1.
88th United States Congress
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The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Eighteenth Census of the United States in 1960, and the number of members was again 435. Both chambers had a Democratic majority, november 22,1963, Lyndon Johnson became President of the United States on the death of President John Kennedy. March 30 – June 10,1964, The longest filibuster in the history of the Senate was waged against the Civil Rights Act of 1964, with 57 days of debate over a 73-day period. It ended when the Senate voted 71–29 to invoke cloture, with the carried out by southern members of the Democratic Party. August 2–4,1964, Gulf of Tonkin Incident June 10,1963, Equal Pay Act, 88–38 October 17,1963, Department of Defense Appropriations Act, Pub. L. 88–149 October 31,1963, Community Mental Health Centers Act, 88–164, title II, including Mental Retardation Facilities Construction Act December 17,1963, Clean Air Act, Pub. L. 88–206 July 2,1964, Civil Rights Act of 1964, 88–352 July 9,1964, Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964, Pub. L. 88–365 August 7,1964, Tonkin Gulf Resolution, Pub. L, 88–408 August 20,1964, Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, Pub. L. 88–452 August 31,1964, Food Stamp Act of 1964, 88–525 September 3,1964, Wilderness Act, Pub. L. 88–577 September 4,1964, Nurse Training Act, Pub. L, senators are ordered first by state, and then by seniority. Harrison Chaplain, Frederick Brown Harris, Methodist Parliamentarian, Charles Watkins Floyd Riddick Secretary, Felton McLellan Johnston Sergeant at Arms, Joseph C. Duke Clerk, Ralph R. Roberts Doorkeeper, William Mosley Fishbait Miller Parliamentarian, Lewis Deschler Postmaster, H. H. Morris Sergeant at Arms, Zeake W. Johnson, Senate history Party Division in the Senate, 1789-Present House of Representatives Session Calendar for the 88th Congress. Official Congressional Directory for the 88th Congress, 1st Session, official Congressional Directory for the 88th Congress, 2nd Session. Pocket Congressional Directory for the 88th Congress
2.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
3.
Fair Labor Standards Act
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The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 is a federal statute of the United States. Several exemptions exist that relieve an employer from having to meet the minimum wage, overtime. The largest exceptions apply to the white collar exemptions that are applicable to professional. Exemptions are narrowly construed, as an employer must prove that the employees fit plainly and unmistakably within the exemptions terms, the Fair Labor Standards Act applies to any individual employed by an employer but not to independent contractors or volunteers because they are not considered employees under the FLSA. Some employers similarly mislabel employees as volunteers, Courts look at the economic reality of the relationship between the putative employer and the worker to determine whether the worker is an independent contractor. Courts use a similar test to determine whether a worker was concurrently employed by more than one person or entity, for example, a farm worker may be considered jointly employed by a labor contractor and a grower. If an employee is entitled to overtime, the employer must pay them one, employees employed in a ministerial role by a religiously affiliated employer are not entitled to overtime under the act. During World War II, the Army-Navy E Award for excellence in war production required maintaining the fair labor standards established under the Act, if the employees wage does not equal minimum wage, including tips, the employer must make up the difference. However, the employee must be allowed to keep all tips, a tip pool may also contain only employees who customarily and regularly receive tips. The phrase customarily and regularly signifies a frequency which must be greater than occasional, while the nomenclature of a job title is not dispositive, the job of busboy is explicitly validated for tip-pool inclusion by an authoritative source. A busboy performs a part of customer service without much direct interaction. The Fair Labor Standards Act was originally drafted in 1932 by Senator Hugo Black, Blacks proposal to require employers to adopt a thirty-hour workweek met stiff resistance. In 1938, a version of Senator Blacks proposal was passed that adopted an eight-hour day. According to the act, workers must be minimum wage. Children under eighteen cannot do certain jobs, and children under the age of sixteen cannot work during school hours. The Fair Labor Standards Act affected 700,000 workers, in response, Congress passed the Portal-to-Portal Act narrowing the Supreme Courts decision. The 1947 Portal-to-Portal Act specified exactly what type of time was considered compensable work time. In general, as long as an employee is engaging in activities that benefit the employer, regardless of when they are performed and it also specified that travel to and from the workplace was a normal incident of employment and should not be considered paid working time
4.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
5.
United States labor law
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United States labor law sets the rights and duties for employees, labor unions, and employers in the United States. Labor laws basic aim is to remedy the inequality of bargaining power between employees and employers, especially employers organized in the corporate or other forms of ownership association. Over the 20th century, federal law created a series of social and economic rights. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 requires employees have a system of work. A contract of employment can always improve standards beyond the statutory rights. To get fair terms beyond the minimum, and improve upon individual contracts. The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 creates rights for most employees to organize a labor union, under the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959, labor union governance follows democratic principles. In any workplace where a majority of support a union. Unions can take action to defend their interests, including withdrawing their labor on strike. There are not yet general rights to participate in enterprise governance. Since the Civil Rights Act of 1964, all employing entities and labor unions have a duty to treat equally, without discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex. There are separate rules for sex discrimination in pay under the Equal Pay Act of 1963, additional groups with protected status were added by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. There is no law banning all sexual orientation or identity discrimination. These equality laws generally prevent discrimination in hiring, terms of employment, there is not a federal law against unjust discharge, and most states also have no law with full protection against wrongful termination of employment. Job security rights in the US are not weaker than in all industrialized countries. On the other hand, collective agreements made by labor unions, the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 requires employing entities give 60 days notice if more than 50 or one third of the workforce may lose their jobs. Federal law has sought to reach full employment through monetary policy, the National Labor Relations Act gave a general right to organize in a trade union and collectively bargain. In re Debs,64 Fed 724,158 U. S.564 imposed an injunction on the workers of the Pullman Company
6.
