1.
Hierarchy
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A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being above, below, or at the same level as one another. A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally, indirect hierarchical links can extend vertically upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues, each reports to a superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are alternative and complementary to hierarchy. A hierarchy is a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority, Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, for example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague, degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has a node has). Hierarchies can be categorized based on the degree, the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes, linear and branching, in a linear hierarchy, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a lineup, note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels, every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a hierarchy is the hierarchy of life. In a branching hierarchy, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more, for many people, the word hierarchy automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes, the broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree. A flat hierarchy is a hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span, therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms which can be decomposed into subatomic particles. An overlapping hierarchy is a hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word both in reference to the hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy
2.
Sydney
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
3.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Bennelong
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Woollarawarre Bennelong was a senior man of the Eora, an Aboriginal people of the Port Jackson area, at the time of the first British settlement in Australia, in 1788. Bennelong served as an interlocutor between the Eora and the British, both in Sydney and in the United Kingdom and he had several sisters, including Warreeweer and Carangarang, who married important men from nearby clans, thereby creating political links for their brother. Bennelong had a daughter named Dilboong who died in infancy, and a son who was adopted by the Rev. William Walker, Thomas died after a short illness aged about 20. At that time the Eora conscientiously avoided contact with the newcomers, a man named Arabanoo was captured, but he, like many other Aboriginal people near the settlement, died in a smallpox epidemic a few months later in May 1789. Bennelong was captured with Colbee in December 1789 as part of Phillips plan to learn the language and customs of the local people. His age, at the time of his capture, was estimated at 25 and his appetite was such that the ration of a week was insufficient to have kept him for a day, and love and war seemed his favourite pursuits. Colbee soon escaped, but Bennelong stayed in the settlement for about six months and he then escaped also, but renewed contact with Phillip as a free man. About three months after his escape, he organised for Phillip to visit Manly where he was speared in the shoulder and he maintained ongoing good relations with the colony and in a gesture of kinship, gave Phillip the Aboriginal name Wolawaree. In 1790, Bennelong asked the governor to build him a hut on what became known as Bennelong Point, Bennelong and also another Aborigine named Yemmerrawanne travelled with Phillip on Atlantic to England in 1792. Many historians have claimed that they were presented to King George III, soon after their arrival in England they were hurriedly made clothes that would have been suitable for their presentation to the King. Jack Brook reconstructs some of their activities from the expense claims lodged with the government and they visited St Pauls Cathedral and the Tower of London. A boat was hired, and they went bathing, Yemmerrawanne died while in Britain after a serious chest infection, and Bennelongs health deteriorated. He returned to Sydney in February 1795 on HMS Reliance, the ship that took surgeon George Bass to the colony for the first time and he taught Bass some of his language on the voyage. Bennelong arrived back in Sydney on 7 September 1795 and he returned to a respected position in the colony, advising Governor Hunter as he had advised and educated Phillip, and also returned to a prominent position in Eora political and cultural life. He frequently participated in battles, and officiated at ceremonies. By the early 18th century, he was the leader of a 100-strong clan living on the side of the river to the west of Kissing Point in Wallumedagal country. He died at Kissing Point, in Sydneys North West) on January 1813, and was buried in the orchard of the brewer James Squire, a great friend to Bennelong and his clan. On 20 March 2011 Dr Peter Mitchell of Macquarie University announced that he had located the grave site in the garden of a private house in present-day Putney
6.
Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
7.
Indigenous peoples of Australia
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For a more complete list of Indigenous peoples of Australia see List of Indigenous Australian group names, for general information, see Indigenous Australians. There are several hundred Indigenous peoples of Australia, many are groupings that existed before the British colonisation of Australia in 1788, within each country, people lived in clan groups, extended families defined by various forms of Australian Aboriginal kinship. Inter-clan contact was common, as was inter-country contact, but there were strict protocols around this contact, the largest language group people today are the Anangu Pitjantjatjara who live in the area around Uluru and south into the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Lands in South Australia. The second largest Aboriginal community are the Arrernte people who live in, the third largest are the Anangu Luritja, who live in the lands between the two largest just mentioned. The Aboriginal languages and dialects with the largest number of speakers today are the Pitjantjatjara, Warlpiri, Ngunnawal The Ngunnawal people were the first inhabitants of the area which is now occupied by the city of Canberra and the Australian Capital Territory. The city of Canberra is named after the Ngunnawal word Kambera, many other place names around Canberra are Ngunnawal names, such as Tuggeranong, Ginninderra, Murrumbidgee, the suburb Ngunnawal and many road names. Murrawarri people - see Murrawarri Republic and Murawari language, Alyawarre Alyawarre who live north-east of Alice Springs. In 1980 they lodged a claim, which was handed back to them on 22 October 1992. The size of the land was 2065 km², Anmatjera Anmatjera from an area near Mount Leichhardt, Hann and Reynolds Ranges, and northeast to Central Mount Stuart. Artist Clifford Possum is an Anmatjera man, emily Kngwarreye was also an Anmatjera woman. Arrernte The Arrernte people speak the Upper Arrernte language, and live in the Arrernte area of Central Australia, the population of Arrernte people living on Arrernte land is estimated at 25,000, making it the second largest of all Central Australian Aboriginal countries, after Pitjantjatjara. In most primary schools in Alice Springs, students are taught Arrernte as a compulsory language, future plans are that it will be included as a university subject. Approximately 25% of Alice Springs residents speak Arrernte as their first language, Gurindji Gurindji, who from 1966 to 1975 at Wave Hill Cattle Station had a strike known as The Gurindji Strike. In 1975, the Australian Labor Party government of Gough Whitlam finally negotiated with the Vesteys to give the Gurindji back a portion of their land and this was a landmark in the land rights movement in Australia for Australian Aboriginal people to be given rights to their traditional lands. Kunibidji The Kunibidji, or Gunivugi, people live by the Liverpool River in Arnhem Land and they are Aboriginal people and speak the Ndjébbana language. They hunt dugong, turtle and fish, Luritja Luritja is a name used to refer to several dialects of the Western Desert Language, and thereby also to the people who speak these varieties, and their traditional lands. The Luritja lands include areas to the west and south of Alice Springs, extending around the edge of Arrernte country, the total population of Luritja people is probably in the thousands making them the third largest of the Central Australian Aboriginal populations. It includes the town of Papunya, Murrinh-Patha The Murrinh-Patha are a small group, living inland from the settlement of Wadeye, between the rivers Moyle and Fitzmaurice
8.
Sydney, New South Wales
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
9.
Radiocarbon dating
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Radiocarbon dating is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s, Libby received the Nobel Prize for his work in 1960. The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting radiocarbon combines with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and from that point onwards the amount of 14C it contains begins to decrease as the 14C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the amount of 14C in a sample from a plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14C in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the samples calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of 14C in different types of organisms, additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s. Conversely, nuclear testing increased the amount of 14C in the atmosphere, measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices, which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying 14C atoms in a sample. The development of dating has had a profound impact on archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods, histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the radiocarbon revolution. Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated, such as the end of the last ice age, and they synthesized 14C using the laboratorys cyclotron accelerator and soon discovered that the atoms half-life was far longer than had been previously thought. This was followed by a prediction by Serge A. Korff, then employed at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and it had previously been thought that 14C would be more likely to be created by deuterons interacting with 13C. At some time during World War II, Willard Libby, who was then at Berkeley, learned of Korffs research, in 1945, Libby moved to the University of Chicago where he began his work on radiocarbon dating. He published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include 14C as well as non-radioactive carbon, by contrast, methane created from petroleum showed no radiocarbon activity because of its age. The results were summarized in a paper in Science in 1947, Libby and James Arnold proceeded to test the radiocarbon dating theory by analyzing samples with known ages
10.
