1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
3.
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
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The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission is the New York City agency charged with administering the citys Landmarks Preservation Law. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation, according to the Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the Commission can declare it a landmark. City law also allows for the Commissions decision to be overturned if an appeal is filed within 90 days, the goal of New York Citys landmarks law is to preserve the aesthetically and historically important buildings, structures, and other objects that make up the New York City vista. These regulations are designed to allow property owners to continue to use and maintain their properties. The commission preserves not only significant buildings, but the overall historical sense of place of neighborhoods that are designated as historic districts. The Commission helps preserve the Citys landmark properties by regulating changes to their significant features, the role of the Commission has evolved over time, especially with the changing real estate market in New York City. The Landmarks Preservation Commissions first public hearing occurred in September,1965 over the future of the Astor Library on Lafayette Street in Manhattan, the building was designated a New York City Landmark. Subsequently, the building was reused as The Public Theater. Twenty-five years later, the Commission was cited by David Dinkins as having preserved New York Citys municipal identity and this success is believed to be due, in part, to the general acceptance of the commission by the citys developers. The Commission was headquartered in the Mutual Reserve Building from 1967 to 1980, and later the Old New York Evening Post Building from 1980 to 1987. As of April 16,2014, there are more than 31,000 landmark properties in New York City, the total number of protected sites includes 1,332 individual landmarks,115 interior landmarks and 10 scenic landmarks. Some of these are also National Historic Landmarks sites, and many are National Registered Historic Places, one of the most prominent decisions in which the Commission was involved was the preservation of the Grand Central Terminal with the assistance of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. This success is cited as significant due to the Commissions origins following the destruction of Pennsylvania Station. In 1989, the Commission designated the Ladies Mile Historic District, the next year marked the first time in the Commissions history that a proposed landmark, the Guggenheim Museum, received a unanimous vote by the Commission members. One of the most controversial properties was 2 Columbus Circle, which remained at the center of a discussion over its future for a number of years. Cultural landmarks, such as Greenwich Villages Stonewall Inn, are recognized as not for their architecture. A commission-designated historic district for the South Street Seaport has been active since 1977 and was extended on July 11,1989 and this group included the Historic Districts Council, the Save Our Seaport community group, the New Amsterdam Market, and the Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance. They had encouraged others to write letters to the Landmarks Preservation Commission to support formal designation or district protection, however, in 2013, the Landmarks Preservation Commission declined to hold a hearing to consider this landmark designation or to expand the district
4.
Broadway (Manhattan)
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Broadway /ˈbrɔːdweɪ/ is a road in the U. S. state of New York. It is the oldest north–south main thoroughfare in New York City, dating to the first New Amsterdam settlement, the name Broadway is the English language literal translation of the Dutch name, Brede weg. Broadway is known widely as the heart of the American theatre industry, Broadway was originally the Wickquasgeck Trail, carved into the brush of Manhattan by its Native American inhabitants. Wickquasgeck means birch-bark country in the Algonquian language and this trail originally snaked through swamps and rocks along the length of Manhattan Island. Upon the arrival of the Dutch, the trail became the main road through the island from Nieuw Amsterdam at the southern tip. The Dutch explorer and entrepreneur David Pietersz. de Vries gives the first mention of it in his journal for the year 1642, the Dutch named the road Heerestraat. Although current street signs are simply labeled as Broadway, in a 1776 map of New York City, in the mid-eighteenth century, part of Broadway in what is now lower Manhattan was known as Great George Street. An 1897 City Map shows a segment of Broadway as Kingsbridge Road in the vicinity of what is now the George Washington Bridge. In the 18th century, Broadway ended at the town north of Wall Street, where traffic continued up the East Side of the island via Eastern Post Road. The western Bloomingdale Road would be widened and paved during the 19th century, on February 14,1899, the name Broadway was extended to the entire Broadway/Bloomingdale/Boulevard road. Broadway once was a street for its entire length. The present status, in which it runs one-way southbound south of Columbus Circle, on 6 June 1954, Seventh Avenue became southbound and Eighth Avenue became northbound south of Broadway. On 3 June 1962, Broadway became one-way south of Canal Street, with Trinity Place, northbound traffic on Broadway now needs to take Amsterdam Avenue to 73rd Street, make a sharp turn on the very narrow 73rd and then right turn on Broadway. Otherwise, and effectively, the traffic on Broadway has been diverted into Amsterdam Avenue. In August 2008, two lanes from 42nd to 35th Streets were taken out of service and converted to public plazas. Additionally, bike lanes were added on Broadway from 42nd Street down to Union Square, the city decided that the experiment was successful and decided to make the change permanent in February 2010. Additionally, portions of Broadway in the Madison Square and Union Square have been dramatically narrowed, Broadway runs the length of Manhattan Island, roughly parallel to the North River, from Bowling Green at the south to Inwood at the northern tip of the island. South of Columbus Circle, it is a southbound street
5.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
6.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Ernest R. Graham (architect)
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Ernest Robert Graham was an American architect. Graham was born in Lowell, Kent County, Michigan, the son of to Robert William, employed first by Burnham and Root in Chicago, then by D. H. Burnham & Co. Graham was involved in the engineering and design of Chicagos Columbian Exposition of 1893 and he was a co-founder of Graham, Anderson, Probst & White, the successor firm to Daniel Burnhams practice. Graham designed the National Postal Museum in Washington, D. C. according to an obituary in the New York Times, For nearly half a century, he was one of the great builders of Chicago. Graham also designed many structures in other cities. Graham married Carlotta Hall about 1898 and he married his second wife, Ruby Fitzhugh Leffingwell, in 1925 at Stokes Poges Church, England. Graham is the uncle of Robert Klark Graham, founder of the controversial Nobel Sperm Bank and he died at his home at 25 Banks Street, Chicago, Illinois, aged 68
9.