Bill (proposed law)
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A bill is proposed legislation under consideration by a legislature. A bill does not become law until it is passed by the legislature and, in most cases, once a bill has been enacted into law, it is called an Act or a statute. The term bill is used in the United States and the Commonwealth. In the United Kingdom, the subparts of a bill are known as clauses while the subparts of an Act are known as sections, the preparation of a bill may involve the production of a draft bill prior to the introduction of the bill into the legislature. In the United Kingdom, draft Bills are frequently considered to be confidential, in the British/Westminster system, where the executive is drawn from the legislature and usually holds a majority in the lower house, most bills are introduced by the executive. In principle, the legislature meets to consider the demands of the executive, while mechanisms exist to allow other members of the legislature to introduce bills, these are subject to strict timetables and usually fail unless a consensus is reached. In the US system, where the executive is formally separated from the legislature, Bills can be introduced using the following procedures, Leave, A motion is brought before the chamber asking that leave be given to bring in a bill. This is used in the British system in the form of the Ten Minute Rule motion, the legislator has 10 minutes to propose a bill, which can then be considered by the House on a day appointed for the purpose. While this rule remains in place in the rules of procedure of the US Congress, government motion, In jurisdictions where the executive can control legislative business a bill may be brought in by executive fiat. Bills are generally considered through a number of readings and this refers to the historic practice of the clerical officers of the legislature reading the contents of a bill to the legislature. While the bill is no longer read, the motions on the bill still refer to this practice, in the British/Westminster system, a bill is read the first time when it is introduced. This is accompanied by an order that the bill be printed and considered again, at the second reading the general merits of the bill are considered – it is out of order to criticise a bill at this stage for technical defects in drafting. After the second reading the bill is referred to a committee, the committee reports to the legislature, at which stage further amendments are proposed. Finally a third reading debate at which the bill as amended is considered in its entirety, in a bicameral legislature the process is repeated in the other house, before the Bill is submitted to the executive for approval. Where a piece of legislation is termed an act, the process of a bill becoming law may be termed enactment. Once a bill is passed by the legislature, it may become law, or it may need need further approval. Bills passed by the usually require the approval of the executive such as the monarch, president. In parliamentary systems, approval is normally a formality, since the head is directed by an executive controlled by the legislature
7.
U.S. Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
8.
Employee
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Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure
9.
Labor force
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The workforce or labour force is the labour pool in employment. It is generally used to describe those working for a company or industry. Within a company, its value can be labelled as its Workforce in Place, the workforce of a country includes both the employed and the unemployed. The labour force participation rate, LFPR, is the ratio between the force and the overall size of their cohort. The term generally excludes the employers or management, and can imply those involved in manual labour and it may also mean all those who are available for work. Formal labour is any sort of employment that is structured and paid in a formal way, unlike the informal sector of the economy, formal labour within a country contributes to that countrys gross national product. Informal labour is labour that falls short of being a formal arrangement in law or in practice and it can be paid or unpaid and it is always unstructured and unregulated. Formal employment is more reliable than informal employment, generally, the former yields higher income and greater benefits and securities for both men and women. The contribution of informal labourers is immense, informal labour is expanding globally, most significantly in developing countries. According to a study done by Jacques Charmes, in the year 2000 informal labour made up 57% of non-agricultural employment, 40% of urban employment, and 83% of the new jobs in Latin America. That same year, informal labour made up 78% of non-agricultural employment, 61% of urban employment, particularly after an economic crisis, labourers tend to shift from the formal sector to the informal sector. This trend was seen after the Asian economic crisis began in 1997. Gender is frequently associated with informal labour, Women are employed more often informally than they are formally, and informal labour is an overall larger source of employment for females than it is for males. Women frequent the sector of the economy through occupations like home-based workers. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World shows that in the 1990s, 81% of women in Benin were street vendors, 55% in Guatemala, 44% in Mexico, 33% in Kenya, overall, 60% of women workers in the developing world are employed in the informal sector. The specific percentages are 84% and 58% for women in Sub-Saharan Africa, the percentages for men in both of these areas of the world are lower, amounting to 63% and 48% respectively. In Asia, 65% of women workers and 65% of men workers are employed in the informal sector, globally, a large percentage of women that are formally employed also work in the informal sector behind the scenes. These women make up the work force
10.
Commerce
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Commerce is the activity of buying and selling of goods and services, especially on a large scale. The system includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural and technological systems that are in operation in any country or internationally, commerce is derived from the Latin commercium, from cum, together, and merx, merchandise. Some commentators trace the origins of commerce to the start of transaction in prehistoric times. Apart from traditional self-sufficiency, trading became a facility of prehistoric people. Historian Peter Watson and Ramesh Manickam dates the history of commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. In historic times, the introduction of currency as a money, facilitated a wider exchange of goods. Numismatists have collections of these tokens, which include coins from some Ancient World large-scale societies. For example, if a man who makes pots for a living needs a new house, he/she may wish to hire someone to build it for him/her. But he/she cannot make an equivalent number of pots to equal this service done for him/her, because if the builder could build the house. During the Middle Ages, commerce developed in Europe by trading luxury goods at trade fairs, wealth became converted into movable wealth or capital. Banking systems developed where money on account was transferred across national boundaries, hand to hand markets became a feature of town life, and were regulated by town authorities. Today commerce includes as a subset a complex system of companies which try to maximize their profits by offering products and services to the market at the lowest production cost
11.
Employer
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Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure
12.
