1.
Environmental impact assessment
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Environmental assessment is the assessment of the environmental consequences of a plan, policy, program, or concrete projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of administrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of decision making, the purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing environmental awareness, EIAs involved a technical evaluation intended to contribute to more objective decision making. In the United States, environmental impact assessments obtained formal status in 1969, EIAs have been used increasingly around the world. The number of Environmental Assessments filed every year has vastly overtaken the number of more rigorous Environmental Impact Statements, an Environmental Assessment is a mini-EIS designed to provide sufficient information to allow the agency to decide whether the preparation of a full-blown Environmental Impact Statement is necessary. EIA is an activity that is done to find out the impact that would be done before development will occur and these EIAs consider activities related to extraction of raw materials, ancillary materials, equipment, production, use, disposal and ancillary equipment. Genetically modified plants - Specific methods available to perform EIAs of genetically modified organisms include GMP-RAM, fuzzy logic - EIA methods need measurement data to estimate values of impact indicators. However, many of the environment impacts cannot be quantified, e. g. landscape quality, lifestyle quality, instead information from similar EIAs, expert judgment and community sentiment are employed. Approximate reasoning methods known as fuzzy logic can be used, a fuzzy arithmetic approach has also been proposed and implemented using a software tool. At the end of the project, an audit evaluates the accuracy of the EIA by comparing actual to predicted impacts, the objective is to make future EIAs more valid and effective. The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol is a specific method for checking the quality of Environmental and Social assessments. The history of EIA in Australia could be linked to the enactment of the U. S. National Environment Policy Act in 1970, which made the preparation of environmental impact statements a requirement. In Australia, one might say that the EIA procedures were introduced at a State Level prior to that of the Commonwealth, with a majority of the states having divergent views to the Commonwealth. One of the states was New South Wales, whose State Pollution Control Commission issued EIA guidelines in 1974. At a Commonwealth level, this was followed by passing of the Environment Protection Act in 1974, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 superseded the Environment Protection Act 1974 and is the current central piece for EIA in Australia on a Commonwealth level. Overlap between federal and state requirements is addressed via bilateral agreements or one off accreditation of state processes, in addition to this, the EPBC Act aims at providing a streamlined national assessment and approval process for activities. The Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts assess the process and this is primarily due to the division of powers between the States and the Federal government and due to which the Australian Government environment minister cannot overturn a state decision. There are strict civil and criminal penalties for the breach of EPBC Act, EIA provisions within Ministerial Authorities in the ACT are found in the Chapters 7 and 8 of the Planning and Development Act 2007
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Air quality law
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Air quality laws govern the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere. A specialized subset of air quality laws regulate the quality of air inside buildings, Air quality laws are often designed specifically to protect human health by limiting or eliminating airborne pollutant concentrations. Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing air pollutants, setting limits on acceptable emissions levels, Air quality regulation must identify the substances and energies which qualify as pollution for purposes of further control. While specific labels vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, there is consensus among many governments regarding what constitutes air pollution. For example, the United States Clean Air Act identifies ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, EPA has also identified over 180 compounds it has classified as hazardous pollutants requiring strict control. Other compounds have been identified as air pollutants due to their impact on the environment. A broader conception of air pollution may also incorporate noise, light, the United States has recently seen controversy over whether carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases should be classified as air pollutants. Air quality standards are legal standards or requirements governing concentrations of air pollutants in breathed air and it also generally requires periodic or continuous monitoring of air quality. Another set of standards, for air in employment settings, is administered by the U. S. A distinction may be made mandatory and aspirational air quality standards. For example, U. S. state governments must work toward achieving NAAQS, on the other hand, employers may be required immediately to rectify any violation of OSHA workplace air quality standards. Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into the atmosphere, emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible amount of specific air pollutants that may be released from specific sources over specific timeframes. They are generally designed to air quality standards and to protect human health. Numerous methods exist for determining appropriate emissions standards, and different regulatory approaches may be taken depending on the source, industry, specific limits may be set by reference to and within the confines of more general air quality standards. Specific sources may be regulated by means of performance standards, meaning numerical limits on the emission of a pollutant from that source category. Regulators may also mandate the adoption and use of specific technologies, often with reference to feasibility, availability. All of these methods may be modified by incorporating emissions averaging, market mechanisms such as emissions trading, for example, all of these approaches are used in the United States. The United States Environmental Protection Agency, formerly the standard refrigerant in automobile air conditioning systems and its manufacture was prohibited as part of a suite of restrictions adopted internationally in the Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
3.
Waste management law
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Waste management laws govern the transport, treatment, storage, and disposal of all manner of waste, including municipal solid waste, hazardous waste, and nuclear waste, among many other types. Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing waste types and mandating transport, treatment, storage, waste determination is the process by which a particular material is classified as a waste subject to regulation. The question can become complicated, as for example determining whether a some material is hazardous waste under the U. S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Determination of whether a material constitutes a particular type may govern the manner in which the material must be handled from that point forward. Many other wastes may have their own individual definitions and unique handling requirements, Disposal standards govern the permissibility, method, and location of disposal of a particular waste. Such standards may be designed to protect human health and comfort, a variety of methods exist to control disposal. Waste disposal may be restricted entirely via a disposal ban, the most common and widespread such standard is a prohibition on littering. Where a jurisdiction has authorized a specific place or system for collection, deposition or abandonment of trash elsewhere may be subject to civil or criminal penalties. Still other wastes may be required to be separated for recycling, all of these prohibitions are, in a sense, conditional, in that they do not outright ban the disposal of the material, but rather restrict the disposal location. Waste disposal also may be restricted conditionally by requiring that a waste be treated in a specific fashion before it may be disposed of at a particular location. One such program is the United States Environmental Protection Agencys Land Disposal Restrictions under the Resource Conservation and these rules restrict the land disposal of hazardous waste without prior approved programs. The disposal prohibition mandates that hazardous waste cannot be disposed on land until it is treated to meet specified characteristics, the dilution prohibition proscribes adding large amounts of water, soil, or non-hazardous waste in order to avoid specified treatment. The storage prohibition allows waste to be stored only for the purposes of accumulating for treatment, specific standards may also be adopted regarding the construction and operation of waste disposal facilities. Persons or organisations wishing to transport waste must purchase a waste carrier license, producers of hazardous wastes are required to register as a hazardous waste producer. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act - One of the pieces of Legislation regarding municipal solid waste, hazardous wastes
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Endangered species