Neoclassicism
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The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art
10.
Financial District, Manhattan
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The neighborhood roughly overlaps with the boundaries of the New Amsterdam settlement in the late 17th century. The Financial District has witnessed growth in its population to approximately 43,000 as of 2014, the Financial District encompasses roughly the area south of City Hall Park in Lower Manhattan but excludes Battery Park and Battery Park City. The former World Trade Center complex was located in the neighborhood until the September 11 attacks, the heart of the Financial District is often considered to be the corner of Wall Street and Broad Street, both of which are contained entirely within the district. Until the late 20th and early 21st century, the neighborhood was considered to be primarily a destination for daytime traders and office workers from around New York City, the Financial District is part of Manhattan Community Board 1, which also includes five other neighborhoods. The Financial District has a number of tourist attractions such as the adjacent South Street Seaport Historic District, the New York City Police Museum, bowling Green is the starting point of traditional ticker-tape parades on Broadway, where here it is also known as the Canyon of Heroes. The Museum of Jewish Heritage and the Skyscraper Museum are both in adjacent Battery Park City which is home to the World Financial Center
11.
Lower Manhattan
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Lower Manhattan is defined most commonly as the area delineated on the north by 14th Street, on the west by the Hudson River, on the east by the East River, and on the south by New York Harbor. The Lower Manhattan business district forms the core of the area below Chambers Street and it includes the Financial District and the World Trade Center site. At the islands southern tip is Battery Park, City Hall is just to the north of the Financial District, also south of Chambers Street are the planned community of Battery Park City and the South Street Seaport historic area. The neighborhood of TriBeCa straddles Chambers on the west side, at the streets east end is the giant Manhattan Municipal Building, North of Chambers Street and the Brooklyn Bridge and south of Canal Street lies most of New Yorks oldest Chinatown neighborhood. Many court buildings and other government offices are located in this area. The Lower East Side neighborhood straddles Canal, North of Canal Street and south of 14th Street are the neighborhoods of SoHo, the Meatpacking District, the West Village, Greenwich Village, Little Italy, Nolita, and the East Village. Between 14th and 23rd streets are lower Chelsea, Union Square, the Flatiron District, Gramercy, the area that would eventually encompass modern day New York City was inhabited by the Lenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically identical Native Americans traditionally spoke an Algonquian language now referred to as Unami, European settlement began with the founding of a Dutch fur trading post in Lower Manhattan, later called New Amsterdam in 1626. The first fort was built at the Battery to protect New Netherland, soon thereafter, most likely in 1626, construction of Fort Amsterdam began. Later, the Dutch West Indies Company imported African slaves to serve as laborers, they helped to build the wall that defended the town against English, early directors included Willem Verhulst and Peter Minuit. Willem Kieft became director in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kiefts War against the Native Americans, the Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch, the Dutch Republic sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29,1645. On May 27,1647, Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival, the colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. The first mayors of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year, in 1664, the English conquered the area and renamed it New York after the Duke of York. At that time, people of African descent made up 20% of the population of the city, with European settlers numbering approximately 1,500, during the mid 1600s, farms of free blacks covered 130 acres where Washington Square Park later developed. The Dutch briefly regained the city in 1673, renaming the city New Orange, the new English rulers of the formerly Dutch New Amsterdam and New Netherland renamed the settlement New York. As the colony grew and prospered, sentiment also grew for greater autonomy, by 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200. By 1703, 42% of households in New York had slaves, the 1735 libel trial of John Peter Zenger in the city was a seminal influence on freedom of the press in North America
12.
Early skyscrapers
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The early skyscrapers were a range of tall, commercial buildings built between 1884 and 1939, predominantly in the American cities of New York City and Chicago. Technological improvements enabled the construction of fireproofed iron-framed structures with deep foundations, equipped with new inventions such as the elevator and electric lighting. These made it technically and commercially viable to build a new class of taller buildings, the first of which, Chicagos 138-foot tall Home Insurance Building. Their numbers grew rapidly and by 1888 they were being labelled skyscrapers, Chicago initially led the way in skyscraper design, with many constructed in the center of the financial district during the late 1880s and early 1890s. In contrast, New Yorks skyscrapers were frequently narrower towers which, in 1892, Chicago banned the construction of new skyscrapers taller than 150 feet, leaving the development of taller buildings to New York. The first decade of the 20th century saw a new wave of skyscraper construction, the demand for new office space to hold Americas expanding workforce of white-collar staff continued to grow. Engineering developments made it easier to build and live in yet taller buildings, Chicago built new skyscrapers in its existing style, while New York experimented further with tower design. Iconic buildings such as the Flatiron were followed by the 612-foot tall Singer Tower, the 700-foot Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower, though these skyscrapers were commercial successes, criticism mounted as they broke up the ordered city skyline and plunged neighboring streets and buildings into perpetual shadow. Combined with a downturn, this led to the introduction of zoning restraints in New York in 1916. In the interwar years, skyscrapers spread to all major US cities. The economic boom of the 1920s and extensive real estate speculation encouraged a wave of new projects in New York. New York Citys 1916 Zoning Resolution helped shape the Art Deco or set-back style of skyscrapers, leading to structures that focused on volume and striking silhouettes, often richly decorated. Skyscraper heights continued to grow, with the Chrysler and the Empire State Building each claiming new records, with the onset of the Great Depression, the real estate market collapsed and new builds stuttered to a halt. Early skyscrapers emerged in the US as a result of growth, the financial organization of American businesses. New York was one of the centers of early skyscraper construction, as a consequence of its colonial history, New York real estate was broken up into many small parcels of land, with few large sites. Most buildings adopted the Italian Renaissance inspired palazzo-style of architecture popular amongst their rivals in England, New York did not have any restrictions on the height of buildings but in practice low-rise buildings were the norm, at least until 1865, with the tallest buildings being the citys churches. New Yorks population tripled between 1840 and 1870, and property values soared, increasing by more than 90 percent between 1860 and 1875, further west, the city of Chicago became the other major site in the development of early skyscrapers. Chicago became the hub for the American West and the primary trading city for the emerging territories
13.