Skill
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SKILL is a Lisp dialect used as a scripting language and PCell description language used in many EDA software suites by Cadence Design Systems. It was originally put forth in an IEEE paper in 1990, SKILL was originally based on a flavor of Lisp called “Franz Lisp” created at UC Berkeley by the students of Professor Richard J. Fateman. SKILL is not an acronym, it is a name, for trademark reasons Cadence prefers it be capitalized. Franz Lisp and all flavors of LISP were eventually superseded by an ANSI standard for Lisp called Common Lisp. Historically, SKILL was known as IL, SKILL was a library of IL functions. The name was originally an initialism for Silicon Compiler Interface Language, pronounced SKIL, which morphed into SKILL. Whilst SKILL was used initially to describe the API rather than the language, the name IL remains a common file extension used for SKILL code. il designating that the code contained in the file has lisp-2 semantics. Another possible file extension is. ils designating that the content has lisp-1 semantics, comments are delimited by either the traditional Lisp semicolon or C-style comments SKILL programmers have a choice of expression syntaxes. Traditional Lisp syntax such as can be mixed with C-like syntax such as car White space between the name and the opening parenthesis, as in car is also allowed but has a different meaning. Usually this is not what the beginner programmer intended, thus, SKILL novices usually incorrectly think of car as a syntax error. Certain arithmetic operations can be called using an infix notation. Thus each of the following is recognized and in fact are represented the same internally Functions may be called using several different indirect second order functions and this infix notation was introduced to make it easier for programmers familiar with C and other procedural languages to understand and write SKILL code. SKILL indeed internally represents the language as traditional Lisp S-expression, the surface syntax loosens this restriction compared to other lisps, more elaborate examples look quite different from their Lisp equivalents. For example, the function in SKILL may be represented several different ways which are all compiled to the identical internal representation. The SKILL language supports several built-in object types, symbol, list, fixnum, flonum, string, port, assocTable, array, funobj, envobj, the SKILL language supports both dynamic and lexical variables. However, a function is limited to interpret its variables homogeneously. There are several ways of syntactically indicating whether a function be interpreted lexically or dynamically, one of which are to use and forms indicating dynamic and lexical scoping respectively. InSkill and inScheme forms may be mixed within a function with some degree of flexibility
13.
Moral responsibility
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In philosophy, moral responsibility is the status of morally deserving praise, blame, reward, or punishment for an act or omission, in accordance with ones moral obligations. Deciding what counts as morally obligatory is a concern of ethics. Philosophers refer to people who have responsibility for an action as moral agents. Agents have the capability to reflect upon their situation, to form intentions about how they will act, the notion of free will has become an important issue in the debate on whether individuals are ever morally responsible for their actions and, if so, in what sense. Incompatibilists regard determinism as at odds with free will, whereas compatibilists think the two can coexist, Moral responsibility does not necessarily equate to legal responsibility. A person is responsible for an event when a legal system is liable to penalise that person for that event. Although it may often be the case that when a person is responsible for an act, they are also legally responsible for it. Depending on how a philosopher conceives of free will, they will have different views on moral responsibility, metaphysical libertarians think actions are not always causally determined, allowing for the possibility of free will and thus moral responsibility. All libertarians are also incompatibilists, they think that if determinism were true of human action. Accordingly, libertarians subscribe to the principle of alternate possibilities, which posits that moral responsibility requires that people could have acted differently, phenomenological considerations are sometimes invoked by incompatibilists to defend a libertarian position. In daily life, we feel as though choosing otherwise is a viable option, although this feeling doesnt firmly establish the existence of free will, some incompatibilists claim the phenomenological feeling of alternate possibilities is a prerequisite for free will. A similar view has it that individual moral culpability lies in individual character and that is, a person with the character of a murderer has no choice other than to murder, but can still be punished because it is right to punish those of bad character. How ones character was determined is irrelevant from this perspective, robert Cummins, for example, argues that people should not be judged for their individual actions, but rather for how those actions reflect on their character. In law, there is an exception to the assumption that moral culpability lies in either individual character or freely willed acts. The insanity defense—or its corollary, diminished responsibility —can be used to argue that the guilty deed was not the product of a guilty mind. In such cases, the systems of most Western societies assume that the person is in some way not at fault. The argument from luck is a criticism against the conception of moral responsibility. It suggests that any action, and even a persons character, are the result of various forces outside that persons control
14.
American Association of University Women
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The American Association of University Women, officially founded in 1881, is a non-profit organization that advances equity for women and girls through advocacy, education, and research. The organization has a network of 150,000 members,1,500 branches. Its headquarters are in Washington, D. C, in 1881 Marion Talbot and Ellen Swallow Richards invited 15 alumnae from 8 colleges to a meeting in Boston, Massachusetts. The Association of Collegiate Alumnae or ACA, was founded on January 14,1882. The ACA also worked to improve standards of education for women so that men and womens education was more equal in scope. At the beginning of 1884, the ACA had been meeting only in Boston, however, as more women across the country became interested in its work, the Association saw that expansion into branches was necessary to carry on its work. Washington, D. C. was the first branch to be created in 1884, and New York, Pacific, Philadelphia, in 1885, the organization took on one of its first major projects, they essentially had to justify their right to exist. A common belief held at the time that an education would harm a woman’s health. This myth was supported by Harvard-educated Boston physician Dr. Edward H. Clarke, an ACA committee led by Annie Howes created a series of questions that were sent to 1,290 ACA members,705 replies were received. After the results were tabulated, the data, not surprisingly, the report, “Health Statistics of Female College Graduates” was published in 1885 in conjunction with the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor. This first research report is one of many conducted by AAUW during its history, in 1887, a fellowship program for women was established. Supporting the education of women through fellowships would continually remain a part of AAUW’s mission. Back in 1883, a group of college women had considered forming a Chicago, Illinois branch of the ACA, however. They formed the Western Association of Collegiate Alumnae with Jane M. Bancroft as its first president, WACA was broad in purpose and consisted of five committees, fine arts, outdoor occupations, domestic professions, press and journalism, and higher education of women in the West. In 1888, WACA awarded its first fellowship of $350 to Ida Street, in 1889, WACA merged with the ACA, further expanding the groups capacity. In 1919, the ACA participated in an effort led by a group of American women which ultimately raised $156,413 to purchase a gram of radium for Marie Curie for her experiments. In 1921, the ACA merged with the Southern Association of College Women to create the AAUW, during World War II, AAUW officially began raising money to assist female scholars displaced by the Nazi led occupation who were unable to continue their work. The War Relief Fund received numerous pleas for help and worked tirelessly to find teaching and other positions for women at American schools and universities
15.
