas, at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is used as a fuel for engines, oxy-gas torches, portable stoves. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases, the others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof. Propane was first identified as a component in gasoline by Walter O. Snelling of the U. S. Bureau of Mines in 1910. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as wild because of the vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, the New York Times reported on Snellings work with liquefied gas and that a steel bottle will carry enough gas to light an ordinary home for three weeks. It was during this time that Snelling, in cooperation with Frank P. Peterson, Chester Kerr, together, they established American Gasol Co. the first commercial marketer of propane. Snelling had produced relatively pure propane by 1911, and on March 25,1913, a separate method of producing LP gas through compression was created by Frank Peterson and its patent granted on July 2,1912. The 1920s saw increased production of LP gas, with the first year of recorded production totaling 223,000 US gallons in 1922. In 1927, annual marketed LP gas production reached 1 million US gallons, and by 1935, major industry developments in the 1930s included the introduction of railroad tank car transport, gas odorization, and the construction of local bottle-filling plants. The year 1945 marked the first year that annual LP gas sales reached a billion gallons, by 1947, 62% of all U. S. homes had been equipped with either natural gas or propane for cooking. In 1950,1,000 propane-fueled buses were ordered by the Chicago Transit Authority, in 2004 it was reported to be a growing $8-billion to $10-billion industry with over 15 billion US gallons of propane being used annually in the U. S. The prop- root found in propane and names of compounds with three-carbon chains was derived from propionic acid. Propane is produced as a by-product of two processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil. The supply of propane cannot easily be adjusted to meet increased demand, about 90% of U. S. propane is domestically produced. The United States imports about 10% of the propane consumed each year, with about 70% of that coming from Canada via pipeline, the remaining 30% of imported propane comes to the United States from other sources via ocean transport. After it is produced, North American propane is stored in salt caverns