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An endangered species is a species which has been categorized as likely to become extinct. In 2012, the IUCN Red List featured 3079 animal and 2655 plant species as endangered worldwide, the figures for 1998 were, respectively,1102 and 1197. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species, for example, population numbers, trends and species conservation status can be found in the lists of organisms by population. The conservation status of a species indicates the likelihood that it will become extinct, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Over 40% of the species are estimated to be at risk of extinction. Internationally,199 countries have signed an accord to create Biodiversity Action Plans that will protect endangered, in the United States, such plans are usually called Species Recovery Plans. Those species of Near Threatened and Least Concern status have been assessed and found to have relatively robust and healthy populations, though these may be in decline. The IUCN categories, with examples of animals classified by them, include, Extinct Extinct in the wild Captive individuals survive, critically endangered Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future. Endangered Faces a high risk of extinction in the near future, vulnerable Faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term. Near-threatened May be considered threatened in the near future, Least concern No immediate threat to species survival. A population size reduction of ≥ 50%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, based on any of to under A1. E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five generations, there is data from the United States that shows a correlation between human populations and threatened and endangered species. Under the Endangered Species Act in the United States, species may be listed as endangered or threatened, the Salt Creek tiger beetle is an example of an endangered subspecies protected under the ESA. Some endangered species laws are controversial, also lobbying from hunters and various industries like the petroleum industry, construction industry, and logging, has been an obstacle in establishing endangered species laws. The Bush administration lifted a policy that required federal officials to consult an expert before taking actions that could damage endangered species. Under the Obama administration, this policy has been reinstated, being listed as an endangered species can have negative effect since it could make a species more desirable for collectors and poachers. This effect is potentially reducible, such as in China where commercially farmed turtles may be reducing some of the pressure to poach endangered species. Another problem with the species is its effect of inciting the use of the shoot, shovel
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Water law
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Water resources law is the field of law dealing with the ownership, control, and use of water as a resource. It is most closely related to property law, and is older than, Water is ubiquitous and does not respect political boundaries. Water resources laws may apply to any portion of the hydrosphere over which claims may be made to appropriate or maintain the water to some purpose. The history of peoples relation to water illustrates varied approaches to the management of water resources, lipit Ishtar and Ur Nammu both contain water provisions, pre-date Hammurabi by at least 250 years, and clearly provide the normative underpinnings on which the Hammurabi Code was constructed. The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest written laws to deal with issues. The Code was developed about 3,800 years ago by King Hammurabi of Babylonia, Water has unique features that make it difficult to regulate using laws designed mainly for land. Water is mobile, its supply varies by year and season as well as location, as with property law, water rights can be described as a bundle of sticks containing multiple, separable activities that can have varying levels of regulation. For instance, some uses of water divert it from its course but return most or all of it, while others consume much of what they take. Each type of activity has its own needs and can in theory be regulated separately, such a hydraulic empire creates the potential for despotism, and serves as a cautionary tale for designing water regulations. Water law involves controversy in some parts of the world where a growing population faces increasing competition over a natural supply. Disputes over rivers, lakes and underground aquifers cross national borders, the legal right to use a designated water supply is known as a water right. There are two models used for water rights. The first is riparian rights, where the owner of the adjacent land has the right to the water in the stream. The other major model is the prior model, the first party to make use of a water supply has the first rights to it. Riparian systems are more common in areas where water is plentiful. As water resource law is complex, many areas have some combination of the two approaches, the right to water to satisfy basic human needs for personal and domestic uses has been protected under international human rights law. When incorporated in national legal frameworks, this right is articulated to other rights within the broader body of water law. The human right to water has been recognized in law through a wide range of international documents, including international human rights treaties, declarations
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Mining law
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Mining law is the branch of law relating to the legal requirements affecting minerals and mining. Mining law covers several topics, including the ownership of the mineral resource. Mining is also affected by regulations regarding the health and safety of miners. An aspect of property law that is central to mining law is the question of who owns the mineral, such that they may legally extract it from the earth. This is often dependent on the type of mineral in question, for instance, in many jurisdictions, rights to mine gold and silver are retained by the sovereign, as the two metals traditionally served as currency in many a given society. In addition to ownership of the mineral, the method of extraction may affect nearby property owners, subsidence results when a mine collapses or drops, causing above or nearby structures to drop with it, often damaging or destroying them. The issue of support rights determines the rights and relationships between parties in these situations. Mining law varies both by the tradition of the jurisdiction, as well as the individual jurisdiction. Mining law in Europe originated from common law. From at least the 12th century, German kings claimed mining rights to silver and other metals, but by the late Middle Ages, mining rights, known as the Bergregal were transferred from the king to territorial rulers. Initially, mining law was awarded orally or in writing by individuals, from the beginning of the 15th century it was enacted by territorial rulers in the form of decrees or regulations, which often remained in force until the 19th century. In Germany, under Article 74 no.11 of the Basic Law Basic Law, the central legal standard is the Federal Mining Act. In Austria the legal basis is quite similar to German law, the primary legislation since 1 January 1999 has been the Mineral Raw Material Act or MinroG. In Switzerland mining law is a business and governed by cantonal law. Mining law in Liechtenstein is restricted to just a few minerals and governed mainly by the Liechtenstein Property Act, as in Switzerland mining in Liechtenstein is no longer important and the regulations in the property act are largely only procedural regulations. Unlike German mining law, in Great Britain and the Commonwealth the principle of mining by landowners prevails, the crown only lays claim to gold and silver reserves. In exceptional cases mining rights may be given to a third party, the mining company pays the landowner a lease, dead rent or a royalty. The rights to above- and below-ground minerals may be awarded separately, Mining law in the United States is also based on English common law
7.
Fisheries law
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Fisheries law is an emerging and specialized area of law. Fisheries law is the study and analysis of different fisheries management approaches such as catch shares e. g, individual Transferable Quotas, TURFs, and others. The study of law is important in order to craft policy guidelines that maximize sustainability. This specific legal area is rarely taught at law schools around the world, Fisheries law also takes into account international treaties and industry norms in order to analyze fisheries management regulations. In addition, fisheries law includes access to justice for small-scale fisheries and coastal and aboriginal communities and labor issues such as child labor laws, employment law, another important area of research covered in fisheries law is seafood safety. Each country, or region, around the world has a degree of seafood safety standards. These regulations can contain a diversity of fisheries management schemes including quota or catch share systems. It is important to study seafood safety regulations around the world in order to craft policy guidelines from countries who have implemented effective schemes. Also, this body of research can identify areas of improvement for countries who have not yet able to master efficient. Fisheries law also includes the study of aquaculture laws and regulations, aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants. This body of research also encompasses animal feed regulations and requirements and it is important to regulate what feed is consumed by fish in order to prevent risks to human health and safety. On November 19,2015, the U. S. Food, as the FDA points out, nutrition labeling for raw produce, fish, and genetically modified products, is voluntary. Under section 403 of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, section 201 of the FD&C Act provides that labeling is misleading if it fails to reveal facts that are material in light of representations made or suggested in the labeling. In addition, we have determined that food derived from AquAdvantage Salmon is as safe, in 2014, Canada was a top-five producer of GM crops in the world, and is one of the largest players on the global market. Health Canada and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency carry joint responsibility for food labeling policies in Canada under the Food. Under the F&D Act, GMOs are defined as “novel foods”, a novel food is allowed to enter the Canadian marketplace only after it has passed an assessment undertaken by various stakeholders. The CFIA is responsible for the development of all non-health and safety food labeling regulations and policies, standards are set by the CFIA so that Canadian food labels are truthful and not misleading. Food must be labelled if there are changes in the food such as problematic allergens or a significant nutrient or compositional change
8.