Winifred C. Stanley
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Winifred Claire Stanley was an American lawyer and politician from New York. Stanley was born in Manhattan, but the relocated to Buffalo when she was a child. She graduated from Lafayette High School, then earned a B. A. in 1930, in 1938, she became the first woman to serve as an Assistant District Attorney of Erie County, a position she held until 1942. In 1942, Stanley was elected at-large as a Republican to the 78th United States Congress, holding office from January 3,1943, Stanley served one term in Congress and was an advocate for equal rights for women. Stanley was the first Representative to propose that employers be required to pay women equal pay for work when she introduced HR5056. This principle was later enacted in the Equal Pay Act of 1963, in 1945, she was appointed counsel to the New York State Employees Retirement System, holding that position until 1955. She was Assistant New York Attorney General from 1955 to 1979, Stanley died on February 29,1996 in Kenmore, New York and was buried at the Mount Olivet Cemetery in Tonawanda, New York. Winifred C. Stanley at Find a Grave United States Congress, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Women in Congress, 1917-2006, pp. 220–223
16.
Buffalo, New York
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Buffalo is a city in western New York state and the county seat of Erie County, on the eastern shores of Lake Erie at the head of the Niagara River. As of 2014, Buffalo is New York states 2nd-most populous city after New York City, the metropolitan area has a population of 1.13 million. After an economic downturn in the half of the 20th century, Buffalos economy has transitioned to sectors that include financial services, technology, biomedical engineering. Residents of Buffalo are called Buffalonians, the citys nicknames include The Queen City, The Nickel City and The City of Good Neighbors. The city of Buffalo received its name from a creek called Buffalo Creek. British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to Buffalo Creek in his journal of 1764, there are several theories regarding how Buffalo Creek received its name. In 1804, as principal agent opening the area for the Holland Land Company, Joseph Ellicott, designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes similar to the street system he used in the nations capital. Although Ellicott named the settlement New Amsterdam, the name did not catch on, during the War of 1812, on December 30,1813, Buffalo was burned by British forces. The George Coit House 1818 and Samuel Schenck House 1823 are currently the oldest houses within the limits of the City of Buffalo, on October 26,1825, the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward. At the time, the population was about 2,400, the Erie Canal brought about a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832. In 1845, construction began on the Macedonia Baptist Church, an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement, Buffalo was a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitive slaves crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario in search of freedom. During the 1840s, Buffalos port continued to develop, both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo. Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor, in 1843, the worlds first steam-powered grain elevator was constructed by local merchant Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar. Darts Elevator enabled faster unloading of lake freighters along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, by 1850, the citys population was 81,000. At the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River, the city got the nickname City of Light at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. It was also part of the revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6,1901, McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States. The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially working class men
17.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace, powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2,1964, Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963. On June 11,1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening and this led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, the presidents bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U. S. law, in essence, this was the controversial Title III that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality, Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October,1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22,1963, kennedys successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee, by the time of the 1963 winter recess,50 signatures were still needed. After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill, to avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee. Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastlands firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor, Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Said Russell, We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about equality and intermingling. This is the worst civil-rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals, on the morning of June 10,1964, Senator Robert Byrd completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, a day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bills manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four-vote victory margin, the tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill, and only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. On June 19, the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73–27, and quickly passed through the House-Senate conference committee
18.
Title VII
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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace, powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2,1964, Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963. On June 11,1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening and this led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, the presidents bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U. S. law, in essence, this was the controversial Title III that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality, Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October,1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22,1963, kennedys successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee, by the time of the 1963 winter recess,50 signatures were still needed. After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill, to avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee. Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastlands firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor, Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Said Russell, We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about equality and intermingling. This is the worst civil-rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals, on the morning of June 10,1964, Senator Robert Byrd completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, a day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bills manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four-vote victory margin, the tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill, and only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. On June 19, the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73–27, and quickly passed through the House-Senate conference committee
19.
Minimum wage
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A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers must legally pay their workers. Equivalently, it is the floor below which workers may not sell their labor. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in many jurisdictions, differences of opinion exist about the benefits, supporters of the minimum wage say it increases the standard of living of workers, reduces poverty, reduces inequality, boosts morale and forces businesses to be more efficient. Modern minimum wage laws trace their origin to the Ordinance of Labourers, King Edward III, who was a wealthy landowner, was dependent, like his lords, on serfs to work the land. In the autumn of 1348, the Black Plague reached England, the severe shortage of labor caused wages to soar and encouraged King Edward III to set a wage ceiling. Subsequent amendments to the ordinance, such as the Statute of Labourers, while the laws governing wages initially set a ceiling on compensation, they were eventually used to set a living wage. An amendment to the Statute of Labourers in 1389 effectively fixed wages to the price of food, as time passed, the Justice of the Peace, who was charged with setting the maximum wage, also began to set formal minimum wages. The practice was eventually formalized with the passage of the Act Fixing a Minimum Wage in 1604 by King James I for workers in the textile industry. By the early 19th century, the Statutes of Labourers was repealed as increasingly capitalistic England embraced laissez-faire policies which disfavored regulations of wages, the subsequent 19th century saw significant labor unrest affect many industrial nations. As trade unions were decriminalized during the century, attempts to control wages through collective agreement were made, however, this meant that a uniform minimum wage was not possible. It was not until the 1890s that the first modern attempts to regulate minimum wages were seen in New Zealand. The movement for a wage was initially focused on stopping sweatshop labor. The sweatshops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered to be substandard wages, the sweatshop owners were thought to have unfair bargaining power over their employees, and a minimum wage was proposed as a means to make them pay fairly. Over time, the changed to helping people, especially families. The first modern national minimum wage law was enacted by the government of New Zealand in 1894, followed by Australia in 1896, in the United States, statutory minimum wages were first introduced nationally in 1938, and they were reintroduced and expanded in the United Kingdom in 1998. There is now legislation or binding collective bargaining regarding minimum wage in more than 90 percent of all countries, in the European Union,22 member states out of 28 currently have national minimum wages. Currently the American federal minimum wage rests at seven dollars, twenty-five cents per hour, however, some states do not recognize the minimum wage law such as Louisiana and Tennessee. Other states operate below the minimum wage such as Georgia
20.