Upper Paleolithic
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The Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. Very broadly, it dates to between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago, roughly coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity, modern humans are believed to have emerged about 195,000 years ago in Africa. Although these humans were modern in anatomy, their lifestyle changed very little from their contemporaries, such as Homo erectus, about 50,000 years ago, there was a marked increase in the diversity of artifacts. In Africa, bone artifacts and the first art appear in the archeological record, between 45,000 and 43,000 years ago, this new tool technology spread with human migration to Europe. The new technology generated an explosion of modern humans which is believed to have contributed to the extinction of the Neanderthals. The Upper Paleolithic has the earliest known evidence of organized settlements, in the form of campsites, artistic work blossomed, with cave painting, petroglyphs, carvings and engravings on bone or ivory. The first evidence of fishing is also noted, from artifacts in places such as Blombos cave in South Africa. More complex social groupings emerged, supported by more varied and reliable food sources and this probably contributed to increasing group identification or ethnicity. By 50, 000–40,000 BP, the first humans set foot in Australia, by 45,000 BP, humans lived at 61° north latitude in Europe. By 30,000 BP, Japan was reached, and by 27,000 BP humans were present in Siberia above the Arctic Circle, at the end of the Upper Paleolithic, a group of humans crossed the Bering land bridge and quickly expanded throughout North and South America. Both Homo erectus and Neanderthals used the same crude stone tools, archaeologist Richard G. Klein, who has worked extensively on ancient stone tools, describes the stone tool kit of archaic hominids as impossible to categorize. It was as if the Neanderthals made stone tools, and were not much concerned about their final forms and he argues that almost everywhere, whether Asia, Africa or Europe, before 50,000 years ago all the stone tools are much alike and unsophisticated. These new stone-tool types have been described as being distinctly differentiated from each other, the invaders, commonly referred to as the Cro-Magnons, left many sophisticated stone tools, carved and engraved pieces on bone, ivory and antler, cave paintings and Venus figurines. The Neanderthals continued to use Mousterian stone tool technology and possibly Chatelperronian technology and these tools disappeared from the archeological record at around the same time the Neanderthals themselves disappeared from the fossil record, about 40,000 years ago. Settlements were often located in valley bottoms, possibly associated with hunting of passing herds of animals. Hunting was important, and caribou/wild reindeer may well be the species of single greatest importance in the anthropological literature on hunting. Technological advances included significant developments in flint tool manufacturing, with industries based on fine blades rather than simpler and shorter flakes, burins and racloirs were used to work bone, antler and hides. Advanced darts and harpoons also appear in period, along with the fish hook, the oil lamp, rope
11.
Greater Western Sydney
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In government administration, the region has a Minister for Western Sydney, currently held by the Hon. Stuart Ayres, MP. The population is predominantly of a working background, with major employment in the heavy industries. Greater Western Sydney local government authorities agree on the definition of greater western Sydney. The Macarthur Regional Organisation of Councils includes the government areas of Camden, Campbelltown. This confirmed earlier accounts by Governor Phillip, who suggested that the trees were growing at a distance of twenty to forty feet from each other. Maximum summer temperatures average at around 28 °C to 30 °C and winter temperatures are mild, averaging at around 17 °C to 18 °C, autumn and spring are the transitional seasons, with spring showing a larger variation than autumn in terms of temperatures. Rainfall is almost evenly throughout the year, although the first half tends to be wetter. The region is in a rain shadow created by the higher coastal highlands which seize the rain from the prevailing south-east winds. The months from July through to December tend to be drier, thunderstorms are common in late summer and early autumn. Winters are pleasantly cool and relatively sunny, although east coast lows can bring large amounts of rainfall, most suburbs in the west have an annual precipitation that averages at around 700 to 900 mm, in contrast to Sydney CBDs 1,217 mm. Western Sydney is much warmer than Sydney city in summer, during this time, daytime temperatures can be 5 degrees Celsius warmer than the city. This is because sea breezes in the City do not penetrate the inland areas, northwesterlies occasionally bring hot winds from the desert that raise temperatures as high as 40 °C. The humidity in the summer is usually in the comfortable range, in early autumn, hot days are possible, with temperatures above 38 °C possible in March, but quite rare. April is cooler, with days above 30 °C happening on average only 1.1 times during the month, days cooler than 20 °C occur more regularly leading into May. In May, days are mild, ranging from the high teens to the low-mid 20s. Average minimums fall throughout the season, with the first night below 10 °C often occurring in April. Winter temperatures often show a variation in late winter than early winter. Winter nights average 6.9 °C, although an average of 2.1 nights per year see temperatures fall below 2 °C, mostly in July, and these low temperatures often occur when the night sky is clear and the ground can radiate heat back into the atmosphere
12.
Dharuk language
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The Sydney language, also referred to as Darug or Iyora, is an Australian Aboriginal language of the Yuin–Kuric group that is spoken in the region of Sydney, New South Wales. It is the language of the Darug and Eora peoples. The term Dharug, which can also be spelt Darug, Dharukk, Dharoog, Dharrag, Dharug is the root, or the midyini, of the languages of the Sydney basin. The Darug population was greatly diminished since the onset of colonisation, Darug people recognise Sir William Dawes of the first fleet and flagship the Sirius as the first to record the original traditional tongue of the elder people of Sydney Darugule-wayaun. During the 1990s and the new millennium some descendants of the Darug clans in Western Sydney have been making efforts to revive Dharug as a spoken language. Today some modern Dharug speakers have given speeches in the Dharug language and younger members of the community visit schools, bowern lists Dharuk and Iyora as separate languages. The speakers did not use a name for their language prior to settlement by the First Fleet. The coastal dialect has been referred to as Iyora, which means people, while the inland dialect has been referred to as Dharug. Both names are used to refer to all dialects of the language collectively. The indigenous people identify themselves as Eora, literally meaning the people, the language of the people is also called Eora. The language may have had a distinction of length. Although Dharug is classified as extinct, there is an amount of descendants of the darug nations who still speak it. The darug language has acquired current living speakers through the efforts of Chifley Colleges Dunheved campus in Sydney
13.
Dingo
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The dingo is a wild canine found in Australia. Its taxonomic status as a species remains debated. The dingo is the largest terrestrial predator in Australia, and plays an important role as an apex predator, however, the dingo is seen as a pest by livestock farmers due to attacks on animals. Conversely, their predation on rabbits, kangaroos and rats may be of benefit to graziers, for some Australians, the dingo is a cultural icon. The introduction of the dingo is seen by many as being responsible for thylacine extinction on the Australian mainland about two years ago, although a recent study challenges this view. Dingoes have a prominent role in the culture of Aboriginal Australians as a feature of stories and ceremonies, the dingos habitat ranges from deserts to grasslands and the edges of forests. Dingoes will normally make their dens in deserted rabbit holes and hollow logs close to a supply of water. Despite being an efficient hunter, it is listed as vulnerable to extinction, the name dingo comes from the Dharug language used by the Indigenous Australians of the Sydney area. It was used to describe their camp dogs during the first contact with Europeans, the variants include tin-go for a bitch, din-go for a dog, and wo-ri-gal for a big dog. The people of the Yarralin, Northern Territory region call those dingoes that live with them walaku, the taxonomic classification of the dingo remains both confused and debated. Nomenclature provides the name that is to be used for a taxon, in 1768, James Cook took command of a scientific voyage of discovery from Britain to New Holland, which was the name for Australia at that time. In 1770, his ship HMS Endeavour arrived in Botany Bay, the mission collected specimens and made notes for taking back to Britain. On return to Britain, Joseph Banks commissioned George Stubbs to produce paintings based on his observations, johann Friedrich Blumenbach gathered together a collection from the Cook voyage and was the first to classify the New Holland dog as Canis familiaris dingo. In 1793, the Dog of New South Wales was classified by Friedrich Meyer as Canis dingo, in 1947, a proposal was made to change this classification after it was discovered that the New Holland dog Canis antarticus had been specified a year earlier in a little-known work. Both Kerr and Meyer had based their classifications on the illustration of the Dog of New South Wales, the ICZN ruled that Canis antarticus be suppressed and that Canis dingo was the name to be used for the dingo in its Opinion 451. This name was entered on the ICZNs Official Lists and Indexes of Names in Zoology. A name entered onto the Official List of the ICZN is the available name and this is the scientific name for the dingo that appears on the Official Lists and Indexes of Names in Zoology of the ICZN. This ruling did not deter some zoologists from continuing to use the name Canis antarticus in later publications, however this name has now fallen out of use
14.
Woomera (spear-thrower)
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A woomera is a wooden Australian Aboriginal spear-throwing device. Similar to an atlatl, it is an extension of the arm that enables a spear to travel at a greater speed. The town of Woomera in South Australia, founded in 1947 as the home of the Anglo-Australian Long Range Weapons Establishment, is named after the spear thrower, the woomera is 2 to 3 feet in length. One end is 3 inches wide and possessing a hollow, curved cross-section not unlike an airfoil, the woomera was traditionally decorated with incised or painted designs that indicated belonging to a particular linguistic group that it may be returned to if found abandoned. Records show that the implement began to be used about 5000 years ago and it is still used today in some remote areas of Australia. Like spears and boomerangs, woomeras were traditionally used only by men, some woomeras, especially those used in the central and western Australian deserts, were multi-purpose tools. Often shaped like long narrow bowls, they could be used for carrying water-soaked vegetable matter as well as food items such as little lizards or seeds. Many woomeras had a stone cutting edge attached to the end of the handle with black gum from the triodia plant. This sharp tool had many uses, such as cutting up game or other food and wood and it is supposed that the woomera could be used as a shield for protection against spears and boomerangs. The woomera is held in one hand while the other places the butt of the spear on the woomeras hook. The woomera doubles the length of the arm, greatly increasing the velocity of the spear. Correcting for the animals lateral dodging is accomplished by tilting the wing-shape woomera during the throw for last-second corrections. The extra energy gained from the use has been calculated as four times that from a compound bow. Aboriginal technology A drawing of a woomera, from the book Boy Scouts Beyond the Seas, My World Tour by Sir Robert Baden-Powell,1913
15.