Game law
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Game laws are statutes which regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of fish and wild animal. Hunters, fishermen and lawmakers generally agree that the purposes of such laws is to balance the needs for preservation and harvest, in Great Britain the game laws have developed out of the forest laws, which in the time of the Norman kings were very oppressive. Under William the Conqueror, it was as great a crime to kill one of the deer as to kill one of his subjects. During the early history of the United States, little or no attention was paid to the destruction of birds or other wild animals, probably the earliest law on the subject was one passed in Massachusetts in 1817, establishing closed seasons for certain animals and birds shot as game. Eventually wild game, whether of forest, field or stream, all states passed game laws of their own. Nearly every state instituted a game and fish commission and numerous game wardens, a national game law, known as the Lacey Act, passed by the U. S. During 1910 there was an increase in these importations. The Department of Agriculture is hereby authorized and directed to adopt regulations to give effect to the previous paragraph. ”The most important effect of this law — and a very far-reaching benefit — was the stoppage of the shooting of wild fowl in the spring. Because of a weakness, this act was later replaced by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918
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Administrative law
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Administrative law is the body of law that governs the activities of administrative agencies of government. Government agency action can include rulemaking, adjudication, or the enforcement of a regulatory agenda. Administrative law is considered a branch of public law, civil law countries often have specialized courts, administrative courts, that review these decisions. In Brazil, unlike most Civil-law jurisdictions, there is no specialized court or section to deal with administrative cases, in 1998, a constitutional reform, led by the government of the President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. The President of the Republic exercises the function, in collaboration with several Ministries or other authorities with ministerial rank. Each Ministry has one or more under-secretary that performs through public services the actual satisfaction of public needs, there is not a single specialized court to deal with actions against the Administrative entities, but instead there are several specialized courts and procedures of review. Administrative law in the Peoples Republic of China was virtually non-existent before the reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations were passed, the three regulations have been amended and upgraded into laws. In 1994, the State Compensation Law was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law in 1996, Administrative Compulsory Law was enforced in 2012. Adiministrative Litigation Law was amended in 2014. The General Administrative Procedure Law is under way, the main administrative courts are the tribunaux administratifs and appeal courts are the cours administratives dappel. Special administrative courts include the National Court of Asylum Right as well as military, the French body of administrative law is called droit administratif. It is a part of the law, which deals with the organization, the tasks. Administrative law in Germany follows three basic principles, principle of the legality of the authority, which means that there is no acting against the law and no acting without a law. The general administration law is ruled in the Administrative Procedures Law. Other legal sources are the Rules of the Administrative Courts, the security code. The Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz, which was enacted in 1977, regulates the main administrative procedures of the federal government and it serves the purpose to ensure a treatment in accordance with the rule of law by the public authority. Furthermore, it contains the regulations for mass processes and expands the legal protection against the authorities, the VwVfG basically applies for the entire public administrative activities of federal agencies as well as federal state authorities, in case of making federal law. One of the clause is §35 VwVfG
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Bankruptcy
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Bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay the debts it owes to creditors. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, Bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term bankruptcy is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, in the United States, bankruptcy is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In France, the cognate French word banqueroute is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, in Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into debt slavery, until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years, debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime. An exception to rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt, as a consequence. The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency, Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times, a failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1575 and 1596, at the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well. For private households, it is argued to be insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period and it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation, in the United States, discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system, the Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. It is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy, unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt. If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is encouraged to do so under Chapter 13. In order to avoid bankruptcy, one could negotiate with the lender to lower monthly payments, student loan bankruptcy is considered a last resort. However, some find themselves being forced to file bankruptcy, as the lender refused to lower payments
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Energy law
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Energy laws govern the use and taxation of energy, both renewable and non-renewable. These laws are the primary authorities related to energy, in contrast, energy policy refers to the policy and politics of energy. Energy law includes the provision for oil, gasoline. There is an academic interest in international energy law, including continuing legal education seminars, treatises, law reviews. In the same line, there has growing interest on energy-specific issues and their particular relation with international trade. Nigerias government owns the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, Energy is big business in Australia. The Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association represents 98% of the oil, Canada has an extensive energy law, both through the federation and the provinces, especially Alberta. The Supreme Court of Canada has had issued some Canadian energy case law, Canada and the Quebec province also own extensive hydroelectric dam facilities, which have generated not only power but controversy. European energy law has focused on the legal mechanisms for managing short-term disruptions to the continents energy supply. The aim of project was enhancing of the safety of hydrogen vehicles and harmonizing their licensing. Five nations have created the EurObservER energy consortium, the EU has also created an Energy Community to extend their policies into Southeastern Europe. Germanys renewable energy law mandates the use of energy through its taxes. It promotes the development of energy sources via a system of feed-in tariffs. It regulates the amount of energy generated by the producer and the type of energy source. It also creates an incentive to encourage technological advancements and costs, the results have been startling, on 6 June 2014, more than half of the nations energy used on that date came from solar power. Despite regulatory processes adding more renewable energy to its mix, Germanys electric grid has become more reliable. The German Green Party has opposed nuclear energy, as well as the power of German utilities. There is significant academic interest in German energy law, a chart summarizing German energy legislation is available
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Environmental crime
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Environmental crime is an illegal act which directly harms the environment. These crimes are liable for prosecution, interpol facilitates international police cooperation and assists its member countries in the effective enforcement of national and international environmental laws and treaties. Interpol began fighting crime in 1992. International criminal gangs and militant groups profit from the plunder of natural resources, terrorism and even civil wars are consequences of environmental crime. More than half of this amount can be attributed to illegal logging, on September 2016 it was announced that the International Criminal Court located in The Hague will prosecute government and individuals for environmental crimes. Abandoned or little used areas are common dumping places in America -especially railroads, over $10 million a year are used to remove illegal dumping from polluting towns and the environment. A small organization, CSXT Police Environment Crimes Unit, has started to stop railroad dumping specifically. Ever since the Environmental Protection Agencys Office of Criminal Enforcement was founded in 1982 and this includes the prosecution of companies that have illegally dumped or caused oil spills. The effective enforcement of laws is vital to any protection regimes that are designed to protect the environment. In the early days of environmental legislation, violations carried largely insignificant civil fines and penalties, initial environmental laws and regulations had little or no deterrent effect on corporations, individuals, or governments to comply with environmental laws. Indeed, a source of failure of US environmental protection legislation was the civil character of federal enforcement actions. Their chief sanction was fines, which many corporations took in stride as a cost of doing business, Environmental criminal law covers narrower ground. Its core consists of the provisions of eight federal statutes passed mainly in the 1970s. The inclusion of criminal sanctions, significant increases in fines coupled with possible imprisonment of corporate officers changed the face of law enforcement. Enforcing environmental laws and regulations is an important ingredient in protecting the environment and this is generally achieved by various environmental law enforcement agencies operating at an International, Regional, National, State and Local level. For instance, to some extent environmental law enforcement agencies operate only at an international level whereas others operate at the local level. Furthermore, environmental law enforcement agencies utilise various enforcement methods to ensure compliance to environmental legislation, moreover, it has increased the need for cooperation between different policing institutions. However, ostensibly it is the legislative instruments implemented by governments that determine many of the strategies utilised by services in protecting the environment
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Poaching