D. H. Burnham & Company
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D. H. Burnham and Company was an architecture firm based in Chicago, Illinois. As successor to Burnham and Root, the name was changed once John Root died in 1891, Root was the chief consulting architect for the Worlds Columbian Exposition. After Roots death, Daniel Burnham took that title along with his old title of Chief of Construction, D. H. Burnham and Company continued to have design output that was prodigious. C. In 1894 Burnham was the President of the American Institute of Architects and was asked to draw up plans for such as San Francisco, Cleveland. The Burnham Plan was a plan for the city of Chicago. The plan kept forest preserves along and near the citys lakeside, when Burnham died in 1912 the company was passed down to a longtime trusted employee, who later changed the name to Graham, Burnham and Company. Structures in Pittsburgh Designed by Burnham in 1897, The Silversmith Building is now home to The Silversmith Hotel, one of the leading boutique hotels in Chicago
14.
AXA Equitable Life Insurance Company
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AXA Equitable Life Insurance Company, formerly The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States, also known as The Equitable, or simply AXA was founded by Henry Baldwin Hyde in 1859. In 1991, AXA, a French insurance company, acquired majority control of The Equitable, in 2004, it officially changed its name to AXA Equitable Life Insurance Company. Equitable Life Insurance opened its headquarters at the Equitable Life Building in 1875 near Wall Street and it had an excellent location with three entrances on Broadway, Pine Street, and Cedar Street. The edifice had six elevators and incomparable facilities for lawyers, who were located almost entirely in the upper stories. Aside from Hyde, who was president of Equitable, the officers included James Waddell Alexander, George W. Phillips who was Vice President of the Actuarial Society of America. Borrowes family was a prominent New York family connected to the Hallett, H. Harriman, Henry Clay Frick, J. P. Morgan of charging a fabulous $200,000 costume ball to the company. The repercussions rocked Wall Street, and resulted in an investigation of the insurance industry by the State of New York. After the companys building burned down in 1912, Equitable moved to the Equitable Building at 120 Broadway in Manhattan. By May of 1945 only 24 death claims had been filed, in 1985, the Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States, then the U. S. Corporate website Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States Records at Baker Library Historical Collections, Harvard Business School
15.
Setback (architecture)
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A setback, sometimes called step-back, is a step-like recession in a wall. Setbacks were initially used for reasons, but now are often mandated by land use codes. In densely built-up areas, setbacks also help get more daylight, setbacks were used by ancient builders to increase the height of masonry structures by distributing gravity loads produced by the building material such as clay, stone, or brick. This was achieved by reducing the footprint of each level located successively farther from the ground. Setbacks also allowed the natural erosion to occur without compromising the integrity of the building. The most graphic example of a technique is the step pyramids of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. For centuries, setbacks were a necessity for virtually all multi-level load-bearing masonry buildings. As architects learned how to turn setbacks into a feature, most setbacks were however less pronounced than in step pyramids. The introduction of a steel structural system in the late 19th century eliminated the need for structural setbacks. The use of a frame building technology combined with such as elevators and motorized water pumps influenced the physical growth. Driven by the desire to maximize the usable floor area, some developers avoided the use of setbacks, creating in many instances a range of fire safety and it resulted in the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which gave New York Citys skyscrapers their typical setbacks and soaring designs. Today many jurisdictions rely on urban planning regulations, such as zoning ordinances, for example, in high density districts, such as Manhattan in New York, front walls of buildings at the street line may be limited to a specified height or number of stories. Above that height, the buildings are required to set back behind a theoretical inclined plane, called sky exposure plane, in many cities, building setbacks add value to the interior real estate adjacent to the setback by creating usable exterior spaces. These setback terraces are prized for the access they provide to fresh air, skyline views, in addition, setbacks promote fire safety by spacing buildings and their protruding parts away from each other and allow for passage of firefighting apparatus between buildings. In the United States, setback requirements vary among municipalities, the New York City Zoning Ordinance also provided another kind of setback guideline, one that was intended to increase the amount of public space in the city. This was achieved by increasing the minimum setback at street level, creating in each instance an open space, often referred to as plaza, in front of the building
16.
Zoning
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Zoning describes the control by authority which designates legal areas in a municipality to permit and prohibit land uses. Zoning may specify a variety of outright and conditional uses of land and it may also indicate the size and dimensions of land area as well as the form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth and development, areas of land are divided by appropriate authorities into zones within which various uses are permitted. Thus, zoning is a technique of land-use planning as a tool of urban planning used by governments in most developed countries. The word is derived from the practice of designating mapped zones which regulate the use, form, design, legally, a zoning plan is usually enacted as a by-law with the respective procedures. Canada or Germany, zoning plans must comply with upper-tier planning, similar urban planning methods have dictated the use of various areas for particular purposes in many cities from ancient times. The primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible, in practice, zoning also is used to prevent new development from interfering with existing uses and/or to preserve the character of a community. However, it has not always been a method for achieving this goal. In Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth government is not subject to state planning controls, the United States and other federal countries are similar. Zoning and urban planning in France and Germany are regulated by national or federal codes, in the case of Germany this code includes contents of zoning plans as well as the legal procedure. In Germany, zoning includes an assessment with very specific greenspace and compensation regulations. The details of how individual planning systems incorporate zoning into their regulatory regimes varies though the intention is always similar, most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances, usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question. The origins of zoning districts can be traced back to antiquity, the ancient walled city was the predecessor for classifying and regulating land based on use. Outside the city walls were the functions, which were usually based on noise and smell. The space between the walls is where unsanitary and dangerous activities occurred such as butchering, waste disposal, within the wall were civic and religious places, and where the majority of people lived. Beyond the simple distinction between urban and non-urban land, most ancient cities further classified land type and use inside their walls. This was practiced in regions of the world – for example, in China during the Zhou Dynasty, in India during the Vedic Era. One legal form for enforcing this was the caste system and this meant that residential areas also functioned as places of labour, production and commerce
17.