Price floor
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A price floor is a government- or group-imposed price control or limit on how low a price can be charged for a product. A price floor must be higher than the price in order to be effective. A price floor can be set below the equilibrium price. In the first graph at right, the green line represents a price floor set below the free-market price. In this case, the floor has no practical effect, the government has mandated a minimum price, but the market already bears a higher price. By contrast, in the graph, the dashed green line represents a price floor set above the free-market price. In this case, the floor has a measurable impact on the market. It ensures prices stay high so that product can continue to be made, a price floor set above the market equilibrium price has several side-effects. Consumers find they must now pay a price for the same product. As a result, they reduce their purchases or drop out of the market entirely, meanwhile, suppliers find they are guaranteed a new, higher price than they were charging before. As a result, they increase production, taken together, these effects mean there is now an excess supply of the product in the market to maintain the price floor over the long term. The equilibrium price is determined when the quantity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied, further, the effect of mandating a higher price transfers some of the consumer surplus to producer surplus, while creating a deadweight loss as the price moves upward from the equilibrium price. An example of a floor is minimum wage laws, in this case, employees are the suppliers of labor. When the minimum wage is set above the market price for unskilled labor. However, workers would have higher wages, the equilibrium wage for workers would be dependent upon their skill sets along with market conditions. This model makes several assumptions which may not hold true in reality and it assumes the costs of providing labor are below the minimum wage, and that employment status and wages are not sticky. Some current research has shown that in the US, at least, unemployment in the United States, however, only includes participants of the labor force, which excludes 37. 2% of Americans as of June 2016. Previously, price floors in agriculture have been common around Europe, nowadays the EU uses a softer method, if the price falls below an intervention price, the EU buys the product so much that this decrease in supply raises the price to the intervention price level
21.
Paycheck Fairness Act
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A Census Bureau report published in 2008 stated that womens median annual earnings were 77. 5% of mens earnings. That is, in many occupations earnings have a relationship with respect to hours. Another provision of the bill would start programs to women in ways to better negotiate their wages. The Equal Pay Act Of 1963 prevents any discrepancies in pay between people within the field within the same company, therefore making it illegal to pay a man more than a woman. Fifty years after the passage, a median earnings gap still exists between men and women. The bill was first introduced in 1997, and has been reintroduced to many times, including. The United States Senate failed to move the forward in November 2010. The 2010 Senate version of the bill had the support of the Obama administration, the pay gap has widened 10 years after graduation. President Barack Obama said in March 2011 that he continue to fight for the goals in the Paycheck Fairness Act. The bill was reintroduced in both houses of Congress in April 2011, on June 5,2012, the bill fell short of the 60 votes necessary to override a filibuster and did not make it to the Senate floor for debate. The vote went along party lines, excluding a vote against by Democrat Harry Reid, on April 9,2014, in another straight-party-line vote, the Paycheck Fairness Act was again blocked by a Republican filibuster in the U. S. Senate. Once again, Senator Reid changed his vote from support to oppose, the Paycheck Fairness Act was introduced into the United States Senate on April 1,2014 by Senator Barbara Mikulski. The bill was not referred to any committees, on April 9,2014, a vote to end the debate on the bill failed in a 53-44 vote, when 60 votes were needed. All of the Republicans voted against ending the debate, the bill was introduced into the United States Senate during the 113th United States Congress. On April 9,2014, it failed an important vote to end debate on the bill and this summary is based largely on the summary provided by the Congressional Research Service, a public domain source. The bill would revise the exception to the prohibition for a wage rate differential based on any other factor other than sex and it would limit such factors to bona fide factors, such as education, training, or experience. The bill would revise the prohibition against employer retaliation for employee complaints, the bill would make employers who violate sex discrimination prohibitions liable in a civil action for either compensatory or punitive damages. The bill would authorize the United States Secretary of Labor to seek additional compensatory or punitive damages in a sex discrimination action, the bill would authorize the Secretary to make grants to eligible entities for negotiation skills training programs for girls and women
22.
Education Amendments of 1972
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Education Amendments of 1972 also sometimes known as the Higher Education Amendments of 1972 was U. S. legislation enacted June 23,1972. It is best known for its Title IX, which prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex in educational institutions receiving federal aid and it also modified government programs providing financial aid to students by directing monies directly to students without the participation of intermediary financial institutions. Higher Education in the United States, An Encyclopedia
23.
Hillary Clinton
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Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton is an American politician who was the 67th United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013, U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001, and the Democratic Partys nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election. Born in Chicago, Illinois, and raised in the Chicago suburb of Park Ridge, Clinton graduated from Wellesley College in 1969, after serving as a congressional legal counsel, she moved to Arkansas and married Bill Clinton in 1975. In 1977, she co-founded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families and she was appointed the first female chair of the Legal Services Corporation in 1978 and became the first female partner at Rose Law Firm the following year. As First Lady of Arkansas, she led a force whose recommendations helped reform Arkansass public schools. As First Lady of the United States, Clinton fought for gender equality, because her marriage survived the Lewinsky scandal, her role as first lady drew a polarized response from the public. Clinton was elected in 2000 as the first female senator from New York and she was re-elected to the Senate in 2006. Running for president in 2008, she won far more delegates than any previous female candidate, as Secretary of State in the Obama administration from 2009 to 2013, Clinton responded to the Arab Spring, during which she advocated the U. S. military intervention in Libya. Leaving office after Obamas first term, she wrote her book and undertook speaking engagements. Clinton made a presidential run in 2016. She became the first female candidate to be nominated for president by a major U. S. political party, despite winning a plurality of the national popular vote, Clinton lost the Electoral College and the presidency to her Republican rival Donald Trump. Hillary Diane Rodham was born on October 26,1947, at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago, Illinois. In 1995, Clinton claimed that her mother had named her after Sir Edmund Hillary, co-first mountaineer to scale Mount Everest, however, the Everest climb did not take place until 1953, more than five years after Clinton was born. Clinton was raised in a United Methodist family, living first in Chicago and her father, Hugh Ellsworth Rodham, was of English and Welsh descent, and managed a small but successful textile business. Her mother, Dorothy Emma Howell, was a homemaker of Dutch, English, French Canadian, Scottish, Clinton has two younger brothers, Hugh and Tony. As a child, Rodham was a student of her teachers at the public schools that she attended in Park Ridge. She participated in such as swimming and baseball, and earned numerous badges as a Brownie. She attended Maine East High School, where she participated in the student council, the school newspaper, and was selected for the National Honor Society
24.