Boomerang
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A boomerang is a tool, typically constructed as a flat air foil that, when thrown, is designed to spin about an axis perpendicular to the direction of its flight. A returning boomerang is designed to return to the thrower and it is well known as a weapon used by Indigenous Australians for hunting. Boomerangs have been used for hunting, as well as a sport. They are commonly thought of as an Australian icon, and come in shapes and sizes. A boomerang is traditionally a wooden device, although historically boomerang-like devices have also been made from bones. Modern boomerangs used for sport are often made from thin aircraft plywood, plastics such as ABS, polypropylene, phenolic paper, Boomerangs come in many shapes and sizes depending on their geographic or tribal origins and intended function. An important distinction should be made between returning boomerangs and non-returning boomerangs, Returning boomerangs fly and are examples of the earliest heavier-than-air man-made flight. While a throwing stick can also be shaped overall like a boomerang, it is designed to travel as straight as possible so that it can be aimed. Its surfaces therefore are symmetrical and not uneven like the aerofoils which give the returning boomerang its characteristic curved flight, Returning boomerangs were also used to decoy birds of prey, thrown above long grass to frighten game birds into flight and into waiting nets. Modern returning boomerangs can be of various shapes or sizes as can be seen in a photo in the Modern use section. Historical evidence also points to the use of non-returning boomerangs by the Native Americans of California and Arizona, indeed, some boomerangs were not thrown at all, but were used in hand to hand combat by Indigenous Australians. Ancient Egyptian examples, however, have recovered and experiments have shown that they functioned as returning boomerangs. Boomerangs can be used as hunting weapons, percussive musical instruments, battle clubs, fire-starters, decoys for hunting waterfowl. The smallest boomerang may be less than 10 centimetres from tip to tip, tribal boomerangs may be inscribed and/or painted with designs meaningful to their makers. Most boomerangs seen today are of the tourist or competition sort, the origin of the term is mostly certain, but many researchers have different theories on how the word entered into the English vocabulary. The boomerang was first encountered by people at Farm Cove, Australia, in December 1804. David Collins listed Wo-mur-rāng as one of eight aboriginal Names of clubs in 1798, a 1790 anonymous manuscript on aboriginal language of New South Wales reported Boo-mer-rit as the Scimiter. In 1822 it was described in detail and recorded as a bou-mar-rang, the Turawal used other words for their hunting sticks but used boomerang to refer to a returning throw-stick
16.
Corroboree
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A corroboree is an event where Australian Aborigines interact with the Dreamtime through dance, music and costume. Their bodies painted in different ways, and they wore various adornments, the word corroboree was coined by the European settlers of Australia in imitation of an east coast local Aboriginal Australian word caribberie. In the northwest of Australia, corroboree is a word to define theatrical practices as different from ceremony. Whether it be public or private, ceremony is for invited guests, there are other generic words to describe traditional public performances, juju and kobbakobba for example. In the Pilbara, corroborees are yanda or jalarra, across the Kimberley the word junba is often used to refer to a range of traditional performances and ceremonies. Corroboree and ceremony are strongly connected but different, corroborees are open performances in which everyone may participate taking into consideration that the songs and dances are highly structured requiring a great deal of knowledge and skill to perform. Corroboree is a word to explain different genres of performance which in the northwest of Australia include balga, wangga, lirrga, junba, Bardi Ilma. Throughout Australia the word corroboree embraces songs, dances, rallies, in the past a corroboree has been inclusive of sporting events and other forms of skill display. It is an appropriated English word that has been reappropriated to explain a practice that is different from ceremony and more widely inclusive than theatre or opera
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Wallaby
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A wallaby is a small- or mid-sized macropod found in Australia and New Guinea. They belong to the taxonomic family as kangaroos and sometimes the same genus. The term wallaby is an informal designation generally used for any macropod that is smaller than a kangaroo or wallaroo that has not been designated otherwise, there are 11 species of brush wallabies. Their head and body length is 45 to 105 cm and the tail is 33 to 75 cm long, the six named species of rock-wallabies live among rocks, usually near water, two species are endangered. The two species of hare-wallabies are small animals that have the movements and some of the habits of hares. Often called pademelons, the three species of scrub wallabies of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and Tasmania are small and stocky, with hind limbs. They are hunted for meat and fur, a similar species is the short-tailed scrub wallaby, or quokka, this species is now restricted to two offshore islands of Western Australia. The three named species of forest wallabies are native to the island of New Guinea, the dwarf wallaby is the smallest member of the genus and the smallest known member of the kangaroo family. Its length is about 46 cm from nose to tail, the name wallaby comes from Dharug walabi or waliba. Young wallabies are known as joeys, like many other marsupials, adult male wallabies are referred to as bucks, boomers, or jacks. An adult female wallaby is known as a doe, flyer, a group of wallabies is called a court, mob, or troupe. Forest-dwelling wallabies are known as pademelons and dorcopsises, although members of most wallaby species are small, some can grow up to approximately two metres in length. Their powerful hind legs are not only used for bounding at high speeds and jumping great heights, the Tammar wallaby has elastic storage in the ankle extensor tendons, without which the animal’s metabolic rate might be 30–50% greater. It has also found that the design of spring-like tendon energy savings. Wallabies also have a tail that is used mostly for balance. Wallabies are herbivores whose diet consists of a range of grasses, vegetables, leaves. Due to recent urbanization, many wallabies now feed in rural, wallabies cover vast distances for food and water, which is often scarce in their environment. Mobs of wallabies often congregate around the water hole during the dry season
18.
Wombat
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Wombats are short-legged, muscular quadrupedal marsupials that are native to Australia. They are about 1 m in length with small, stubby tails, there are three extant species and they are all members of the family Vombatidae. Though genetic studies of the Vombatidae have been undertaken, evolution of the family is not well understood, Wombats are estimated to have diverged from other Australian marsupials relatively early, as long as 40 million years ago, while some estimates place divergence at around 25 million years. Wombats dig extensive burrow systems with their front teeth and powerful claws. One distinctive adaptation of wombats is their backwards pouch, the advantage of a backwards-facing pouch is that when digging, the wombat does not gather soil in its pouch over its young. Although mainly crepuscular and nocturnal, wombats also venture out to feed on cool or overcast days and they are not commonly seen, but leave ample evidence of their passage, treating fences as minor inconveniences to be gone through or under, and leaving distinctive cubic faeces. Wombats are herbivores, their diets consist mostly of grasses, sedges, herbs, bark and their incisor teeth somewhat resemble those of the placental rodents, being adapted for gnawing tough vegetation. Like many other mammals, they have a large diastema between their incisors and the cheek teeth, which are relatively simple. The dental formula of wombats is 1.0.1.41.0.1. 4 × 2 =24, Wombats fur can vary from a sandy colour to brown, or from grey to black. All three known extant species average around a metre in length and weigh between 20 and 35 kg. Female wombats give birth to a young in the spring, after a gestation period. They have well-developed pouches, which the young leave after six to seven months. Wombats are weaned after 15 months, and are mature at 18 months. A group of wombats is known as a wisdom, a mob, Wombats typically live up to 15 years in the wild, but can live past 20 and even 30 years in captivity. The longest-lived captive wombat lived to 34 years of age, the oldest known living wombat, Patrick from Ballarat Wildlife Park, turned 31 years old in 2016. Wombats have a slow metabolism, taking around eight to 14 days to complete digestion. When threatened, however, they can reach up to 40 km/h, Wombats defend home territories centred on their burrows, and they react aggressively to intruders. The common wombat occupies a range of up to 23 ha, while the species have much smaller ranges
19.