1916 Zoning Resolution
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The New York City 1916 Zoning Resolution was a measure adopted primarily to stop massive buildings such as the Equitable Building from preventing light and air from reaching the streets below. It established limits in building massing at certain heights, usually interpreted as a series of setbacks and, while not imposing height limits, the chief architects of this resolution were George McAneny and Edward M. Bassett. Architectural delineator Hugh Ferriss popularized these new regulations in 1922 through a series of massing studies, clearly depicting the possible forms, the tiered Art Deco skyscrapers of the 1920s and 1930s are a direct result of this resolution. By mid-century most new International Style buildings had met the requirements by adopting the use of plazas or low-rise buildings surrounding a monolithic tower centered on the site. This approach has been criticized for its hostility and, among other issues, the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act Notes Further reading Ferriss, Hugh. The Metropolis of Tomorrow, with essay by Carol Willis, New York, Princeton Architectural Press,1986. Http, //www. nyc. gov/html/dcp/html/zone/zonehis. shtml NYC Zoning History in-arch. net New York Skyscrapers zoning
18.
Marble
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Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Geologists use the marble to refer to metamorphosed limestone, however. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material and this stem is also the basis for the English word marmoreal, meaning marble-like. In Hungarian it is called márvány, Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the carbonate rock have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone or dolomite protolith, green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure, examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations, White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation. Ashgabat, the city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the worlds highest concentration of white marble buildings. According to the United States Geological Survey, U. S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison,2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate, U. S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, the largest dimension marble application is tile. In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of production of marble
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Coffered ceiling
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A coffer in architecture is a series of sunken panels in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit or vault. For centuries, it was thought that wooden coffers were first made by crossing the wooden beams of a ceiling in the Loire Valley châteaux of the early Renaissance. In 2012, however, archaeologists working under Andrew Wallace-Hadrill at the House of the Telephus in Herculaneum discovered that wooden coffered ceilings were constructed in Roman times. Experimentation with the shapes in coffering, which solve problems of mathematical tiling. The more complicated problems of diminishing the scale of the coffers were presented by the requirements of curved surfaces of vaults. A prominent example of Roman coffering, employed to lighten the weight of the dome, can be found in the ceiling of the dome in the Pantheon. In ancient Chinese wooden architecture, coffering is known as zaojing, dome Dropped ceiling Cove ceiling Beam ceiling U. S. National Capitol
20.
Yule Marble
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Yule Marble is a marble of metamorphosed limestone found only in the Yule Creek Valley, in the West Elk Mountains of Colorado,2.8 miles southeast of the town of Marble, Colorado. First discovered in 1873, it is quarried today inside a mountain at 9,300 feet above sea level, in contrast to most marble, which is quarried from an open pit and at much lower elevations. The localized geology created a marble that is 99. 5% pure calcite, with a structure that gives a smooth texture, a homogeneous look. It is these qualities for which it was selected to clad the exterior of the Lincoln Memorial and a variety of buildings throughout the country, in spite of being more expensive than other marbles. The size of the deposits enables large blocks to be quarried, Yules quality comes at a high price due to the cost of quarrying in a high-altitude mountain environment. Technology advancements in quarrying machinery and transportation have reduced, but not solved, the forces that created Yule Marble make it distinct from all other American marbles. Tennessee marble did not undergo metamorphism, so is not true marble, in evaluating the marble cross-section, the United States Geological Survey found the marble is bounded above and below by unconformities. This lack of conformable contact resulted in the dating of the limestone as Silurian rather than the currently accepted Mississippian. The overlying Pennsylvanian Molas Formation was a unit which was converted to hornfels. The Yule Marble is a facies of the regionally distributed Leadville Limestone of Mississippian age deposited 350 million to 324 million years ago. The uplift of the Treasure Mountain Dome tilted the limestone away from the resulting in the marble bed dipping at an angle into the mountain. The marble unit along with older and younger adjacent units in the Yule Valley have a north-northwest strike paralleling the valley and this local contact with the heat and pressure from the intrusion of hot granitic magma recrystallized the Leadville Limestone into a distinctive white marble. Although the Leadville Limestone covered hundreds of miles and was the ore host at the Leadville mining district. When the magma cooled, it crystallized into granite and this local geological activity resulted in a type of marble that is 99. 5% pure calcite, with trace amounts of non-calcite inclusions, and has a density of 170 pounds per cubic foot. The non-calcite inclusions were caused through penetrations along the created by the dome uplift rather than through metamorphic contact with the uplifted dome. Though marble is on both sides of the creek, the only visible marble is the 1-mile-long seam of the quarry on the west side of Yule Creek. It is the grain of Yule Marble that gives an appearance of smooth texture, a look. These qualities are why it has chosen for a number of major national and state landmarks
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Marble, Colorado
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The Town of Marble is a Statutory Town in Gunnison County, Colorado, United States. The town population was 131 at the 2010 United States Census, the Town of Marble was first incorporated in 1899. Marble remains a town of the State of Colorado today. The town is the location of a historic Yule Marble quarry along the mountains that began operations in the late 19th century and it was also used for the construction of the Equitable Building, a historically important early skyscraper in New York City. The quarry has enjoyed a renaissance since its acquisition in 2004 by Polycor, in the late 20th century and the 21st century, Marble has become a summer tourist destination, benefiting from the quarrys renown. It is also the gateway to the nearby Crystal townsite and it is the site of the Marble/marble sculpting symposium held every summer since 1988. Seven sites within Marble have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, haxby House William D. Parry House St. Pauls Church Marble City State Bank building Marble High School Marble Mill Site Marble Town Hall Marble is located at 39°4′20″N 107°11′22″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 0.4 square miles. The community is located in a valley of the upper Crystal River along the Elk Mountains, unlike most of Gunnison County, the town is located on the north side of Schofield Pass and thus is separated geographically from the rest of Gunnison county. As of the census of 2000, there were 105 people,45 households, the population density was 282.2 people per square mile. There were 74 housing units at a density of 198.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 99. 05% White,0. 95% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 95% of the population. There were 45 households out of which 22. 2% had children under the age of 18 living with them,60. 0% were married couples living together, and 40. 0% were non-families. 26. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 4. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.89. In the town, the population was out with 20. 0% under the age of 18,2. 9% from 18 to 24,27. 6% from 25 to 44,42. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44 years, for every 100 females there were 118.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 133.3 males, the median income for a household in the town was $46,094, and the median income for a family was $47,292. Males had an income of $29,375 versus $20,000 for females
22.