Rosa DeLauro
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Rosa Luisa DeLauro /dᵻˈlɔːroʊ/ is the U. S. Representative for Connecticuts 3rd congressional district, serving since 1991 and she is a member of the Democratic Party. The district is based in New Haven, and includes most of that citys suburbs and she is currently the dean of the Connecticut congressional delegation. DeLauro was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the daughter of Luisa Louise and her father, and all of her grandparents, were Italian immigrants. She earned her high school diploma from The Academy of Our Lady of Mercy, Lauralton Hall in Milford and she earned a bachelors degree from Marymount College in Tarrytown, New York, as well as separate masters degrees from the London School of Economics and Columbia University. DeLauro worked as an assistant and chief of staff for Senator Chris Dodd. In 1990, four-term incumbent Democratic U. S, congressman Bruce Morrison of Connecticuts 3rd congressional district decided to retire to run for governor of Connecticut. She ran for the seat and defeated Republican State Senator Thomas Scott 52%-48%. She has never faced another contest nearly that close, and has been reelected twelve times,2006 In the 2006 election she was re-elected to a ninth term, defeating Republican challenger Joseph Vollano with 76% of the vote. 2008 She won re-election to her term with 77% of the vote. The top campaign contribution to DeLauro in 2007-2008 was $14,600 from employees of United Technologies,2010 DeLauro won re-election to her eleventh term with 65% of the vote against Connecticut Republican Party treasurer Jerry Labriola Jr. DeLauro is one of the most liberal members of the House. She is a member of the Congressional Progressive Caucus. DeLauro is interested in health issues, particularly womens health. She has introduced bills aimed at improving cancer treatment and research, as chair of the appropriations subcommittee that funds the Food and Drug Administration, she has been a critic of that agencys failures to protect the public from unsafe foods and medical products. In May 2006, she was linked in press reports to U. S, Senator Christopher Dodds potential bid for President in 2008. On February 2,2008, DeLauro endorsed Illinois Senator Barack Obama for President, on October 3,2008, DeLauro voted a second time in the House in favor the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008. She worked to pass the Paycheck Fairness Act and she has urged politicians to be big thinkers on the issue of universal health care. The Wall Street Journal reported on December 17,2008, that DeLauro was a top contender for the position of Labor Secretary in the Obama administration, however, Obama nominated fellow congresswoman Hilda Solis for the position
25.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
26.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed many landmark bills. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
27.
Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act
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The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 is a federal statute in the United States that was the first bill signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 29,2009. The Act amends the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the new act states that the 180-day statute of limitations for filing an equal-pay lawsuit regarding pay discrimination resets with each new paycheck affected by that discriminatory action. The law directly addressed Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.550 U. S.618, the courts gave opposite verdicts, first supporting the complainant and later opposing, in conclusion the complaint brought the case to the attention of the Supreme Court. The Ledbetter decision was cited by judges in 300 cases before the LLFPA was passed. These cases involved not only Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act and Eighth Amendment to the Constitution. The House Democrats were fast to react, coming out on June 12 against the Supreme Court, the American Bar Association passed a resolution supporting the new bill. If a disappointed employee can wait for years before raising a claim of discrimination. He or she can wait out the employer, that is ensure that the employer effectively unable to offer any meaningful defense to the claim, organizations that opposed the bill include the, U. S. The bill was re-introduced in the 111th Congress in January 2009 and it passed in the House of Representatives with 250 votes in support and 177 against. The vote was split along party lines, with three Republicans voting in favor and five Democrats voting against, the Senate voted 72 to 23 to invoke cloture on S.181 on January 15,2009. The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act passed the Senate, 61-36, specter later switched to the Democrats, the others include all female Republican Senators. President Obama actively supported the bill, House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer announced that the House would vote on S.181 during the week of January 26, getting the bill to President Obamas desk sooner rather than later. On January 27, the House passed S.181 by a 250-177 margin, on January 29,2009, Obama signed the bill into law. It was the first act he signed as president, and it fulfilled his pledge to nullify Ledbetter v. Goodyear. The Wisconsin law was criticized by conservatives for allegedly making sex discrimination lawsuits financially attractive to female employees
28.
Ledbetter v. Goodyear
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Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.550 U. S.618, is an employment discrimination decision of the Supreme Court of the United States. Employers cannot be sued under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 over race or gender pay discrimination if the claims are based on decisions made by the employer 180 days ago or more. Justice Alito held for the majority that each paycheck received did not constitute a discrete discriminatory act. Ledbetters claim of the “paycheck accrual rule” was rejected, the decision did not prevent plaintiffs from suing under other laws, like the Equal Pay Act, which has a three-year deadline for most sex discrimination claims, or 42 U. S. C. 1981, which has a deadline for suing over race discrimination. This was a case of statutory rather than interpretation, explaining the meaning of a law. In rejecting Ledbetters appeal, the Supreme Court said that she could have, the Court did leave open the possibility that a plaintiff could sue beyond the 180-day period if she did not, and could not, have discovered the discrimination earlier. The effect of the Courts holding was reversed by the passage of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act in 2009, in 1979 Lilly Ledbetter, the plaintiff, began work at the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in its Gadsden, Alabama location, a union plant. She started with the pay as male employees, but by retirement. During her years at the factory as a worker, raises were given. From 1979-1981 Ledbetter received a series of evaluations, which she later claimed were discriminatory. Although her subsequent evaluations were good, in part as a result of those early negative evaluations, all merit increases had to be substantiated by a formal evaluation. In March 1998, Ledbetter inquired into the possible sexual discrimination of the Goodyear Tire Company, in July she filed formal charges with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. In November 1998, after retirement, Ledbetter sued claiming pay discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Supreme Court did not rule on whether this was discrimination, a charge under this section shall be filed within one hundred and eighty days after the alleged unlawful employment practice occurred. The District Court found in favor of Goodyear on the Equal Pay Act claim, the court allowed the Title VII and other claims to proceed to trial. Ledbetter claimed that she had been evaluated unfairly because of her sex, Goodyear claimed that their evaluations were non-discriminatory and focused only on worker competence. The jury found for Ledbetter and awarded back pay and damages, Goodyear appealed, arguing that all claims to damages before September 26,1997 were void due to the statute of limitations placed on discrimination claims
29.