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Poaching has traditionally been defined as the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land use rights. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, poaching was performed by impoverished peasants for subsistence purposes, Poaching was as well set against the hunting privileges of nobility and territorial rulers. By contrast, stealing domestic animals classifies as theft, not as poaching, since the 1980s, the term poaching has also referred to the illegal harvesting of wild plant species. Austria and Germany refer to poaching not as theft, but as intrusion in third party hunting rights, while Germanic law allowed any free man including peasants to hunt, especially on the commons, roman law restricted hunting for the rulers. Medieval Europe saw feudal territory rulers from the king downward trying to enforce exclusive rights of the nobility to hunt, Poaching was being deemed a serious crime punishable by imprisonment but the enforcement, till the 16th century, was comparably weak. Peasants still were able to continue small game hunting, the right of the nobility to hunt was restricted in the 16th century, the development of modern hunting rights is closely connected to the comparably modern idea of exclusive private property of land. In the 17th and 18th centuries the restrictions on hunting and shooting rights on private property were being enforced by gamekeepers and foresters and they denied shared usages of forests, e. g. resin collection and wood pasture and the peasants right to hunt and fish. However, comparably easy access to rifles increasingly allowed peasants and servants to poach end of the 18th century, the low quality of guns made it necessary to approach to the game as close as 30 meters. For example, poachers in the Salzburg region then were around 30 years old men, not yet married, hunting was being used in the 18th century as a theatrical demonstration of aristocratic rule of the land and had a strong impact on land use patterns as well. Poaching in so far inferred not only with property rights but clashed symbolically with the power of the nobility, the years between 1830 and 1848 saw a strong increase in poaching and poaching related deaths in Bavaria. The revolution of 1848 was interpreted as an allowance for poaching in Bavaria. The reform of hunting law in 1849 reduced legal hunting to rich land owners, some of the frontier region, where smuggling was of importance, showed especially strong resistance. In 1849, the Bavarian military forces were being asked to occupy a number of municipalities on the frontier to Austria. Both, in Wallgau and in Lackenhäuser, one soldier per household was to be fed, the people of Lackenhäuser had had several skirmishes about poached deer with Austrian foresters and even military and were known as well armed pertly poachers. Poaching, like smuggling, has a long counter-cultural history, the verb poach is derived from the Middle English word pocchen literally meaning bagged, enclosed in a bag. Poaching was dispassionately reported for England in Pleas of the Forest, William the Conqueror, who was a great lover of hunting, established and enforced a system of forest law. Henceforth hunting of game in royal forests by commoners or in other words poaching, was punishable by death by hanging. In 1087, a poem called The Rime of King William contained in the Peterborough Chronicle, Poaching was romanticised in literature from the time of the ballads of Robin Hood, as an aspect of the greenwood of Merry England
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Environmental justice
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Environmental justice emerged as a concept in the United States in the early 1980s. EPA has this goal for all communities and persons across this Nation, an alternative definition of justice can be defined as the distribution of social goods. Environmental discrimination is one issue that environmental justice seeks to address, the combined impact of these privileges and prejudices are just one of the potential reasons that waste management and high pollution sites tend to be located in minority-dominated areas. A disproportionate quantity of minority communities play host to landfills, incinerators, the location of transportation infrastructures, including highways, ports, and airports, has also been viewed as a source of environmental injustice. Among the earliest documentation of environmental racism was a study of the distribution of toxic waste sites across the United States, due to the results of that study, waste dumps and waste incinerators have been the target of environmental justice lawsuits and protests. Some environmental justice lawsuits are based on violations of civil rights laws, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is often used in lawsuits that claim environmental inequality. Section 601 prohibits discrimination based on race, color, or national origin by any government agency receiving federal assistance, to win an environmental justice case that claims an agency violated this statute, the plaintiff must prove the agency intended to discriminate. Section 602 requires agencies to create rules and regulations that uphold section 601 and this section is useful because the plaintiff must only prove that the rule or regulation in question had a discriminatory impact. There is no need to prove discriminatory intent, seif v. Chester Residents Concerned for Quality Living set the precedent that citizens can sue under section 601. There has not yet been a case in which a citizen has sued under section 602, the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which was used many times to defend minority rights during the 1960s, has also been used in numerous environmental justice cases. When environmentalism first became popular during the early 20th century, the focus was wilderness protection and these goals reflected the interests of the movements initial supporters. The actions of many mainstream environmental organizations still reflect these early principles, in addition, the NIMBY movement has transferred locally unwanted land uses from middle-class neighborhoods to poor communities with large minority populations. Therefore, vulnerable communities with fewer political opportunities are often exposed to hazardous waste. This has resulted in the PIBBY principle, or at least the PIMBY, as a result, some minorities have viewed the environmental movement as elitist. Environmental elitism manifested itself in three different forms, Compositional – Environmentalists are from the middle and upper class, ideological – The reforms benefit the movements supporters but impose costs on nonparticipants. Impact – The reforms have regressive social impacts and they disproportionately benefit environmentalists and harm underrepresented populations. Supporters of economic growth have taken advantage of environmentalists neglect of minorities and they have convinced minority leaders looking to improve their communities that the economic benefits of industrial facility and the increase in the number of jobs are worth the health risks. In fact, both politicians and businesses have even threatened imminent job loss if communities do not accept hazardous industries and facilities, there are massive legal fees involved in fighting for environmental justice and trying to shed environmental racism
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Insurance law
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Insurance law is the practice of law surrounding insurance, including insurance policies and claims. The earliest form of insurance is probably marine insurance, although forms of mutuality existed before that, whereby all merchants, especially those of the younger sort, are allured to venture more willingly and more freely. The expansion of English maritime trade made London the centre of a market that. Hence the great celebrity of his judgments, and hence the respect they command in foreign countries. By the 19th century membership of Lloyds was regulated and in 1871, common law jurisdictions in former members of the British empire, including the United States, Canada, India, South Africa, and Australia ultimately originate with the law of England and Wales. The underwriter has the advantage, by dint of drafting the policy terms, the prospective insured has the equal and opposite advantage of knowing the precise risk proposed to be insured in better detail than the underwriter can ever achieve. In civil law countries insurance has typically been more closely linked to the protection of the vulnerable, most, and until 2005 all, common law jurisdictions require the insured to have an insurable interest in the subject matter of the insurance. The requirement for insurable interest was removed in non-marine English law, possibly inadvertently, the doctrine of uberrimae fides - utmost good faith - is present in the insurance law of all common law systems. An insurance contract is a contract of utmost good faith, something is material if it would influence a prudent insurer in determining whether to write a risk, and if so upon what terms. Reinsurance contracts require the highest level of utmost good faith, in order to make reinsurance affordable, a reinsurer cannot duplicate costly insurer underwriting and claim handling costs, and must rely on an insurer’s absolute transparency and candor. In return, a reinsurer must appropriately investigate and reimburse an insurer’s good faith claim payments, Insurance regulation that governs the business of insurance is typically aimed at assuring the solvency of insurance companies. Thus, this type of regulation governs capitalization, reserve policies, rates, member States of the European Union each have their own insurance regulators. However, the E. U. regulation sets a harmonised prudential regime throughout the whole Union, the insurance sector went through a full circle of phases from being unregulated to completely regulated and then currently being partly deregulated. It is governed by a number of acts, the first statute in India to regulate the life insurance business was the Indian Life Assurance Companies Act,1912. The Insurance Act of 1938 was the first legislation governing all forms of insurance to provide strict state control over insurance business, Life insurance in India was completely nationalized on January 19,1956, through the Life Insurance Corporation Act. All 245 insurance companies operating then in the country were merged into one entity, the General Insurance Business Act of 1972 was enacted to nationalise the about 100 general insurance companies then and subsequently merging them into four companies. All the companies were amalgamated into National Insurance, New India Assurance, Oriental Insurance and United India Insurance, until 1999, there were no private insurance companies in India. The government then introduced the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority Act in 1999, thereby de-regulating the insurance sector, furthermore, foreign investment was also allowed and capped at 26% holding in the Indian insurance companies
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International law