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Arlington)
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The Tomb of the Unknowns is a monument dedicated to American service members who have died without their remains being identified. It is also known as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier and it is located in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, United States of America. The World War I Unknown is a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the Victoria Cross, Unknowns who were interred are also recipients of the Medal of Honor, presented by U. S. Presidents who presided over their funerals. On March 4,1921, the United States Congress approved the burial of an unidentified American serviceman from World War I in the plaza of the new Memorial Amphitheater, on November 11,1921, the unknown soldier brought back from France was interred below a three-level marble tomb. A stone, rather than marble, slab covers the rectangular opening. Since 1921 the intent was to place a superstructure on top of the Tomb, but it was not until July 3,1926, that Congress authorized the completion of the Tomb, a design competition was held and won by architect Lorimer Rich and sculptor Thomas Hudson Jones. An appropriation from Congress for the work was secured and on December 21,1929, the Tomb would consist of seven pieces of marble in four levels of which the die is the largest block with the sculpting on all four sides. Quarrying the Yule marble was a process beginning in 1930. The cap was quarried on the first attempt but the required three tries. The large middle block also required three tries, in late January 1931, the 56 ton middle block was lifted out of the quarry. When the block was separated from the mountain inside the quarry it weighed 124 tons, a wire saw was then brought into the quarry to cut the block down to 56 tons. On February 3, the reached the marble mill site after a four-day trip from the quarry. Here it was crated, then shipped to Vermont on February 8, the block was sawn to final size in West Rutland, Vermont and fabricated by craftsmen in Proctor, Vermont before it was shipped by train to Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia. By September, all 7 blocks were on the grounds of the Tomb site, an imperfection was found in the base requiring three more quarryings. By the end of December 1931, the assembly was completed, finishing work followed with the carvings on the die block by the Piccirilli Brothers under the direction of the sculptor Thomas Jones. The Tomb was completed without formal ceremony on April 9,1932, the Tomb was placed at the head of the grave of the World War I Unknown. West of this grave are the crypts of Unknowns from World War II, between the two lies a crypt that once contained an Unknown from Vietnam. His remains were identified in 1998 through DNA testing as First Lieutenant Michael Blassie
23.
Lincoln Memorial
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The Lincoln Memorial is an American national monument built to honor the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. It is located on the end of the National Mall in Washington. Dedicated in 1922, it is one of several built to honor an American president. It has always been a major tourist attraction and since the 1930s has been a symbolic center focused on race relations and it has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since October 15,1966. It is open to the public 24 hours a day, in 2007, it was ranked seventh on the List of Americas Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects. Since 2010, approximately 6 million people visit the memorial annually, the first public memorial to Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D. C. was a statue by Lot Flannery erected in front of the District of Columbia City Hall in 1868, three years after Lincolns assassination. Demands for a national memorial had been voiced since the time of Lincolns death. In 1867, Congress passed the first of many bills incorporating a commission to erect a monument for the sixteenth president, an American sculptor, Clark Mills, was chosen to design the monument. Subscriptions for the project were insufficient, the first five bills, proposed in the years 1901,1902, and 1908, met with defeat because of opposition from Speaker Joe Cannon. The sixth bill, introduced on December 13,1910, passed, the Lincoln Memorial Commission had its first meeting the following year and U. S. President William H. Taft was chosen as the commissions president. Progress continued at a pace and by 1913 Congress had approved of the Commissions choice of design. There were questions regarding the commissions plan, many thought that architect Henry Bacons Greek temple design was far too ostentatious for a man of Lincolns humble character. Instead they proposed a simple log cabin shrine, the site too did not go unopposed. The recently reclaimed land in West Potomac Park was seen by many to be too swampy or too inaccessible. Other sites, such as Union Station, were put forth, furthermore, the Potomac Park site had already been designated in the McMillan Plan of 1901 to be the location of a future monument comparable to that of the Washington Monument. With Congressional approval and a $300,000 allocation, the project got underway, on February 12,1914, a dedication ceremony was conducted and the following month the actual construction began. Work progressed steadily according to schedule, some changes were made to the plan. The statue of Lincoln, originally designed to be 10 feet tall, was enlarged to 19 feet to prevent it from being overwhelmed by the huge chamber
24.