Waratah
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Waratah is an Australian-endemic genus of five species of large shrubs or small trees, native to the southeastern parts of Australia. The most well-known species in genus is Telopea speciosissima, which has bright red flowers and is the NSW state emblem. The waratah is a member of the plant family Proteaceae, a family of flowering plants distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The key diagnostic feature of Proteaceae is the inflorescence, which is very large, brightly coloured and showy. Species of waratah boast such inflorescences ranging from 6–15 cm in diameter with a ring of coloured bracts. The leaves are arranged, 10–20 cm long and 2–3 cm broad with entire or serrated margins. The name waratah comes from the Eora Aboriginal people, the inhabitants of the Sydney area. The genus Telopea is belongs to the plant family Proteaceae, together they make up the subtribe Embothriinae. The genus was first described by Robert Brown in 1810 from the type species Telopea speciosissima, there are five species of plant within the genus, all of which readily hybridize in cultivation. There are two branches, with one being the species pair of T. speciosissima and T. aspera, with the other lineage giving rise to T. truncata first, then T. oreades. The speciosissima-aspera lineage has two synapomorphies—distinguishing common characteristics presumed not present in ancestors—leaves with toothed margins, and large red involucral bracts, the genus Waratah contains five species, Species grow as either large shrubs or small trees with spirally arranged leaves with either entire or serrated margins. The natural distributions of the five species of Telopea are all confined to east coast regions from northern New South Wales to Tasmania, each of the species has its own distinctive natural distribution with minimal or no overlap. Climatic changes may have restricted the expansion of species distribution or led to its isolation in a particular region, however, waratahs can also grow outside of these natural distribution areas. Cultivation mostly occurs north of Sydney and in the Dandenong Ranges, T. speciosissima has also been grown successfully in areas not on the map. In Australia these areas include south-west Western Australia, the Queensland coast, overseas, New Zealand, the USA, South Africa and Israel are all also able to grow waratah with varying degrees of success. It was introduced to England in 1789 but cannot survive English winters out of doors except in the south-west coastal regions, for some time the waratah has had a reputation as difficult plant. It has a culture and for many years there have been cases of people trying to establish the plant only to have the attempt fail. Failures can usually be attributed to the effects of soil conditions
20.
Southern boobook
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The southern boobook is a species of owl native to mainland Australia, southern New Guinea, Timor and the Sunda Islands. It was considered to be the species as the morepork of New Zealand until 2013. Birds from Tasmania belong to a taxon, leucopsis which appear to be closely related to the New Zealand species. This bird is the smallest owl on the Australian mainland and is the continents most widely distributed and it is predominantly brown in plumage with grey-green or yellow-green eyes. It feeds on insects and small vertebrates, english ornithologist John Latham described the boobook owl as Strix boobook in 1801, taking its species epithet from a local Aboriginal word for the bird. John Gould described Athene marmorata in 1846 from a specimen in South Australia, the common name comes from the two-tone call of the bird, and has also been transcribed as mopoke. Gould recorded local aboriginal names, Goor-goor-da, Mel-in-de-ye, and Koor-koo, alternative common names include spotted owl and brown owl. Both Gerlof Fokko Mees and Ernst Mayr regarded the taxonomy of the owl as extremely challenging. They treated the three taxa as a single species, Ninox boobook halmaturina is found on Kangaroo Island. It is sometimes included in the nominate subspecies and it has dark brown underparts with reddish-brown rather than white markings. Ninox boobook rotiensis is found on Rote Island in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Ninox boobook fusca is found on Timor, Roma and Leti Islands in the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands. It has a more grey-brown plumage with no red tinge, unlike other subspecies, Ninox boobook moae is found on Moa, Leti and Romang Islands in the Lesser Sunda Islands. Ninox boobook plesseni is known only from a specimen from Alor Island in the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands. Ninox boobook cinnamomina is found on Tepa and Babar Islands in the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands, Ninox boobook pusilla is from southern lowlands New Guinea. Ninox boobook remigialis is found on the Kai Islands in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Ninox boobook ocellata is found across northern Australia, Western Australia and western South Australia, as well as Savu near Timor. It is generally lighter-coloured than other mainland boobooks, though occasional dark-plumaged individuals are seen, birds from Melville Island are small and generally dark, and were previously classified as a separate subspecies melvillensis. Birds from southwestern Australia north to Tantabiddy on the North West Cape, Mees classified them as a separate subspecies rufigaster. Mayr classified the lightest birds of northern Australia as arida, medium toned birds as mixta, all these taxa are regarded as ocellata
21.
Port Jackson
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Port Jackson, consisting of the waters of Sydney Harbour, Middle Harbour, North Harbour and the Lane Cove and Parramatta Rivers, is the ria or natural harbour of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The harbour is an inlet of the Tasman Sea and it is the location of the Sydney Opera House and Sydney Harbour Bridge. The location of the first European settlement in Australia, Port Jackson has continued to play a key role in the history and development of Sydney. Many recreational events are based on or around the harbour itself particularly the Sydney New Years Eve celebrations, the waterways of Port Jackson are managed by the Roads & Maritime Services. Sydney Harbour National Park protects a number of islands and foreshore areas, swimming spots, bushwalking tracks, the land around Port Jackson was occupied at the time of the European arrival and colonisation by the Eora clans, including the Gadigal, Cammeraygal, and Wangal. The Gadigal occupied the land stretching along the side of Port Jackson from what is now South Head. The Cammeragal lived on the side of the harbour. The area along the banks of the Parramatta River to Rose Hill belonged to the Wangal. The Eora occupied Port Jackson, south to the Georges River, the first recorded European discovery of Sydney Harbour, was by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770 - Cook named the inlet after Sir George Jackson. His ships log notation states at noon we were. about 2 or 3 miles from the land, eighteen years later, on 21 January 1788, after arriving at Botany Bay, Governor Arthur Phillip took a longboat and two cutters up the coast to examine Cooks Port Jackson. Phillip first stayed over night at Camp Cove, then moved down the harbour, landing at Sydney Cove, Phillip returned to Sydney Cove in HM Armed Tender Supply on 26 January 1788, where he established the first colony in Australia, later to become the city of Sydney. From 1938, seaplanes landed in Sydney Harbour on Rose Bay, in 1942, to protect Sydney Harbour from a submarine attack, the Sydney Harbour anti-submarine boom net was constructed. It spanned the harbour from Green Point, Watsons Bay to the battery at Georges Head, on the night of 31 May 1942, three Japanese midget submarines entered the harbour, one of which became entangled in the western end of the boom nets central section. Unable to free their submarine, the crew detonated charges, killing themselves in the process, a second midget submarine came to grief in Taylors Bay, the two crew committing suicide. The third submarine fired two torpedoes at USS Chicago before leaving the harbour, in November 2006, this submarine was found off Sydneys Northern Beaches. The anti-submarine boom net was demolished soon after World War II, and all that remains are the foundations of the old boom net winch house, today, the Australian War Memorial has on display a composite of the two midget submarines salvaged from Sydney Harbour. The conning tower of one of the submarines is on display at the RAN Heritage Centre, Garden Island. Fort Denison is a former site and defensive facility occupying a small island located north-east of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney Harbour
22.
Mangrove
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A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to life in coastal conditions. They contain a complex filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion. They are adapted to the low oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud, the saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater, to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater. The term mangrove comes to English from Spanish, and is likely to originate from Guarani and it was earlier mangrow, but this word was corrupted via folk etymology influence of the word grove. Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas, areas where mangal occurs include estuaries and marine shorelines. The intertidal existence to which trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in water, and when the tide recedes. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater. At low tide, organisms are exposed to increases in temperature and desiccation. About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being a tree grows in such a saline swamp, though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus. However, a mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home for a great variety of other organisms. Mangrove plants require a number of adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity. Each species has its own solutions to problems, this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment, once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring
23.
Norman Tindale
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Norman Barnett Tindale AO was an Australian anthropologist, archaeologist, entomologist and ethnologist. The family returned to Perth, and in 1917 moved to Adelaide where Tindale took up a position as a cadet at the Adelaide Public Library. Shortly after this, Tindale lost the sight in one eye in a gas explosion which occurred while assisting his father with photographic processing. In January 1919 he secured a position at the South Australian Museum as Entomologists Assistant to Arthur Mills Lea and he had already published thirty-one papers on entomological, ornithological and anthropological subjects before receiving his Bachelor of Science degree at the University of Adelaide in March 1933. Tindale is best remembered for his work mapping the various groupings of Indigenous Australians. This interest began with a trip to Groote Eylandt where an Anindilyakwa man gave Tindale very detailed descriptions of which land was his. This led Tindale to question the orthodoxy of the time which was that Aboriginal people were purely nomadic and had no connection to any specific region. While Tindales methodology and his notion of the tribe have been superseded. Quite a number of now-important record films were made by Tindale, in 1942 Tindale joined the Royal Australian Air Force and was assigned the rank of Wing Commander. He had previously tried to enlist in the Australian army at the outbreak of WWII but was rejected due to his damaged eyesight, in 1967, at the age of sixty-six, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Colorado. He was eventually honoured with a doctorate by the Australian National University in 1980, during 1993 Tindale received unofficial confirmation of his appointment as an Officer of the Order of Australia, this was presented posthumously, to his widow Muriel. Also in 1993, the South Australian Museum Boards named a public gallery in his honour, Tindale published extensively, both as sole author and collaborator. Note that the archives contain 2,804 items related to Dr Tindale
24.