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Public international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states, analogous entities, such as the Holy See, and intergovernmental organizations. To a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, the field of study combines two main branches, the law of nations and international agreements and conventions. The Italian jurist Sir Alberico Gentili was the first to write on public international law and it is usually distinguished from private international law, which concerns the resolution of conflict of laws. The concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a nation with a distinct national identity. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and it does not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy, and, in general, because international law is a relatively new area of law its development and propriety in applicable areas are often subject to dispute. Under article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in addition, judicial decisions and teachings may be applied as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law. International treaty law comprises obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept between themselves in treaties, customary international law is derived from the consistent practice of States accompanied by opinio juris, i. e. the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally looked to as persuasive sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior. Attempts to codify customary international law picked up momentum after the Second World War with the formation of the International Law Commission, codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to treaties, the work of the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of law are commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world. Certain norms of international law achieve the binding force of peremptory norms as to all states with no permissible derogations. Colombia v Perú ICJ6, recognising custom as a source of international law, belgium v Spain ICJ1, only the state where a corporation is incorporated has standing to bring an action for damages for economic loss. Where there are disputes about the meaning and application of national laws. The subjective approach, which takes into consideration i. the idea behind the treaty, ii. treaties in their context, what the writers intended when they wrote the text. A third approach, which bases itself on interpretation in the light of its object and purpose, i. e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty and these are general rules of interpretation, specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law. Greece v United Kingdom ICJ1, ICJ had no jurisdiction to hear a dispute between the UK government and a private Greek businessman under the terms of a treaty
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Land law
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Land law is the form of law that deals with the rights to use, alienate, or exclude others from land. In many jurisdictions, these kinds of property are referred to as real estate or real property, Land use agreements, including renting, are an important intersection of property and contract law. Encumbrance on the rights of one, such as an easement. Mineral rights and water rights are linked, and often interrelated concepts. Squatting, the occupation of land ownership, is a globally ubiquitous phenomenon. Sovereignty, in common law jurisdictions, is referred to as absolute title, radical title. Nearly all of these jurisdictions have a system of registration, to record fee simple interests. Indigenous land rights are recognized by law, as well as the national legal systems of common law. In common law jurisdictions, the rights of indigenous peoples are referred to as aboriginal title. In customary law jurisdictions, customary land is the predominant form of land ownership, Land reform refers to government policies that take and/or redistribute land, such as a land grant. This is not to be confused with access to land, which allows individuals the use of land in an economic sense, instead, land rights address the ownership of land which provides security and increases human capabilities. When a person only has access to land, they are in constant threat of expulsion depending on the choices of the land owner, which limits financial stability. Land rights are a part of Land Laws, as they socially enforce groups of individuals’ rights to own land in concurrence with the land laws of a nation. Land Law addresses the legal mandates set forth by a country in regards to land ownership, landesa takes the stance that although the law may advocate for equal access to land, land rights in certain countries and cultures may hinder a group’s right to actually own land. Laws are important, but they must be backed up by cultural tradition, therefore, laws concerning land ownership and land rights of a country must be in agreement. Globally, there has been a focus on land rights. According to Wickeri and Kalhan, land ownership can be a source of capital, financial security, food, water, shelter. The UN Global Land Tool organisation has found that rural landlessness is a predictor of poverty and hunger, and negatively impacts Empowerment
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Land use
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It also has been defined as the total of arrangements, activities, and inputs that people undertake in a certain land cover type. Land use practices vary considerably across the world, as of the early 1990s, about 13% of the Earth was considered arable land, with 26% in pasture, 32% forests and woodland, and 1. 5% urban areas. As Albert Guttenberg wrote many years ago, Land use is a key term in the language of city planning, commonly, political jurisdictions will undertake land-use planning and regulate the use of land in an attempt to avoid land-use conflicts. Land use plans are implemented through land division and use ordinances and regulations, Management consulting firms and non-governmental organizations will frequently seek to influence these regulations before they are codified. In colonial America, few regulations existed to control the use of land, as society shifted from rural to urban, public land regulation became important, especially to city governments trying to control industry, commerce, and housing within their boundaries. The first zoning ordinance was passed in New York City in 1916, in the 1970s, concerns about the environment and historic preservation led to further regulation. Today, federal, state, and local governments regulate growth, the majority of controls on land, however, stem from the actions of private developers and individuals. In these situations, judicial decisions and enforcement of private land-use arrangements can reinforce public regulation, two major federal laws have been passed in the last half century that limit the use of land significantly. These are the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. Land use information can be used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues such as salinity, for instance, water bodies in a region that has been deforested or having erosion will have different water quality than those in areas that are forested. Forest gardening, a food production system, is believed to be the oldest form of land use in the world. The major effect of use on land cover since 1750 has been deforestation of temperate regions. More recent significant effects of use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, salinization. Land-use change, together with use of fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide. As a consequence the result has often been misery for large segments of the population and destruction of valuable ecosystems. Such narrow approaches should be replaced by a technique for the planning and management of resources that is integrated and holistic. This will ensure the quality of the land for human use, the prevention or resolution of social conflicts related to land use. The urban growth boundary is one form of land-use regulation, for example, Portland, Oregon is required to have an urban growth boundary which contains at least 20,000 acres of vacant land
19.
Property law
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Property law is the area of law that governs the various forms of ownership and tenancy in real property and in personal property, within the common law legal system. In the civil law system, there is a division between movable and immovable property, movable property roughly corresponds to personal property, while immovable property corresponds to real estate or real property, and the associated rights, and obligations thereon. The concept, idea or philosophy of property underlies all property law, in some jurisdictions, historically all property was owned by the monarch and it devolved through feudal land tenure or other feudal systems of loyalty and fealty. The word property, in usage, refers to an object owned by a person — a car, a book, or a cellphone —. In law, the concept acquires a more nuanced rendering, most broadly and concisely, property in the legal sense refers to the rights of people in or over certain objects or things. James Wilson, U. S. Supreme Court Justice and professor of law at the University of Pennsylvania, in 1790 and 1791, undertook a survey of the philosophical grounds of American property law. He proceeds from two premises, “Every crime includes an injury, every injury includes a violation of a right. ”The government’s role in protecting property depends upon an idea of right, Wilson traces the history of property in his essay On the History of Property. In his lecture, Of the natural rights of individuals, he articulates related contemporary theory. While he doubts this is so, he states, “In his unrelated state, man has a natural right to his property, to his character, to liberty. Or was it, by an establishment, to acquire a new security for the possession or the recovery of those rights…. ”He indicates a preference for the latter. In the opening sentence of On the History of Property, he quite clearly, “Property is the right or lawful power, which a person has to a thing. ”He then divides the right into three degrees, possession, the lowest, possession and use, and, possession, use. Further, he states, “Man is intended for action, useful and skilful industry is the soul of an active life. But industry should have her just reward and that reward is property, for of useful and active industry, property is the natural result. ”From this simple reasoning he is able to present the conclusion that exclusive, as opposed to communal property, is to be preferred. Wilson does, however, give a survey of communal property arrangements in history, not only in colonial Virginia, non-legally recognized or documented property rights are known as informal property rights. These informal property rights are non-codified or documented, but recognized among local residents to varying degrees, different parties may claim a competing interest in the same property by mistake or by fraud. For example, the party creating or transferring an interest may have a valid title, a court resolves the dispute by adjudicating the priorities of the interests. To transfer property is to such an act. Property rights are rights over things enforceable against all other persons, by contrast, contractual rights are rights enforceable against particular persons
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Wild law
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The term ‘wild law’ was first coined by Cormac Cullinan, to refer to human laws that are consistent with Earth jurisprudence. Wild laws are designed to regulate human participation within this wider community, Wild laws may be distinguished from laws based on the understanding that Earth is a conglomeration of objects which human beings are entitled to exploit for their exclusive benefit. This requires laws that firstly, recognise that other members of the Earth community have rights, as a field, wild law cannot easily be categorised within traditional legal categories. It is perhaps understood as an approach to human governance. A conference based on the concept of law was held in November 2005 at the University of Brighton. In November 2006, a based on the book Wild Law by Cormac Cullinan was held at the University of Brighton, UK. A Walk on the Wild Side, Changing Environmental Law and was chaired by John Elkington with guest speakers, Cormac Cullinan, Norman Baker MP, Satish Kumar, organised by UKELA, with support from ELF and the Gaia Foundation, London and sponsored by The Body Shop. This event is facilitated by Elizabeth Rivers, former lawyer and professional facilitator
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Treaty