Daniel Burnham
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Daniel Hudson Burnham, FAIA was an American architect and urban designer. He was the Director of Works for the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Burnham took a leading role in the creation of master plans for the development of a number of cities, including Chicago, Manila and downtown Washington, D. C. Burnham was born in Henderson, New York and raised in Chicago and his parents brought him up under the teachings of the Swedenborgian called The New Church, which ingrained in him the strong belief that man should strive to be of service to others. After failing admissions tests for both Harvard and Yale and a stint at politics, Burnham apprenticed as a draftsman under William LeBaron Jenney. At age 26, Burnham moved on to the Chicago offices of Carter, Drake, and Wight, Burnham and Root were the architects of one of the first American skyscrapers, the Masonic Temple Building in Chicago. Measuring 21 stories and 302 feet, the temple held claims as the tallest building of its time, under the design influence of Root, the firm had produced modern buildings as part of the Chicago School. Following Root’s premature death from pneumonia in 1891, the became known as D. H. Burnham & Company. Burnham and Root had accepted responsibility to design and construction of the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago’s then-desolate Jackson Park on the south lakefront. The largest worlds fair to date, it celebrated the 400-year anniversary of Christopher Columbus famous voyage. Under Burnhams direction, the construction of the Fair overcame huge financial and logistical hurdles, including a financial panic. Considered the first example of a planning document in the nation, the fairground was complete with grand boulevards, classical building facades. Often called the White City, it popularized neoclassical architecture in a monumental and rational Beaux-Arts plan, the remaining population of architects in the U. S. were soon asked by clients to incorporate similar elements into their designs. Initiated in 1906 and published in 1909, Burnham and his co-author Edward H. Bennett prepared The Plan of Chicago and it was the first comprehensive plan for the controlled growth of an American city, and an outgrowth of the City Beautiful movement. The plan included proposals for the lakefront and river and declared that every citizen should be within walking distance of a park. Sponsored by the Commercial Club of Chicago, Burnham donated his services in hopes of furthering his own cause, plans and conceptual designs of the south lakefront from the Exposition came in handy, as he envisioned Chicago being a Paris on the Prairie. French-inspired public works constructions, fountains, and boulevards radiating from a central, City planning projects did not stop at Chicago though. Burnham had previously contributed to plans for such as Cleveland, San Francisco. The Plan for Manila never fully materialized due to the out of World War II
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Equitable Life Building (Manhattan)
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The Equitable Life Assurance Building was the headquarters of The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States. Construction was completed on May 1,1870 at 120 Broadway in New York City, at a then-record 130 feet, it is considered by some the worlds first skyscraper. The architects were Arthur Gilman and Edward H. Kendall, with George B, post as a consulting engineer and hydraulic elevators made by the Elisha Otis company. The building, described as fireproof, was destroyed by a fire on January 9,1912. Extremely cold weather caused the water from the trucks to freeze on the building. The present Equitable Building was completed in 1915 on the same plot, the massive bulk of the newer building was a major impetus behind the citys 1916 Zoning Resolution. —pamphlet about the fire, published in 1912 and available on Archive. org
26.
Elevator
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An elevator or lift is a type of vertical transportation that moves people or goods between floors of a building, vessel, or other structure. Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, in agriculture and manufacturing, an elevator is any type of conveyor device used to lift materials in a continuous stream into bins or silos. Several types exist, such as the chain and bucket elevator, grain auger screw conveyor using the principle of Archimedes screw, or the chain, languages other than English may have loanwords based on either elevator or lift. Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a requirement in new multistory buildings. The earliest known reference to an elevator is in the works of the Roman architect Vitruvius, some sources from later historical periods mention elevators as cabs on a hemp rope powered by hand or by animals. In 1000, the Book of Secrets by al-Muradi in Islamic Spain described the use of a lifting device. In the 17th century the prototypes of elevators were located in the buildings of England. Louis XV of France had a flying chair built for one of his mistresses at the Chateau de Versailles in 1743. Ancient and medieval elevators used drive systems based on hoists or winders, the invention of a system based on the screw drive was perhaps the most important step in elevator technology since ancient times, leading to the creation of modern passenger elevators. The first screw drive elevator was built by Ivan Kulibin and installed in Winter Palace in 1793, several years later another of Kulibins elevators was installed in Arkhangelskoye near Moscow. The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of raw materials including coal, the technology developed by these industries and the introduction of steel beam construction worked together to provide the passenger and freight elevators in use today. Starting in the mines, by the mid-19th century elevators were operated with steam power and were used for moving goods in bulk in mines and factories. It elevated paying customers to a height in the center of London. Early, crude steam-driven elevators were refined in the decade, – in 1835 an innovative elevator called the Teagle was developed by the company Frost. The elevator was belt-driven and used a counterweight for extra power, the hydraulic crane was invented by Sir William Armstrong in 1846, primarily for use at the Tyneside docks for loading cargo. These quickly supplanted the steam driven elevators, exploiting Pascals law. A water pump supplied a variable level of pressure to a plunger encased inside a vertical cylinder. Counterweights and balances were used to increase the lifting power of the apparatus
27.
Singer Building
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It was the tallest building in the world from 1908 to 1909. It was demolished in 1968, together with the adjacent City Investing Building, when it was demolished, it was the tallest building ever to be demolished, and is still the third-tallest building ever to be destroyed and the tallest to be purposely demolished by its owner. The building was commissioned by Frederick Bourne, the head of the Singer Sewing Machine Company and he hired architect Ernest Flagg, who was an early exponent of the Beaux-Arts architectural style. Plans and working drawings were prepared by George W. Conable, Flagg believed that buildings more than 10 or 15 stories high should be set back from the street, with the tower occupying only a quarter of the lot. The 12-story base of the building filled an entire blockfront, while the tower above was relatively narrow, the tower floors were squares only 65 feet on a side. A forest of columns rose high to a series of multiple small domes of delicate plasterwork. A series of bronze medallions placed at the top of the columns were alternately rendered in the monogram of the Singer company and, quite inventively, as a huge needle, thread. Skyscraper zoning legislation, enacted in 1916 at Flaggs urging, incorporated many of his ideas for setbacks in tall buildings, as of November 1921, Catham and Phenix National Bank had its main office in the Singer Building. In 1961, Singer sold the building and subsequently moved to Rockefeller Center, the building was then acquired by real estate developer William Zeckendorf, who sought unsuccessfully for the New York Stock Exchange to move there. In 1964 United States Steel acquired the building, along with the neighboring City Investing Building, by the 1960s the building was uneconomical because of its small interior dimensions. The tower portion of the building contained only 4,200 square feet per floor, compared with 37,000 square feet per floor of the building replaced it. Alan Burnham, executive director of the commission, said in August 1967 that if the building were to have made a landmark. Demolition commenced in August 1967 and was completed the following year, at the time, it was the tallest building ever to be destroyed until the September 11,2001 attacks, when the World Trade Center one block over collapsed. The Singer Building is currently the third tallest building to be destroyed, early skyscrapers Old postcard view of the Singer Building on bc. edu The Little Singer Building The Lost Skyscrapers of Bygone New York
28.