Hawkesbury River
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The Hawkesbury River, is a semi–mature tide dominated drowned valley estuary located to the west and north of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The Hawkesbury River and its main tributary, the Nepean River. The Hawkesbury River is the tributary of Broken Bay. Secondary tributaries include Brisbane Water and Pittwater, that together with the Hawkesbury River flow into the Tasman Sea at Barrenjoey Head, the total catchment area of the river is approximately 21,624 square kilometres and the area is generally administered by the Hawkesbury–Nepean Catchment Management Authority. The land adjacent to the Hawkesbury River was occupied by the Darkinjung, Darug, Eora and they used the river as a source of food and a place for trade. The headwaters of the Hawkesbury River, the Avon River, the Cataract River, and these streams start on the inland-facing slopes of the plateau which forms the escarpment behind Wollongong. Flowing north-west, away from the sea, these combine to form the Nepean River. Near Penrith, the Warragamba River emerges from its canyon through the Blue Mountains and joins the Nepean, the other principal component of the upper Hawkesbury river system, the Grose River, rises in the area of Mount Victoria in the Blue Mountains. Once formed, the Hawkesbury River proper flows generally northwards, albeit with a significant number of meanders, initially the river passes the towns of Richmond and Windsor, which are the largest settlements on the river. At Windsor, the river is joined by the South Creek, as it flows north, it enters a more rural area, with only small settlements on the river. On this stretch it passes Sackville and Lower Portland, where it is joined by the Colo River, the Colo River and its tributaries drain the northern section of the Blue Mountains. From Lower Portland, the Hawkesbury River continues flowing northwards to the community of Wisemans Ferry where it is joined by the Macdonald River. Here its course turns eastwards and the landscape gradually becomes steeper. At Spencer, Mangrove Creek joins the river from the north, from here to the river mouth, road access to the river is limited to a few points. At Milsons Passage, the river is joined by Berowra Creek from the south, in the area around Brooklyn the river is crossed by the major road and rail services that follow the coast north from Sydney. The river finally reaches the ocean at Broken Bay, from the confluence of the Nepean and Grose Rivers to the sea, the Hawkesbury River has a total length of some 120 kilometres. Islands in the Hawkesbury River include, in order going downstream are Barr Island, Milson Island, Peat Island, Spectacle Island, Long Island, and Dangar Island. Despite forming the boundary of the metropolitan region of Sydney for its entire length
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Pittwater
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The land adjacent to the Pittwater was occupied for many thousands of years by the Kuringgai Aboriginal peoples. They used the river as an important source of food and a place for trade, Pittwater was named Pitt Water in 1788 in honour of William Pitt the Younger, the then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The eastern parts of the catchment are largely urbanised whilst the western parts are primarily Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, Scotland Island is located within the estuary. Pittwater contains a diversity of habitat types including mangrove wetlands, saltmarsh, sand flats and seagrass meadows. Amongst the Kuringgai, there were smaller units called clans. During 1789 the impact of smallpox on aboriginal peoples led to extensive mortality, conservatively, between 500 and 1000 Aboriginal people died on the coastal strip bounded by Botany Bay and Broken Bay. A significant proportion of these were Kuringgai, the waterway was surveyed by crew members of HMS Sirius in 1788, and named Pitt Water after William Pitt the Younger, the then Prime Minister of Great Britain. Pitt Water was said to be the first place in Australia to be formally named, the first regular water transport across Pittwater was the cutter Francis which carried settlers and farm produce from Sydney between 1793 and 1800. These vessels were built on Scotland Island and were not sufficiently seaworthy to leave Broken Bay. A customs house operated from Pittwater between 1843 and 1900, and a government-built sandstone lighthouse was completed at Barrenjoey in 1881, both the Old Customs House and the lighthouse are listed on the Register of the National Estate. Shipping declined as a medium following road and rail construction through the region between 1850 and 1890, especially the construction of a rail bridge over the waterway in 1899. The last locally constructed shipping vessel was launched from a shipyard at Blackwall in 1912, however, since the 1950s, Pittwater has become predominantly residential in character and is a suburban region of Sydney. The greater Sydney metropolis has extended to Palm Beach, Church Point, today, the Pitwater is a popular water recreation, such as sailing and fishing. The area is an important natural area that comprises wetlands, bushland, lagoons. The Pittwater to Coffs Harbour Yacht Race is held in January annually, however, in 2016 the race was held as Pittwater to Southport since the facilities at Coffs Harbour had been badly damaged by East coast storms. The current ministry coordinator is Rob Lamont, who succeeded Phil Rawlings in June 2014, the Church also runs a once a month Prayer service on a Friday Night The Newport Anglican Church meets right next to the Pittwater Post Office at 9. 30am on Sundays. The Senior Minister is Rev. Jason Ramsay, since 2007
26.
Georges River
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The Georges River, formerly known as Tucoerah River, is an intermediate tide dominated drowned valley estuary, located to the south and west of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The river travels for approximately 96 kilometres in a north and then easterly direction to its mouth at Botany Bay, the Georges River is the main tributary of Botany Bay, with the Cooks River being a secondary tributary. The land adjacent to the Georges River was occupied for thousands of years by the Tharawal. They used the river as an important source of food and a place for trade, major tributaries include OHares Creek, Bunbury Curran Creek, Cabramatta Creek, Prospect Creek, Salt Pan Creek and the Woronora River. The Georges River is popular for activities such as water skiing and swimming. The banks of the river along the lower reaches are marked by large inlets and indentations overlooked by steep ridges and scarps. The Georges River features some artificial lakes in the suburb of Chipping Norton and these lakes, known as the Chipping Norton Lakes, are the result of sand mining and quarrying operations in the twentieth century. The Lakes are now a popular watersports and recreational facility for the residents of the suburbs of Sydney. Liverpool Weir now forms the uppermost tidal limit and presence of water on the Georges River. Georges River National Park adjoins the upper reaches of the Georges River, from Appin to Glenfield, a large corridor has been protected as part of the Georges River Regional Open Space Corridor. Council reserves allow for access to natural sections of the river at Simmos Beach, Ingleburn Reserve, Keith Longhurst Reserve, Botany Bay Community River Health Monitoring Program is a community-based initiative to monitor ecosystem health catchment. Www. georgesriver. org. au Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Georges River was named in honour of King George III, by Governor Arthur Phillip. The river was first explored by Bass and Flinders in 1795 on their first voyage on the Tom Thumb after their arrival in New South Wales, the exploration led to the establishment of Bankstown. A dam was constructed by David Lennox using convict labour at Liverpool in 1836, in February 2007, Liverpool and Campbelltown City Council were awarded a $2 million grant from the NSW Environmental Trust under their Urban Sustainability Initiative. Bridges over the Georges River include from east to west, Captain Cook Bridge, for cars, pedestrians, Tom Uglys Bridge, for cars, pedestrians and cyclists. Old Como railway bridge, now for pedestrians and cyclists, Como railway bridge on the Illawarra line, connecting Oatley to Como, for trains. Alfords Point Bridge, for cars, pedestrians and cyclists, East Hills rail bridge at East Hills, for trains. Voyager Point footbridge, for pedestrians and cyclists, m5 South Western Motorway Georges River East Bridge Milperra Bridge, for cars, pedestrians and cyclists
27.