Blue collar
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In English-speaking countries, a blue-collar worker is a working class person who performs non-agricultural manual labour. Often something is physically being built or maintained, in contrast, the white-collar worker typically performs work in an office environment and may involve sitting at a computer or desk. A third type of work is a worker whose labour is related to customer interaction, entertainment. Many occupations blend blue, white or pink industry categorizations, blue-collar work is often paid hourly wage-labor, although some professionals may be paid by the project or salaried. There is a range of payscales for such work depending upon field of specialty. Industrial and manual workers wear durable canvas or cotton clothing that may be soiled during the course of their work. Navy and light blue colors conceal potential dirt or grease on the clothing, helping him or her to appear cleaner. For the same reason, blue is a color for boilersuits which protect a workers clothing. Some blue collar workers have uniforms with the name of the business or the name embroidered or printed on it. Historically the popularity of the color blue among manual labourers contrasts with the popularity of white shirts worn by people in office environments. The blue collar/white collar color scheme has socio-economic class connotations, however, this distinction has become blurred with the increasing importance of skilled labour, and the relative increase in low-paying white-collar jobs. The term blue collar was first used in reference to trades jobs in 1924, Alden, a higher level academic education is often not required for many blue-collar jobs. However, certain fields may require specialized training, licensing or certification as well as a school diploma or GED. With the information revolution, Western nations have moved towards a service, many manufacturing jobs have been offshored to developing nations which pay their workers lower wages. This offshoring has pushed formerly agrarian nations to industrialized economies and concurrently decreased the number of jobs in developed countries. Due to this economic osmosis, the rust belt has experienced high unemployment, poverty, blue-collar can be used as an adjective to describe the environment of the blue-collar worker such as a blue-collar neighborhood, restaurant, or bar
30.
White-collar worker
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In many countries, a white-collar worker is a person who performs professional, managerial, or administrative work. White-collar work is performed in an office, cubicle, or other administrative setting, many occupations blend blue, white and pink industry categorizations. Formerly a minority in the agrarian and early industrial societies, white-collar workers have become a majority in industrialized countries due to modernization and outsourcing of manufacturing jobs. The blue-collar and white-collar descriptors as it pertains to work dress may no longer be an accurate descriptor as office attire has broadened beyond a white shirt, employees in office environments may wear a variety of colors, may dress business casual or wear casual clothes altogether. In addition work tasks have blurred, white-collar employees may perform blue-collar tasks. An example would be a restaurant manager who may wear more formal clothing yet still assist with cooking food or taking customers orders or a worker who also performs desk work. A Cochrane systematic review published in 2016 concluded that at present there is low quality evidence that sit-stand desks can reduce sitting at work at the short term. There is no evidence for other types of interventions, also, evidence was lacking on the long term health benefits of such interventions. Knowledge worker Designation of workers by collar color Notes Further reading Mills, white Collar, the American Middle Classes, in series, Galaxy Book. New York, Oxford University Press,1956
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Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
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US labor law
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United States labor law sets the rights and duties for employees, labor unions, and employers in the United States. Labor laws basic aim is to remedy the inequality of bargaining power between employees and employers, especially employers organized in the corporate or other forms of ownership association. Over the 20th century, federal law created a series of social and economic rights. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 requires employees have a system of work. A contract of employment can always improve standards beyond the statutory rights. To get fair terms beyond the minimum, and improve upon individual contracts. The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 creates rights for most employees to organize a labor union, under the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959, labor union governance follows democratic principles. In any workplace where a majority of support a union. Unions can take action to defend their interests, including withdrawing their labor on strike. There are not yet general rights to participate in enterprise governance. Since the Civil Rights Act of 1964, all employing entities and labor unions have a duty to treat equally, without discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex. There are separate rules for sex discrimination in pay under the Equal Pay Act of 1963, additional groups with protected status were added by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. There is no law banning all sexual orientation or identity discrimination. These equality laws generally prevent discrimination in hiring, terms of employment, there is not a federal law against unjust discharge, and most states also have no law with full protection against wrongful termination of employment. Job security rights in the US are not weaker than in all industrialized countries. On the other hand, collective agreements made by labor unions, the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 requires employing entities give 60 days notice if more than 50 or one third of the workforce may lose their jobs. Federal law has sought to reach full employment through monetary policy, the National Labor Relations Act gave a general right to organize in a trade union and collectively bargain. In re Debs,64 Fed 724,158 U. S.564 imposed an injunction on the workers of the Pullman Company
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Economic inequality
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Economic inequality is the difference found in various measures of economic well-being among individuals in a group, among groups in a population, or among countries. Economic inequality is sometimes called income inequality, wealth inequality, or the wealth gap, economists generally focus on economic disparity in three metrics, wealth, income, and consumption. The issue of inequality is relevant to notions of equity, equality of outcome. Economic inequality varies between societies, historical periods, economic structures and systems, the term can refer to cross-sectional distribution of income or wealth at any particular period, or to changes of income and wealth over longer periods of time. There are various numerical indices for measuring economic inequality, a widely used index is the Gini coefficient, but there are also many other methods. Some studies say economic inequality is a problem, for example too much inequality can be destructive. However, too much income equality is also destructive since it decreases the incentive for productivity, the first set of income distribution statistics for the United States covering the period from was published in 1952 by Simon Kuznets, Shares of Upper Income Groups in Income and Savings. It relied on US federal income tax returns and