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A treaty is an agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an agreement, protocol, covenant, convention, pact, or exchange of letters, regardless of terminology, all of these forms of agreements are, under international law, equally considered treaties and the rules are the same. A treaty is an official, express written agreement that states use to bind themselves. Since the late 19th century, most treaties have followed a consistent format. A treaty typically begins with a preamble describing the parties and their joint objectives in executing the treaty. Modern preambles are sometimes structured as a very long sentence formatted into multiple paragraphs for readability. The end of the preamble and the start of the agreement is often signaled by the words have agreed as follows. After the preamble comes numbered articles, which contain the substance of the actual agreement. Each article heading usually encompasses a paragraph, a long treaty may further group articles under chapter headings. The date is written in its most formal, longest possible form. For example, the Charter of the United Nations was DONE at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of June, one nine hundred. If the treaty is executed in multiple copies in different languages, that fact is always noted, the signatures of the parties representatives follow at the very end. Bilateral treaties are concluded between two states or entities, each of these treaties has seventeen parties. These however are still bilateral, not multilateral, treaties, the parties are divided into two groups, the Swiss and the EU and its member states. The treaty establishes rights and obligations between the Swiss and the EU and the member states severally—it does not establish any rights and obligations amongst the EU, a multilateral treaty is concluded among several countries. The agreement establishes rights and obligations between each party and every other party, Treaties of mutual guarantee are international compacts, e. g. the Treaty of Locarno which guarantees each signatory against attack from another. Reservations are essentially caveats to an acceptance of a treaty. Reservations are unilateral statements purporting to exclude or to modify the legal obligation and these must be included at the time of signing or ratification, i. e. a party cannot add a reservation after it has already joined a treaty
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Statute
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A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a state, city or country. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy, statutes are rules made by legislative bodies, they are distinguished from case law or precedent, which is decided by courts, and regulations issued by government agencies. Statute law is written by a legislative body and signed into law by its executive. Before a statute becomes law in countries, it must be agreed upon by the highest executive in the government. A universal problem encountered by lawmakers throughout human history is how to organize published statutes, such publications have a habit of starting small but growing rapidly over time, as new statutes are enacted in response to the exigencies of the moment. Eventually, persons trying to find the law are forced to sort through a number of statutes enacted at various points in time to determine which portions are still in effect. In turn, in theory, the code will thenceforth reflect the current cumulative state of the law in that jurisdiction. In many nations statutory law is distinguished from and subordinate to constitutional law, statute is also another word for law. The term was adapted from England in about the 18th century, in the Autonomous Communities of Spain, the autonomy statute is a legal document similar to a state constitution in a federated state. The autonomies statutes in Spain have the rank of Ley Organica, leyes Organicas rank between the Constitution and ordinary laws. The name was chosen, among others, to avoid confusion with the term Constitution, in biblical terminology, statute refers to a law given without any reason or justification. The classic example is the statute regarding the Red Heifer. The opposite of a chok is a mishpat, a law given for a reason, e. g. the Sabbath laws, which were given because God created the world in six days. That which upholds, supports or maintains the order of the universe meaning the Law or Natural Law. This is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion, Constitution Legislation Legislature Organic statute Statutory law
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Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
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Natural environment
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The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some part of Earth and this environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a system in the desert. Though many animals build things to provide an environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams. People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum, more precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, in a field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil. Natural environment is used as a synonym for habitat. For instance, when we say that the environment of giraffes is the savanna. Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air, and life respectively. Some scientists include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, Earth science, is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology, the Earths crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools, beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes. An ocean is a body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earths surface is covered by ocean, a body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans. More than half of area is over 3,000 meters deep
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Pollution
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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution, Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man created the first fires, metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of horses in concentrated areas made the cities the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and wastes into local streams that served as the water supply, king Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow and it was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem, reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water. In 1870, the conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. There were no toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called, in the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive. As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881, as historian Martin Melosi notes, The generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as miracles of cleanliness. By the 1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was an issue in Los Angeles. Other cities followed around the country early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of fallout from atomic warfare. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London and this prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956
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Natural resources
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Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, on earth it includes, sunlight, atmosphere, water, land along with all vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances. Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems, Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components that can be found within the environment, every man-made product is composed of natural resources. Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, however, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localised resources. There are very few resources that are considered inexhaustible – these are solar radiation, geothermal energy, the vast majority of resources are theoretically exhaustible, which means they have a finite quantity and can be depleted if managed improperly. There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material, examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, Actual resources — Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of a resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available. Reserve resources — The part of a resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource. Stock resources — Stock resources are those that have been surveyed, renewability is a very popular topic and many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable, Renewable resources — Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available, though many renewable resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use. Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment, minerals are the most common resource included in this category. Some resources actually naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. Once they are used they take millions of years to replenish. Resource extraction involves any activity that withdraws resources from nature and this can range in scale from the traditional use of preindustrial societies, to global industry. Extractive industries are, along with agriculture, the basis of the sector of the economy
27.
Nuisance in English law
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Each tort requires the claimant to prove that the defendants actions caused interference, which was unreasonable, and in some situations the intention of the defendant may also be taken into account. A significant difference is that private nuisance does not allow a claimant to claim for any injury suffered. Its chapter lies neglected in the works, little changed over the years. Any sense of direction which may have existed in the old days is long gone, the tort of nuisance has existed since the reign of Henry III, with few changes, and most of them merely technical. It originally came from the Latin nocumentum, and then the French nuisance and this was because it was far faster than the other writs and actions, and unlike them did not require that both parties be freeholders. It was, however, limited to damages, and unlike the other remedies did not allow for abatement, in reaching these decisions the courts effectively emasculated the Law of Nuisance as a useful curb on industrial pollution. The decisions reached during this period vary, however, mostly due to the differing philosophies of the time. Dicey maintained that the prevalent philosophy was one of laissez faire thanks to the influence of philosophers and economists such as Adam Smith, Michael W. Flinn asserted that, Another common error. Has been the assumption that the classical economists were the only influence on social and economic policy in the early. In practice the ears of ministers were assaulted by a babble of voices rather than bewitched by the soft whisper of a single plea for inaction. Private nuisance, unlike public nuisance, is only a tort, the liable party under private nuisance is the creator, even if he is no longer in occupation of the land or created a nuisance on somebody elses land. In Sedleigh-Denfield v OCallaghan, it was held that the defendant was liable for a nuisance even though he had not created it, because he had used the pipes and thereby adopted the nuisance. There is a rule that a landlord who leases a property is not liable for nuisances created after the occupier takes control of the land. The landlord is also liable were the nuisance existed before the land was let, for there to be a claim in private nuisance, the claimant must show that the defendants actions caused damage. This can be physical damage, as in St Helens Smelting Co v Tipping, or discomfort, the test is whether or not the nuisance was reasonably foreseeable, if it was, the defendant is expected to avoid it. The claimant must first show that the actions have caused an interference with their use or enjoyment of the land. These interferences are indirect, and almost always the result of continuing events rather than a one-off incident. This interference may be an invasion of the land, such as in Davey v Harrow Corporation, noise, as in Christie v Davey, or smells
28.