Parramatta
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Parramatta is a suburb of Sydney, Australia,23 kilometres west of its central business district on the banks of the Parramatta River. Parramatta is the seat of the City of Parramatta, one of four cities within the Sydney metropolitan area. Parramatta, founded by the British in 1788, the year as Sydney, is the oldest inland European settlement in Australia. Since 2000, government agencies such as the New South Wales Police Force, Parramatta is a major business and commercial centre, and home to Westfield Parramatta, the ninth largest shopping centre in Australia. It is colloquially known as Parra, radiocarbon dating suggests human activity occurred in Parramatta from around 30,000 years ago. The Darug people who lived in the area before European settlement regarded the area as rich in food from the river, the Parramatta Eels Rugby League club chose their symbol as a result of this phenomenon. Parramatta was founded in 1788, the year as Sydney. As such, Parramatta is the second oldest city in Australia, during 1788, Governor Arthur Phillip had reconnoitred several places before choosing Parramatta as the most likely place for a successful large farm. Parramatta was the furthest navigable point inland on the Parramatta River and also the point at which the river became freshwater, as a settlement developed, Governor Phillip gave it the name Rose Hill after George Rose, Secretary for the British Treasury. In 1791 he changed the name to Parramatta, approximating the term used by the local Aboriginal people, a neighbouring suburb acquired the name Rose Hill. In an attempt to deal with the crisis, Phillip in 1789 granted a convict named James Ruse the land of Experiment Farm at Parramatta on the condition that he develop a viable agriculture. There, Ruse became the first person to grow grain in Australia. The Parramatta area was also the site of the pioneering of the Australian wool industry by John Macarthurs Elizabeth Farm in the 1790s, Philip Gidley Kings account of his visit to Parramatta on 9 April 1790 is one of the earliest descriptions of the area. Walking four miles with Governor Phillip to Prospect he saw undulating grassland interspersed with magnificent trees, Governor Arthur Phillip built a small house for himself on the hill of The Crescent. It was used as a retreat by Governors until the 1850s, the house, Old Government House, is currently a historic site and museum within Parramatta Park and is Australias oldest surviving public building. In 1803, another incident occurred in Parramatta, involving a convicted criminal named Joseph Samuel. Samuel was convicted of murder and sentenced to death by hanging, in the second attempt, the noose slipped off his neck. In the third attempt, the new rope broke, Governor King was summoned and pardoned Samuel, as the incident appeared to him to be divine intervention
28.
Kuringgai
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The indigenous people identify themselves as Guringai. Their taurai is known to extend north to the Macleay River, Fraser came up with the name Kuringgai being a conjunction of the native words Koori/Guri to mean black man and Ngai, meaning black woman, or belonging to. According to Fraser, the Kuringgai were bordered by the Wachigari and the Paikalyung to the north, the Kamalarai to the northwest, the Wiradhari to the west and the Murrinjari to the south. However, Norman Tindale would later say in 1974 that the Awabakal are the one of a series of tribes to which the arbitrary term Kuringgai has been applied by Fraser. He divided the area Fraser labelled Kuringgai into several tribes, including the Tharawal, Eora, Dharuk, Darkinjang, Awabakal, Worimi, Birpai, Ngamba, the clan groups are the Garigal, Cammeragal, Borregegal, Awaba, Walkeloa with hundreds more. They were hunters and gatherers within their land, the Guringai lives were dictated by the seasons and the seasonal travels throughout their lands, with great ceremony. The Guringai still live in their traditional homelands, the Aborigines of New South Wales. Sauchie House, West Maitland, University of Newcastle, bibliography of Ku-ring-gai people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
29.
Darug
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Other versions of the name include Daruk, Dharruk, Dharrook, Darrook, Dharug, Broken Bay tribe, and Dharung. There is some dispute about the extent of the Darug nation, while some historians believe the coastal Eora people were a separate group to the Darug people, others believe the two groups were part of the same grouping. Taking the first perspective, the Darug were situated North-West of the Eora, convesely, the territory that was indisputably Darug Boorooberongal-Warmuli was the Cumberland Plain in western Sydney, that stretches from Wisemans Ferry in the north down to around Camden in the south. Some think the Darug people extended into the foothills of the Blue Mountains and they likely extended into the Hills District to the east. A strong centre of cultural attachment for the Darug people has been the Blacks Town in the Blacktown local government area, however, in September 2012 the Blacktown City Council de-recognised the Darug tribe, which it had previously recognised as the former owners of the area. The Council also passed a motion, opposed by some Councillors, an online petition was launched which called for the official re-recognition of the Darug. According to one of the Liberal Councillors, Cr Jess Diaz, there was a cultural divide between the western Darug and the coastal Darug. The coastal Darug were katungal or sea people and they built canoes and their diet was primarily seafood including fish and shellfish from Sydney Harbour, Botany Bay and their associated rivers. The inland Darug were paiendra or tomahawk people and they hunted kangaroos, emus and other land animals and used stone axes more extensively. The Darug nation was divided up into a number of clans who tended to live in a certain geographic area. This geographic area would also house descendant clans, each clan typically included 50 to 100 people. Numbers in a geographic descendant clan area were kept at the lowest levels necessary for the survival of the clan and it was often the case that men and women married between the clans, and thus the members of the clans were interrelated. They lived in the caves and overhangs in the sandstone of the Hawksbury region, although some did choose to make huts out of bark, sticks
30.
Kurnell, New South Wales
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Kurnell is a suburb in Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is 21.4 kilometres south of the Sydney central business district, Kurnell is on the south eastern headland of Botany Bay. Cronulla and Woolooware are the adjacent suburbs. La Perouse is located opposite, on the headland of Botany Bay. The eastern side of the peninsula is part of Botany Bay National Park, towra Point Nature Reserve is located on the western side of the suburb. Captain Cook along with his crew stayed at Kurnell for a period of eight days, during their visit they collected botanical specimens, mapped the area and tried to make contact with the indigenous population. When Cook reported back to England he said that the land was suitable for agriculture and was lightly wooded, Captain Arthur Phillip, arriving in H. M. Armed Tender Supply on 18 January 1788, before the First Fleet arrived and they began to clear land and dig wells, near modern-day La Perouse but a week later, Phillip decided to abandon the site and moved north to Sydney Cove at Port Jackson. Cooks landing place is located on the part of the national park. Sutherland Point is named in honour of a member, Scotsman Forby Sutherland. Cape Solander is named after Swedish botanist Daniel Solander, a colleague of Joseph Banks, inscription Point was named by the Australian Philosophical Society in 1822 when they secured a plaque to the cliff face to mark the point of the Endeavour’s crew first landing. Dampier Street, Tasman Street and Torres Street commemorate other navigators in Australia’s history, the first land grant of 700 acres was made in 1815, to Captain James Birnie, who established Alpha Farm. Alpha is the first letter in the Greek alphabet and the name was appropriate for the first farm in the area. In 1821 John Connell Junior was also granted land here and used it for timber getting and his father purchased Alpha Farm from Birnie and by 1842 the Connell familys estate was over one thousand acres in size. In 1860, Alpha Farm was sold to Thomas Holt, who owned most of the land that stretched from Sutherland to Cronulla, the area was known as Birniemere for a time and Holtmere was once a locality. Before the 1920s, Kurnell was used by fishermen as schools of several varieties of fish inhabited the Botany Bay foreshore, fishermen built numerous huts and shacks which sheltered them for the weekend fishing. During the Great Depression, from the late 1920s, many severely affected low-income families took up residence there, on 16 December 2015 a tornado struck the New South Wales coast and produced high rainfall, hailstones and unusually strong winds. A Wind gust of 213km/h recorded in Kurnell at 10, 33am, was the fastest wind speed recorded in NSW history, injuries to people were only minor
31.
Gweagal
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The Gweagal are a clan of the Tharawal tribe of Indigenous Australians, who are traditional custodians of the southern geographic areas of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The Gweagal lived on the shores of Botany Bay. The tribe territory, although not clearly defined, spanned the areas between the Cooks and Georges River, south to the Port Hacking estuary and westwards towards Liverpool and they were the northernmost tribe of the Dharawal nation. Each Gweagal tribe consisted of approximately 20 to 50 people who lived in their own territory amongst social and economic units having strong ties to land and sacred sites. They had no written language and each tribe had its own dialect and they wore resin in their hair that gave it a mop-like appearance and used native animal hide to make fur coats and ceremonial attire. Tool makers chose to grind axes close to pools or streams, the stone that was used was mainly igneous or metamorphic rock, and only one of the ends was ground to a blade. Axe grinding grooves used in for this purpose can be found near a stream between River Road and Salt Pan Creek at Revesby Heights, in 1961 a notice was erected describing the site. The Gweagal Aborigines were the guardians of the white clay pits in their territory. Members of the tribe walked hundreds of miles to collect the clay and they used it to line the base of their canoes so they could light fires, and also as a white body paint. Colour was added to the clay using berries, which produced a brightly coloured paint that was used in ceremonies and it was also eaten as a medicine, an antacid. Geebungs and other local berries were mixed in the clay and it was eaten as a supplement with zinc. In the Royal National Park some of the caves were used as burial sites, a rock cave collapse at Port Hacking prior to the landing of James Cook claimed many lives of the Gweagal. This cave was dynamited, showing many skeletons. Caves and shelters are located in places along the Georges River. There is a cave located in Peakhurst with its ceiling blackened from smoke. There are caves located around Evatt Park, Lugarno with oyster shells ground into the cave floor, another cave exists on Mickeys Point, Padstow, which was named after a local aborigine. They often decorated their caves and rock shelters with paintings, drawings and etchings using white, red and other colored earth, in winter they shared body heat in the shelter and used fire to keep warm. The territory of the Gweagal had much to offer, the Georges River provided fish and oysters
32.