Kuznets’s own estimates of US national income, National Income, economists generally consider three metrics of economic dispersion, wealth, income, and consumption. A skilled professional may have low wealth and low income as student, low wealth and high earnings in the beginning of the career, peoples preferences determine whether they consume earnings immediately or defer consumption to the future. The distinction is important at the level of economy, There are economies with high income inequality. There are economies with low income inequality and high wealth inequality. There are different ways to measure income inequality and wealth inequality, Different choices lead to different results. g. Annual wages, including wages from part-time work or work during only part of the year, individual earnings inequality among all workers – Includes the self-employed. Individual earnings inequality among the entire working-age population – Includes those who are inactive, e. g. students, unemployed, early pensioners, household earnings inequality – Includes the earnings of all household members. Household market income inequality – Includes incomes from capital, savings, household disposable income inequality – Includes public cash transfers received and direct taxes paid. Household adjusted disposable income inequality – Includes publicly provided services, There are many challenges in comparing data between economies, or in a single economy in different years. Examples of challenges include, Data can be based on joint taxation of couples or individual taxation, the tax authorities generally only collect information on income that is potentially taxable. The precise definition of income varies from country to country
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Equal Pay Act 1970
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The Equal Pay Act 1970 is an Act of the United Kingdom Parliament which prohibits any less favourable treatment between men and women in terms of pay and conditions of employment. The Act has now mostly superseded by Part 5, chapter 3. In the 1959 General Election, the Labour Partys Manifesto had proposed a charter of rights including the right to pay for equal work. However, there was no action by either government or unions. Brian Harrison says polls in 1968–69 showed public opinion was moving strongly in favour of equal pay for equal work, the Act came into force on 29 December 1975. The term pay is interpreted in a sense to include, on top of wages, things like holidays, pension rights, company perks. The legislation has been amended on a number of recent occasions to incorporate a simplified approach under European Union law that is common to all member states. The 1970 Act only dealt with equal pay for the same work, in 1978, despite the passage of legislation to promote equal pay, women’s relative position in the UK was still worse than in Italy, France, Germany, or the Benelux countries in 1972. The Equal Pay Act was repealed but its provisions were replicated in the Equality Act 2010. For an employee to claim under this Act they must prove one of the following, That the work done by the claimant is the same, or broadly the same and that the work done by the claimant is of equal value to that of the other employee. That the work done by the claimant is rated the same as that of the other employee, Single Status was intended to establish whether jobs were of equal value, and bring in a pay model which would remove the need for equal pay claims. Jobs which had previously classed as manual or administrative/clerical would be brought together under one pay scale and one set of terms. The implementation of Single Status in local government led to many claims being brought by employees as they sought compensation for past pay disparity, leading legal experts have suggested that this could open the floodgates of litigation, with the public sector bearing the brunt of the impact. UK employment discrimination law Equal Pay Act of 1963, the United States legislation which influenced the Act Equal pay for women Conley, trade unions, equal pay and the law in the UK. Economic and Industrial Democracy 35.2, 309-323, are litigation and collective bargaining complements or substitutes for achieving gender equality. A study of the British Equal Pay Act, cambridge Journal of Economics 39.2, 381-403. The road is long, thirty years of equality legislation in Britain, promises and practices, job evaluation and equal pay forty years on. Women and Equal Pay, The Effects of Legislation on Female Employment, directive 97/80/EC, on the burden of proof in sex discrimination claims
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Equality Act 2010
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The Equality Act 2010 is an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom, and has the same goals as the four major EU Equal Treatment Directives, whose provisions it mirrors and implements. The primary purpose of the Act is to codify the complicated and numerous array of Acts and Regulations, in the case of gender, there are special protections for pregnant women. The Act does not guarantee access to gender-specific services where restrictions are a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim. In the case of disability, employers and service providers are under a duty to make adjustments to their workplaces to overcome barriers experienced by disabled people. In this regard, the Equality Act 2010 did not change the law, under s.217, with limited exceptions the Act does not apply to Northern Ireland. The Labour Party included a commitment to an Equality Bill in its 2005 election manifesto, the Discrimination Law Review was established in 2005 to develop the legislation and was led by the Government Equalities Office. The review considered the findings of the Equalities Review Panel, chaired by Trevor Phillips, the Act is intended to simplify the law by bringing together existing anti-discrimination legislation. Polly Toynbee wrote that the bill, which was drafted under the guidance of Harriet Harman, was Labours biggest idea for 11 years, a public-sector duty to close the gap between rich and poor will tackle the class divide in a way that no other policy has. This new duty to narrow the gap would permeate every aspect of government policy and its possible ramifications are mind-bogglingly immense. One cabinet member described it with relish as socialism in one clause, the Act extends until 2030 the exemption from sex discrimination law which allows political parties to select all women or all men candidate short-lists. The previous exemption until 2015 was created by the Sex Discrimination Act 2002, the Parliamentary process was completed following a debate, shortly after 11pm on 6 April 2010, when amendments by the House of Lords were accepted in full. The published draft bill did not contain any provisions to change the succession laws, cognatic primogeniture for the British monarchy was instead abolished separately three years after the Equality Act came into force, with the enactment of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013. This claim was rejected by the government, the legislation was also criticised by Anglican clergy. Certain employment is exempted from the act, including, Priests, monks, nuns, rabbis, actors and models in the film, television and fashion industries. Special employment training programmes aimed at ethnic minorities, ex-offenders, young adults, employment where there are cultural sensitivities. Where safety or operational efficiency could be jeopardised, political parties who run all women or all-gay shortlists. Local support staff who work in embassies and high commissions, by virtue of diplomatic immunity, where national security could be jeopardised. Parliament page for the progress of the Bill Government Equalities Office page on the Equality Bill Equality Act Guidance, updated 8 March 2013
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