Great Stink
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The problem had been mounting for some years, with an ageing and inadequate sewer system that emptied directly into the Thames. The miasma from the effluent was thought to transmit contagious diseases, the smell, and peoples fears of its possible effects, prompted action from the local and national administrators who had been considering possible solutions for the problem. Work on high-, mid- and low-level systems for the new Northern and Southern Outfall Sewers started at the beginning of 1859, to aid the drainage, pumping stations were placed to lift the sewage from lower levels into higher pipes. Two of the more stations, Abbey Mills in Stratford. Bazalgettes plan introduced the three embankments to London in which the sewers ran—the Victoria, Chelsea and Albert Embankments and his sewer system operates into the 21st century, servicing a city that has grown to a population of over eight million. The historian Peter Ackroyd argues that Bazalgette should be considered a hero of London, brick sewers had been built in London from the 17th century when sections of the Fleet and Walbrook rivers were covered for that purpose. In the century preceding 1856, over a hundred sewers were constructed in London, some cesspits leaked methane and other gases, which often caught fire and exploded, leading to loss of life, while many of the sewers were in a poor state of repair. During the early 19th century improvements had been undertaken in the supply of water to Londoners, the outfalls from factories, slaughterhouses and other industrial activities put further strain on the already failing system. Much of this outflow either overflowed, or was discharged directly and his conclusion was that Near the bridges the feculence rolled up in clouds so dense that they were visible at the surface, even in water of this kind. The smell was very bad, and common to the whole of the water, it was the same as that now comes up from the gully-holes in the streets. The smell from the river was so bad that in 1857 the government poured chalk lime, chloride of lime and this contamination could take the form of the odour of rotting corpses or sewage, but also rotting vegetation, or the exhaled breath of someone already diseased. Miasma was believed by most to be the vector of transmission of cholera, the disease was deeply feared by all, because of the speed with which it could spread, and its high fatality rates. Londons first major cholera epidemic struck in 1831, when the disease claimed 6,536 victims, in 1848–49 there was a second outbreak in which 14,137 London residents died, and this was followed by a further outbreak in 1853–54 in which 10,738 died. During the second outbreak, John Snow, a London-based physician, noticed that the rates of death were higher in those areas supplied by the Lambeth and the Southwark and Vauxhall water companies. Following the third cholera outbreak in 1854, Snow published an update to his treatise, after he focused on the effects in Broad Street, Snow had removed the handle from the local water pump, thus preventing access to the contaminated water, with a resulting fall in deaths. It was later established that the well from which the water was drawn had a sewer running nearby. The civic infrastructure overseeing the management of Londons sewers had gone through changes in the 19th century. In 1848 the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers was established at the urging of the social reformer Edwin Chadwick and a Royal Commission
29.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
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Cesspit
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A cesspit, or cesspool, is a term with various meanings, it is either used to describe an underground holding tank or a soak pit. It can be used for the collection and storage of feces. Traditionally, it was a cylindrical chamber dug into the earth, having approximate dimensions of 1 metre diameter. Their appearance was similar to that of a water well. The pit can be lined with bricks or concrete, covered with a slab, in other cases it is not constructed watertight allowing liquid to leach out. In the UK a cesspit is a tank for the reception and temporary storage of sewage. Because it is sealed, the tank must be emptied frequently — in many cases as often as weekly, because of the need for frequent emptying, the cost of maintenance of a cesspit can be very high. A cesspool was at one time built like a dry well lined with loose-fitting brick or stone, liquids leaked out through the soil as conditions allowed, while solids decayed and collected as composted matter in the base of the cesspool. As the solids accumulated, eventually the particulate solids blocked the escape of liquids and it is for this reason that deep water wells on the property must be drilled far from the cesspool. The concrete cover will often have a cleanout pipe extending above ground, some are constructed with concrete walls on one or more sides. The waste cesspool is vulnerable to overloading or flooding by heavy rains or snow melt because it is not enclosed and sealed like conventional septic tank systems and it is also vulnerable to the entry of tree roots which can eventually cause the system to fail. Modern environmental regulations either discourage or ban the use of cesspools, in some localities in the U. S. existing rural residential waste cesspools are grandfathered or allowed to continue operations until they no longer function. Once defunct, they must be disconnected and replaced by modern septic systems, in areas that have a higher than usual water table or fail a percolation test, an above-ground drain field waste disposal system may be installed instead. In the case of sale or transfer of property that uses an existing waste cesspool system. Some counties or jurisdictions do not permit the sale of property that utilizes a waste cesspool. Other counties or villages may recognize the grandfather clause and allow the property sale or transfer, in France, Germany, Spain and Switzerland, cesspits are forbidden. The typical American urbanite in the 1870s relied on the solution of individual well. Baltimore in the 1880s smelled like a billion polecats, according to H. L. Mencken, improvement was slow, and large cities of the East and South depended to the end of the century mainly on drainage through open gutters
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London sewerage system
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The London sewerage system is part of the water infrastructure serving London, England. The modern system was developed during the late 19th century, and it is currently owned and operated by Thames Water and serves almost all of Greater London. During the early 19th century the River Thames was a sewer, with disastrous consequences for public health in London. These were caused by enterotoxin-producing strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, proposals to modernise the sewerage system had been made during 1856, but were neglected due to lack of funds. However, after the Great Stink of 1858, Parliament realised the urgency of the problem, joseph Bazalgette, a civil engineer and Chief Engineer of the Metropolitan Board of Works, was given responsibility for the work. He designed an extensive underground sewerage system that diverted waste to the Thames Estuary, six main interceptor sewers, totalling almost 160 km in length, were constructed, some incorporating stretches of Londons lost rivers. Three of these sewers were north of the river, the southernmost, the Embankment also allowed new roads, new public gardens, and the Circle line of the London Underground. Victoria Embankment was finally opened on 13 July 1870. The intercepting sewers, constructed between 1859 and 1865, were fed by 450 miles of sewers that, in turn. Construction of the system required 318 million bricks,2.7 million cubic metres of excavated earth and 670,000 cubic metres of concrete. The innovative use of Portland cement strengthened the tunnels, which were in good order 150 years later, gravity allows the sewage to flow eastwards, but in places such as Chelsea, Deptford and Abbey Mills, pumping stations were built to raise the water and provide sufficient flow. Sewers north of the Thames feed into the Northern Outfall Sewer, south of the river, the Southern Outfall Sewer extends to a similar facility at Crossness. During the 20th century, major improvements were made to the system and to the sewage treatment provision to substantially reduce pollution of the Thames Estuary. The original system was designed to cope with 6.5 mm per hour of rainfall within the catchment area, Londons growth has put pressure on the capacity of the sewerage system. During storms, for example, high levels of rainfall in a period of time can overwhelm the system. Sewers and treatment works are unable to cope with the volumes of rainwater entering the system. Rainwater mixes with sewage in combined sewers and excess mixed water is discharged into the Thames, if this does not happen quickly enough, localised flooding occurs. Such sanitary sewer overflow can mean streets becoming flooded with a mixture of water and sewage, consulting engineer Sir William Halcrow & Partners designed a system of large diameter tunnels served by new pumping stations
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Air pollution
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Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earths atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies or death in humans, it may cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops. Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution, indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the worlds worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute Worlds Worst Polluted Places report. According to the 2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide, an air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made, pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly, rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant, some pollutants may be both primary and secondary, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. Substances emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include, Carbon dioxide - Debate continues over whether carbon dioxide should be classified as an atmospheric pollutant, because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as the leading pollutant and the worst climate pollution. Against this it is argued that carbon dioxide is a component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life. This question of terminology has practical effects, for example as determining whether the U. S. Clean Air Act is deemed to regulate CO2 emissions, CO2 increase in earths atmosphere has been accelerating. Sulfur oxides - particularly sulfur dioxide, a compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide, further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. Nitrogen oxides - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion and they can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a compound with the formula NO2
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Great Smog of London