Tharawal
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This article is for the Australian Indigenous group. For their language see Aboriginal language, the Gweagal were also known as the Fire Clan. They were the people to first make contact with Captain Cook, the Tharawal language is considered the main dialect of the Tharawal people. There is a viewing site of one group of engravings at Jibbon Point, showing a whale. Those engravings are marred by recent European inclusions, the original Jibbon point engravings show a pod of killer whales hunting a seal. The leading whale is shown as a scarified and initiated animal indicating his status as a spirit of high esteem. These Wodi Wodi clansmen are claiming lineage to the Tharawal tribe, the Tharawal people lived mainly by the produce of local plants, fruits and vegetables and by fishing and gathering shell fish products. The men also hunted land mammals and speared fish, the women collected the vegetable foods and were well known for their fishing and canoeing prowess. Tharawal Local Aboriginal Land Council webpage Tharawal Aboriginal Corporation webpage Norman B, tindales Catalogue of Australian Aboriginal Tribes, South Australian Museum. Bibliography of Tharawal people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Heather Goodall, a Dharawal man, Gogi met with Governor Macquarie at the Cowpastures in 1810
33.
Arthur Phillip
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Admiral Arthur Phillip RN was a Royal Navy officer and the first Governor of New South Wales who founded the British penal colony that later became the city of Sydney, Australia. After much experience at sea, Phillip sailed with the First Fleet as Governor-designate of the proposed British penal colony of New South Wales, in January 1788, he selected its location to be Port Jackson. Phillip was a governor who soon saw that New South Wales would need a civil administration. But his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the voyage had been rejected and his friendly attitude towards the aborigines was also sorely tested when they killed his gamekeeper, and he was not able to assert a clear policy about them. Phillip retired in 1805, but continued to correspond with his friends in New South Wales, Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, the younger of two children to Jacob Phillip and Elizabeth Breach. His father Jacob was born in Frankfurt, Germany and he was a languages teacher who may also have served in the Royal Navy as an able seaman and pursers steward. His mother Elizabeth was the widow of a seaman, John Herbert. At the time of Arthur Phillips birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London, there are no surviving records of Phillips early childhood. His father Jacob died in 1739, after which the Phillip family may have fallen on hard times, on 22 June 1751 he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In keeping with the curriculum, his education was focused on literacy, arithmetic and navigational skills. He was a competent student and something of a perfectionist and his headmaster, Rev. Francis Swinden observed that in personality, Phillip was unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes. Phillip remained at the Greenwich School for two and a half years, considerably longer than the student stay of twelve months. At the end of 1753 he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard Fortune and he left the Greenwich School on 1 December and spent the winter aboard Fortune awaiting the commencement of the 1754 whaling season. Phillip spent the summer of 1754 hunting whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea, as an apprentice, his responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce and Fortunes thirty crew members supplemented their diet with eggs, scurvy grass. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754, the whaling crew were paid off and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. As an apprentice, Phillip remained aboard as Fortune undertook a trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that years whale hunt, Phillip was still a member of the crew, but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July
34.
David Collins (lieutenant governor)
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Colonel David Collins was a British Irish administrator of Britains first Australian colonies. In the first European settlement of Australia in 1788, Collins was the founding Lieutenant Governor of the Colony of New South Wales, in 1803 he led the expedition to found the first, short-lived, British settlement in what was later to become the Colony of Victoria. In 1804, Collins became the founding Lieutenant Governor of the Colony of Van Diemens Land, a Compendium of Irish Biography, states that he was born at the home of his maternal grandparents in County Offaly, then known as Kings County. Collins went to Exeter Grammar School before joining the Royal Marines as an Ensign at the age of 14 and he was promoted second lieutenant on 20 February 1771. He was serving aboard HMS Southampton when Queen Matilda of Denmark was dramatically rescued, Collins went to North America early in 1775, and fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill, where the British suffered heavy casualties, but held the heights of Charlestown. He was promoted to first lieutenant the following week, by November 1776, he was stationed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he met and then married Mary Proctor, the daughter of Captain Charles Proctor, on 13 June 1777. He was promoted captain-lieutenant in August 1779, and outright captain by July 1780, in February 1781, he joined the HMS Courageux in the Channel Squadron, but did not enjoy being at sea. In October 1786, after three years on half-pay stationed at Chatham, Collins volunteered for service in the penal colony of New South Wales. On 29 November, and despite a lack of training, he was named Judge Advocate for the new colony. In May 1787 he sailed aboard the First Fleet, reaching Sydney Cove in January 1788, in June or July 1788, Governor Phillip appointed Collins as the Secretary to the Governor, or Secretary to the Colony as the position was sometimes called. Collins filled the three roles of Secretary, Judge Advocate and Lieutenant Governor until he left the colony for England in 1796, Collins also established the first, short-lived settlement in what is now the state of Victoria at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip in 1803. He sailed from England in April aboard HMS Calcutta, arriving at Port Phillip in October to found a penal colony, after landing at Sullivan Bay near present-day Sorrento, he sent First Lieutenant James Hingston Tuckey of the Calcutta to explore Port Phillip. Tuckeys report, and Collins own dissatisfaction with the site chosen, when King agreed, Collins decided to move the colony to the Derwent River, on the island of Van Diemens Land. He arrived there in February 1804 on Ocean, and established what would become the town of Hobart, Collins left no published account of his work as Lieutenant-Governor at Port Phillip, nor later as the founder of Hobart. Collins has given his name to Collinsvale in Tasmania, Collins Street, Melbourne, at Exeter Grammar School, now known as Exeter School, where he was educated, there is a house named after him. Collins was portrayed by David Dawson in the 2015 TV series Banished, First Fleet Journals of the First Fleet Chapman, Don. 1788, The People of the First Fleet, Hobart, Tasmania, Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies, University of Tasmania. Collins, the Courts and the Colony, University of New South Wales Press
35.
North Shore (Sydney)
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The North Shore is a term used to describe the primarily residential area of northern metropolitan Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia. The term refers to the suburbs located on the shore of Sydney Harbour up to Hornsby. Before British settlement, the Lower North Shore was home to the Gorualgal and Cammeraygal, after the establishment of Sydney in 1788, settlement of the North Shore of the harbour was quite limited. One of the first settlers was James Milson who lived in the vicinity of Jeffrey Street in Kirribilli, the north shore was more rugged than the southern shore and western areas of the harbour and had limited agricultural potential. The early activities in the area included tree felling, boatbuilding, the North Shore railway line was built in the 1890s. Access to the Sydney CBD, located on the shore of the harbour remained difficult until the completion of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932. This led to commencement the development of suburbs on the North Shore, cumberland County mapping from 1792 to 1894 indicate that the four local governments that stand today were derived from one, the Parish of Willoughby. From the Parish of Willoughby came the City of Willoughby and the municipalities of Mosman, Lane Cove, North Sydney was formerly known as St. Leonards. Most of the North Shore suburbs are part of the Hawkesbury Plateau, the Plateau begins north of the Port Jackson and runs up until the Hawkesbury River. Thus much of the North Shore is hilly with steep valleys running down into the harbour. These ridges and valleys were populated with dry sclerophyll forest. There are many parks and areas of the sclerophyll forest adjacent to and within residential areas. The Lane Cove National Park and the Garigal National Park include many areas of remnant bushland adjacent to the Lane Cove River, there is excellent bushwalking, abseiling and bouldering around Lindfield and North Turramurra. Gordon houses one of Sydneys largest bat colonies in a bat reserve leading to Middle Harbour, the Upper North Shore usually refers to the suburbs between Chatswood and Hornsby. It is made up of the handful of suburbs located within Ku-ring-gai, the affluent area is known for its clean leafy streets, stately homes and high property prices. Ku-ring-gai was rated as having the one quality of life in Australia in the BankWest Quality of Life Index 2008. The Lower North Shore refers to the Sydney Harbour Peninsula that is located on the side of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The three bodies of water surround the Lower North Shore are Lane Cove River on its western border, Sydney harbour on its south side
36.