City Investing Building
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The City Investing Building was an early New York City skyscraper, erected in 1908 as one of the largest buildings of its era. The building stood at 56 Cortland Street, between Broadway and Church Street, and was constructed between 1906 and 1908, the architect was Francis Kimball, and construction was done by the Hedden Construction Company of New Jersey. With a single 33-story tower, a body mass extended to 26 stories, and an asymmetrical F-shaped footprint because of a real estate holdout. The Equitable Building threw the City Investing Building into permanent shadow up to the 24th floor, from 1928 through 1932 it was known as the Benenson Building, then simply as its address,165 Broadway. The building was razed in 1968, along with the nearby Singer Building, at the time of their destruction the Singer Building was the tallest building ever demolished, and the City Investing Building was the second. As of 2011, they are the third and eighth tallest to have been destroyed, online source with photographs flickr photograph Media related to City Investing Building at Wikimedia Commons
29.
Merchandise Mart
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The Merchandise Mart is a commercial building located in the Near North Side of Chicago, Illinois, United States. When it opened in 1930, it was the largest building in the world, the art deco landmark is located at the junction of the Chicago Rivers branches. The building is a leading retailing and wholesale destination, hosting 20,000 visitors, built by Marshall Field & Co. The Merchandise Mart is so large that it had its own ZIP code until 2008, in 2010, the building opened its Design Center showrooms to the public for the first time. In 1926, an extension of double-deck Wacker Drive increased development on the south riverbank. In 1927, Marshall Field & Co. announced its plans to build on the bank opposite Wacker Drive. With the railroads air rights, the site was large enough to accommodate the largest building in the world, removing the train yard supported the Chicago Plan Commissions desire to develop and beautify the riverfront. General contractor John W. Griffiths & Sons brought building construction into the age through the use of techniques ordinarily used in the construction of big dams. Cement arriving by boat was lifted by compressed air to bins 75 feet above the ground, with gravel and sand delivered by railroad cars to conveyor belts, giant mixers provided wet concrete to skip hoists in vertical towers that were extended as the building rose. Continuously employing 2,500 men and as many as 5,700 men altogether, the project lasted a year. Bethlehem Steel fabricated much of the 60,000 tons of steel, an estimated 7.5 miles of corridors and over 30 elevators were included in the construction. The Merchandise Mart opened on May 5,1930, just east of Chicagos original trading post, the building realized Marshall Field’s dream of a single wholesale center for the entire nation and consolidated 13 different warehouses. It was later managed by Sargent Shriver, then was owned for more than 50 years by the Kennedy family through Merchandise Mart Properties and that year, MMPI was acquired by Vornado Realty Trust for $450 million cash and a $100 million-plus stake in Vornado. As of early 2007, the building was valued at $917 million, the Merchandise Mart was modernized in the late 1950s and 1960s. The Indian chiefs were removed and replaced with plates in 1961. Some of the carvings were found in a suburban backyard. In 1962, a canopy was constructed over the south for vehicle use. In 1977, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill designed the Chicago Apparel Center, located on the west side of Orleans Street, making use of plazas, esplanades and overlooks employed the waterfront location for pedestrian pleasure
30.
East River
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The East River is a salt water tidal estuary in New York City. The waterway, which is not a river despite its name. It separates the borough of Queens on Long Island from the Bronx on the North American mainland, and also divides Manhattan from Queens and Brooklyn, because of its connection to Long Island Sound, it was once also known as the Sound River. The tidal strait changes its direction of flow frequently, and is subject to fluctuations in its current. The waterway is navigable for its length of 16 miles. Technically a drowned valley, like the other waterways around New York City, the distinct change in the shape of the strait between the lower and upper portions is evidence of this glacial activity. The upper portion, running perpendicular to the glacial motion, is wide, meandering. The lower portion runs north-south, parallel to the glacial motion and it is much narrower, with straight banks. The bays that exist, as well as those used to exist before being filled in by human activity, are largely wide. The stretch has since been cleared of rocks and widened, washington Irving wrote of Hell Gate that the current sounded like a bull bellowing for more drink at half tide, whilte at full tide it slept as soundly as an alderman after dinner. He said it was like a peaceable fellow enough when he has no liquor at all, or when he has a skinful, but who, the river is navigable for its entire length of 16 miles. Why the river turns to the east as it approaches the three lower Manhattan bridges is currently geologically unknown, in the stretch of the river between Manhattan Island and the borough of Queens, lies Roosevelt Island, a narrow 2-mile long island consisting of 147 acres. Politically part of Manhattan, it begins at around the level of East 46th Street of that borough and it is connected to Queens by the Roosevelt Island Bridge, to Manhattan by the Roosevelt Island Tramway, and to both by a subway station. The Queensboro Bridge runs across Roosevelt Island, but no longer has an elevator connection to it. The abrupt termination of the island on its end is due to an extension of the 125th Street Fault. The Bronx River drains into the East River in the section of the strait. North of Randalls Island, it is joined by the Bronx Kill. Along the east of Wards Island, at approximately the midpoint, it narrows into a channel called Hell Gate
31.