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The Great Smog of 1952, sometimes called The Big Smoke, was a severe air-pollution event that affected the British capital of London in December 1952. A period of weather, combined with an anticyclone and windless conditions. It lasted from Friday,5 December to Tuesday,9 December 1952 and it caused major disruption by reducing visibility and even penetrating indoor areas, far more severe than previous smog events experienced in the past, called pea-soupers. More recent research suggests that the number of fatalities was considerably greater. It led to changes in practices and regulations, including the Clean Air Act 1956. The cold weather preceding and during the Great Smog led Londoners to burn more coal than usual to keep warm, post-war domestic coal tended to be of a relatively low-grade, sulphurous variety, which increased the amount of sulphur dioxide in the smoke. There were also numerous coal-fired power stations in the Greater London area, including Fulham, Battersea, Bankside and Kingston upon Thames, prevailing winds had also blown heavily polluted air across the English Channel from industrial areas of Continental Europe. On 4 December 1952, an anticyclone settled over a windless London, causing a temperature inversion with cold, the presence of tarry particles of soot gave the smog its yellow-black colour, hence the nickname pea-souper. The absence of significant wind prevented its dispersal and allowed an unprecedented accumulation of pollutants, although London was accustomed to heavy fogs, this one was denser and longer-lasting than any previous fog. Visibility was reduced to a few metres making driving difficult or impossible, public transport ceased, apart from the London Underground, and the ambulance service stopped functioning, forcing users to transport themselves to hospital. Outdoor sports events were also affected, in the inner London suburbs and away from town centres there was no disturbance by moving traffic to thin out the dense fog in the back streets. The result was that visibility could be down to a metre or so in the daytime, walking out of doors became a matter of shuffling ones feet to feel for potential obstacles such as road kerbs. Fog-penetrating fluorescent lamps did not become available until later on in the 1950s. Smog masks were worn by those who were able to purchase them from chemists, near railway lines, on which fog working was implemented, loud explosions similar to the report of a shotgun were a common feature. The explosions were made by detonators – a form of large percussion cap placed on the track and these devices were placed by certain signals to provide an audible warning to match the visual indication provided by the signal for the driver. There was no panic, as London was renowned for its fog, in the weeks that ensued, however, statistics compiled by medical services found that the fog had killed 4,000 people. Most of the victims were young or elderly, or had pre-existing respiratory problems. Mortality remained elevated for months after the fog, a preliminary report, never finalised, blamed the ongoing deaths on an influenza epidemic
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Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
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Biosphere
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The biosphere also known as the ecosphere, is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. The two joined words are bio and sphere and it can also be termed as the zone of life on Earth, a closed system, and largely self-regulating. The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process of biopoiesis or biogenesis, more recently, in 2015, remains of biotic life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe. In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems and this includes artificial biospheres such as Biosphere 2 and BIOS-3, and potentially ones on other planets or moons. The term biosphere was coined by geologist Eduard Suess in 1875, while the concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the effect of both Charles Darwin and Matthew F. Maury on the Earth sciences. The biospheres ecological context comes from the 1920s, preceding the 1935 introduction of the ecosystem by Sir Arthur Tansley. Vernadsky defined ecology as the science of the biosphere and it is an interdisciplinary concept for integrating astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, biogeography, evolution, geology, geochemistry, hydrology and, generally speaking, all life and Earth sciences. Geochemists define the biosphere as being the sum of living organisms. In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four components of the geochemical model. When these four component spheres are combined into one system, it is known as the Ecosphere and this term was coined during the 1960s and encompasses both biological and physical components of the planet. The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined biospherics as the science and technology of analogs and models of Earths biosphere, others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres—for example, human-centered biospheres or a native Martian biosphere—as part of the topic of biospherics. Every part of the planet, from the ice caps to the equator. The actual thickness of the biosphere on earth is difficult to measure, birds typically fly at altitudes as high as 1,800 m and fish live as much as 8,372 m underwater in the Puerto Rico Trench. Herbivorous animals at these elevations depend on lichens, grasses, microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have been observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. The total amount of soil and subsurface bacterial carbon is estimated as 5 ×1017 g, the mass of prokaryote microorganisms—which includes bacteria and archaea, but not the nucleated eukaryote microorganisms—may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon. Barophilic marine microbes have been found at more than a depth of 10,000 m in the Mariana Trench, in fact, single-celled life forms have been found in the deepest part of the Mariana Trench, by the Challenger Deep, at depths of 11,034 m. Culturable thermophilic microbes have been extracted from cores drilled more than 5,000 m into the Earths crust in Sweden, temperature increases with increasing depth into the Earths crust
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Environmental movement
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The environmental movement, also including conservation and green politics, is a diverse scientific, social, and political movement for addressing environmental issues. Environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environment through changes in public policy, in its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered on ecology, health, and human rights. The environmental movement is a movement, represented by a range of organizations, from the large to grassroots. Due to its membership, varying and strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature. The movement also encompasses some other movements with a specific focus. At its broadest, the movement includes private citizens, professionals, religious devotees, politicians, scientists, nonprofit organizations, early interest in the environment was a feature of the Romantic movement in the early 19th century. The origins of the movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The modern conservation movement was first manifested in the forests of India and this was the first case of state management of forests in the world. In 1860, the Department banned the use shifting cultivation, dr. Hugh Cleghorns 1861 manual, The forests and gardens of South India, became the definitive work on the subject and was widely used by forest assistants in the subcontinent. Sir Dietrich Brandis joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the forests of Pegu division in eastern Burma. During that time Burmas teak forests were controlled by militant Karen tribals and he introduced the taungya system, in which Karen villagers provided labour for clearing, planting and weeding teak plantations. He formulated new forest legislation and helped research and training institutions. The Imperial Forest School at Dehradun was founded by him, the late 19th century saw the formation of the first wildlife conservation societies. The zoologist Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the Desirability of establishing a Close-time for the preservation of animals between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during the season led to the formation of the Plumage League in 1889. The society acted as a protest group campaigning against the use of great crested grebe and kittiwake skins, the Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes, and influenced the passage of the Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world. For most of the century from 1850 to 1950, however, the Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke, although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke
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Developed country
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Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. Developed countries have post-industrial economies, meaning the sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector. They are contrasted with developing countries, which are in the process of industrialization, or undeveloped countries, which are pre-industrial and almost entirely agrarian. As of 2015, advanced economies comprise 60. 8% of global GDP based on values and 42. 9% of global GDP based on purchasing-power parity according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2015, the ten largest advanced economies by GDP in both nominal and PPP terms were Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The term industrialized country may be ambiguous, as industrialization is an ongoing process that is hard to define. The first industrialized country was the United Kingdom, followed by Belgium, later it spread further to Germany, United States, France and other Western European countries. According to some such as Jeffrey Sachs, however, the current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century. Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions, one such criterion is income per capita, countries with high gross domestic product per capita would thus be described as developed countries. Another economic criterion is industrialization, countries in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate would thus be described as developed. More recently another measure, the Human Development Index, which combines an economic measure, national income, with other measures, indices for life expectancy and this criterion would define developed countries as those with a very high rating. According to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the UN HDI is a statistical measure that gauges a countrys level of human development. While there is a correlation between having a high HDI score and a prosperous economy, the UN points out that the HDI accounts for more than income or productivity. Unlike GDP per capita or per capita income, the HDI takes into account how income is turned into education and health opportunities, since 1990, Norway, Japan, Canada and Iceland have had the highest HDI score. The top 47 countries have scores ranging from 0.793 in Barbados to 0.955 in Norway, many countries listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, possess an HDI over 0.788. Many countries possessing an HDI of 0.788 and over are also listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, thus, many advanced economies are characterized by an HDI score of 0.9 or higher. Since April 2016, the IMF classifies Macau as an advanced economy, the latest index was released on 14 December 2015 and covers the period up to 2014. The following are the 49 countries in the top quartile - having an HDI above 0.8, = Increase = No increase or decrease = Decrease The number in parentheses represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in 2014 report
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