Manly, New South Wales
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Manly is a beach-side suburb of northern Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is 17 kilometres north-east of the Sydney central business district and is the centre of the local government area of Northern Beaches Council. Manly was named by Captain Arthur Phillip for the people living there, stating that their confidence. These men were of the Kay-ye-my clan, Bennelong and Colebee spoke to them and Bennelong asked for Governor Phillip. Captain Nepean sent the Boatswain back to Governor Phillip at South Head, the Aboriginal men cut large chunks of whale off and put them in the boat for Governor Phillip. The military party then proceeded on their walk to Broken Bay, when Governor Phillips party arrived to see the Aboriginal men they held friendly conversation with Bennelong and Colebee for over half an hour. Later an older Aboriginal man appeared with a spear, Captain Tench remarked that he was seemingly a stranger and little acquainted with Bennelong and Colebee. The Governor moved towards this man and the man became agitated, Governor Phillip threw down his dirk to appease the man crying out confidently. The spear was thrown and Governor Phillip was hit in the shoulder, the muskets were brought to shore but only one would fire. The spear was broken and all hastened to Port Jackson. Manly had been envisaged as a resort by Henry Gilbert Smith in the 1850s. In 1853 Smith acquired two parcels of land. Initially John had chartered a paddle steamer to Manly and other vessels visited on an ad hoc excursion basis, Smith built a wharf in 1855 and eventually acquired an interest in steamers himself and soon more regular services to Manly had commenced. By 1873, Smith had sold the lease to the wharf and his share of the steamers to the operators of the ferries and eventually ownership passed to the once famous Port Jackson & Manly Steamship Company. It was the Port Jackson & Manly Steamship Company which coined the expression about Manly being Seven miles from Sydney, the Port Jackson & Manly Steamship Company played an important part in Manlys development. It built several attractions including a large pool and bathing pavilion. In 1972 the company was sold to Brambles Limited and in 1974 to the Government of New South Wales and it is now part of Sydney Ferries. It was Australias first overseas military adventure, and the Little Boy from Manly, became a symbol either of patriotism or, among opponents of the adventure, especially due to a cartoon by Livingston Hopkins of The Bulletin
37.
Castle Hill, New South Wales
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Castle Hill is a suburb of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 30.1 kilometres north-west of the Sydney GPO, in the Hills District. Castle Hill is the centre of the local government area of the Hills Shire. The land that is now called Castle Hill was originally home to the Bidjigal people, who are believed to be a clan of the Dharuk people, who occupied all the land to the immediate west of Sydney. The Bidjigal people are commemorated by Bidjigal Reserve which straddles the suburbs of Castle Hill, Baulkham Hills, North Rocks. The first European visitors to the district were led by Governor Phillip in April 1791 accompanied by an entourage, traveling from Parramatta reaching the hills following the Aboriginal trails, which today are overlaid by the Windsor and Old Northern Roads. As Governor he needed to find new country for settlement and farming land for crops so as to feed a struggling infant colony, Governor King began Government Farm 3 there on 8 July 1801, referring to it as Castle Hill on 1 March 1802. The majority of the convicts who worked the farm were Irish Catholics. The most notorious incident being the Battle of Vinegar Hill where around 39 were slaughtered and they were branded politicals and exiled for life, never to return. The first free settler in Castle Hill, a Frenchman Baron Verincourt de Clambe and it has been suggested that locals of the time commonly referred to de Clambes house as The Castle because of the Barons noble status. On Sunday night March 4,1804, the convicts rose up as one in what was to become known as the Castle Hill convict rebellion, leading to The Second Battle of Vinegar Hill. Overpowering their guards, they marched towards Parramatta, having torched a hut at the farm as a signal to convicts at the Hawkesbury. However, disciplined English troops, Red Coats, vastly outgunned and outnumbered them, about fifteen to twenty were killed in the first skirmish at the western gates of the Governors Domain at Parramatta, not far from Constitution Hill. The main group headed west, pursued by the Red Coats and by a citizen militia, opposite where the Rouse Hill Regional Town stands, although the exact location is lost to time, a twenty-minute skirmish happened where an unknown number were killed. Martial law was declared across the whole of the colony and was allowed to cloak the activities of the military, martial law continued in effect for seven days, throughout which muskets were heard by locals who wrote to King about the calamity. The government-controlled newspaper reported only 133 convicts were involved, but over 600 left Castle Hill in the hope of joining with another 1,100 from the Hawkesbury plains. The population of the colony at the time was around 5,000, thus the panic that beset the administration, nine were hanged, with three left hanging dead in gibbets for many months as a reminder for all. In later years the area filled with market gardens and orchards which supplied Sydney. As Sydney expanded, the disappeared and were replaced with a sprawl of suburban dwellings, retail and commercial establishments
38.
Herbalism
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Herbalism is the study of botany and use of plants intended for medicinal purposes or for supplementing a diet. Plants have been the basis for medical treatments through much of human history, modern medicine recognizes herbalism as a form of alternative medicine, as the practice of herbalism is not strictly based on evidence gathered using the scientific method. Modern medicine makes use of many plant-derived compounds as the basis for evidence-based pharmaceutical drugs, the scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts. General practices include ancient methods of traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda, practitioners of herbalism or phytotherapy are referred to as herbalists or phytotherapists. Products used in herbalism may be called herbal medicines, botanicals, natural products, herbal remedies, herbal supplements. Archaeological evidence indicates that the use of plants dates back to the Paleolithic age. Written evidence of herbal remedies dates back over 5,000 years, to the Sumerians, a number of ancient cultures wrote about plants and their medical uses in books called herbals. In ancient Egypt, herbs are mentioned in Egyptian medical papyri, depicted in tomb illustrations, or on rare occasions found in medical jars containing trace amounts of herbs. Among the oldest, lengthiest, and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus dates from about 1550 BC, the earliest known Greek herbals come from Theophrastus of Eresos who in the 4th c. B. C. wrote in Greek Historia Plantarum, from Diocles of Carystus who wrote during the 3rd century B. C, only a few fragments of these works have survived intact, but from what remains scholars have noted a large amount of overlap with the Egyptian herbals. Seeds likely used for herbalism have been found in sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty. Over a hundred of the 224 drugs mentioned in the Huangdi Neijing, herbs also commonly featured in the medicine of ancient India, where the principal treatment for diseases was diet. The World Health Organization estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of health care. Pharmaceuticals are prohibitively expensive for most of the population, half of whom lived on less than $2 U. S. per day in 2002. In comparison, herbal medicines can be grown from seed or gathered from nature for little or no cost, many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants, at least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants. In a 2010 global survey of the most common 1000 plant-derived compounds, preclinical studies were reported for about one-half of the plant products, while 12% of the plants, although available in the Western market, had no substantial studies of their properties. Strong evidence was found that 5 were toxic or allergenic, so that their use ought to be discouraged or forbidden, according to Cancer Research UK, there is currently no strong evidence from studies in people that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure cancer
39.
James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
40.
HMS Endeavour
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The navy renamed and commissioned her as His Majestys Bark the Endeavour. She departed Plymouth in August 1768, rounded Cape Horn, and she then set sail into the largely uncharted ocean to the south, stopping at the Pacific islands of Huahine, Bora Bora, and Raiatea to allow Cook to claim them for Great Britain. In September 1769, she anchored off New Zealand, the first European vessel to reach the islands since Abel Tasmans Heemskerck 127 years earlier. In April 1770, Endeavour became the first ship to reach the east coast of Australia, Endeavour then sailed north along the Australian coast. She narrowly avoided disaster after running aground on the Great Barrier Reef and he then beached her on the mainland for seven weeks to permit rudimentary repairs to her hull. On 10 October 1770, she limped into port in Batavia in the Dutch East Indies for more substantial repairs, her crew sworn to secrecy about the lands they had visited. She resumed her journey on 26 December, rounded the Cape of Good Hope on 13 March 1771. Largely forgotten after her voyage, Endeavour spent the next three years sailing to and from the Falkland Islands. As of 2016 her wreck had not been located but was thought to be one of a cluster of five in Newport Harbor. Relics, including six of her cannon and an anchor, are displayed at maritime museums worldwide, a replica of Endeavour was launched in 1994 and is berthed alongside the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney Harbour. The US space shuttle Endeavour is named after the ship and she is depicted on the New Zealand fifty-cent coin and she was ship-rigged and sturdily built with a broad, flat bow, a square stern, and a long box-like body with a deep hold. A flat-bottomed design made her well-suited to sailing in waters and allowed her to be beached for loading and unloading of cargo. Her hull, internal floors, and futtocks were built from white oak, her keel and stern post from elm. Plans of the ship also show a double keelson to lock the keel, floors, some doubt exists about the height of her standing masts, as surviving diagrams of Endeavour depict the body of the vessel only, and not the mast plan. If correct, this would produce an oddly truncated mast a full 9 feet shorter than the standards of the day,1794 at the top of this page. The replica standing mizzen is built to this shorter measurement and stepped in the hold on the keelson, on 16 February 1768, the Royal Society petitioned King George III to finance a scientific expedition to the Pacific to study and observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the sun. The Royal Society suggested command be given to Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple, whose acceptance was conditional on a brevet commission as a captain in the Royal Navy. However, First Lord of the Admiralty Edward Hawke refused, going so far as to say he would cut off his right hand than give command of a navy vessel to someone not educated as a seaman