Silverstein Properties
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Silverstein Properties, Inc. is New York Citys 5th largest commercial landlord, a privately held, full-service real estate development, investment and management firm based in New York City. Founded in 1957 by Chairman Larry Silverstein, the company specializes in developing, acquiring, and managing office, residential, hotel, retail, Silverstein Properties is currently headquartered at 7 World Trade Center in Manhattan, New York City. Perhaps best known for developing and owning the World Trade Center complex, SPI has developed, owned, and managed more than 40 million SF of commercial, residential, and retail space. Prior to joining the firm, SPIs executives and professionals developed in excess of 100 million SF in the United States, SPIs portfolio includes 13.4 million square feet of office, residential and retail properties and $10 billion of current development
32.
Larry Silverstein
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Larry A. Silverstein is an American businessman. Silverstein was born in Brooklyn, and became involved in real estate, together with his father, Silverstein separated from his business partner, Bernard Mendik, in 1977, and bought a number of large office buildings in Midtown and Lower Manhattan in the late 1970s. In 1980, Silverstein won a bid from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to construct 7 World Trade Center, to the north of the World Trade Center site. Silverstein was interested in acquiring the entire World Trade Center complex, Silverstein won the bid when a deal between the initial winner and the Port Authority fell through, and he signed the lease on July 24,2001.55 billion coverage per event. A settlement was reached in 2007, with insurers agreeing to pay out $4.55 billion, Silverstein also ran into multiple disputes with other parties in the rebuilding effort, including with the Port Authority. Silverstein was born in Bedford-Stuyvesant, in Brooklyn in 1931 into a Jewish family, growing up, Silverstein enjoyed classical music and played the piano. He attended the High School of Music and Art in New York, during college, Silverstein worked at a summer camp, where he met his wife, Klara. The couple married in 1956, and had three children, Lisa, Roger and Sharon and his wife worked as a school teacher, supporting the family on her salary for the first few years of their marriage while Silverstein attended classes at Brooklyn Law School. Silverstein became involved in real estate, together with his father, Harry G. Silverstein, in 1957, they established Silverstein Properties, as Harry G. Silverstein & Sons, and bought their first building, in Manhattan. Mendik and Silverstein continued the business after the elder Silversteins death in 1966, in 1977, Mendik divorced Annette Silverstein Mendik, with the business partnership also splitting up at that time. Mendik also cited disagreements over real estate strategies, with Mendik wanting to buy buildings while Silverstein wanted to build, after splitting with Mendik, both remained involved in the real-estate industry, but in separate firms. By 1978, Silverstein owned five buildings on Fifth Avenue, as well as 44 Wall Street, in 1980, he renovated the building at 11 West 42nd Street, and acquired the lease for the Equitable Building at 120 Broadway. In 1983, Silverstein sold the building at 711 Fifth Avenue to Coca-Cola for $57.6 million, also in 1980, Silverstein bought the building at 120 Wall Street, which was constructed in 1930. In 1980, Silverstein won a bid to lease and develop the last undeveloped parcel from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, to build the 47-story building 7 World Trade Center. During the 1990s, New York was suffering from the effects of the 1987 stock market crash, george Pataki became Governor of New York in 1995 on a campaign of cutting costs, including privatizing the World Trade Center. A sale of the property was considered too complex, so it was decided by the Port Authority to open a 99-year lease to competitive bidding. In January 2001, Silverstein, via Silverstein Properties and Westfield America, Silverstein was outbid by $30 million by Vornado Realty, with Boston Properties and Brookfield Properties also competing for the lease. However, Vornado withdrew and Silversteins bid for the lease to the World Trade Center was accepted on July 24,2001 and this was the first time in the buildings 31-year history that the complex had changed management
33.
Ticker tape parade
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The concept originates from and is most usually associated with the United States, especially with New York City. Outside of the United States, ticker tape is often associated with the 1978 FIFA World Cup held in Argentina. The term originated in New York City after a celebration held on October 28,1886. The term ticker tape originally referred to the use of the output of ticker tape machines. The term ticker came from the sound made by the machine as it printed, in New York City, ticker tape parades are reserved for special occasions. The first individual to be honored with a ticker tape parade was Admiral George Dewey, hero of the battle of Manila Bay, in 1899, when two million people came out to New York City. Following World War II, several ticker tape parades were given in honor of victorious generals and admirals, including General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the section of lower Broadway through the Financial District that serves as the parade route for these events is colloquially called the Canyon of Heroes. More than 200 black granite strips embedded in the sidewalks along the Canyon of Heroes list honorees of past ticker-tape parades. By the early 21st century, such parades became far more infrequent, largely limited to sports teams. Ticker tape technology became obsolete in the 1960s, as television, modern parades utilize waste office paper and toilet paper that have been cut using conventional paper shredders. The city also distributes paper confetti, lafayette Welcoming Parade of 1824 List of ticker tape parades in New York City
34.
Adam Leitman Bailey
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Adam Leitman Bailey is a lawyer based in New York City who practices residential and commercial real estate law as founder of Adam Leitman Bailey, P. C. He has engaged in several legal cases. The Martindale-Hubbell peer review system gave Bailey an AV rating, its highest category, Bailey was born in Bayside, Queens. He moved to California at age five and later moved back to New Milford, New Jersey and he graduated with honors from Rutgers University and Syracuse University College of Law. Bailey proposed legislation that would prevent the demolition, early in 2008, Save Harlem, along with several building tenants sued, eventually settling for more than $1 million and gaining the right of the tenants to remain in the building. Park51 was a planned Muslim community center located near the site of the World Trade Center, timothy Brown, a former firefighter, sued to prevent construction of the community center so close to the site of the September 11 attacks. Bailey represented the community center on a pro bono basis, trump SoHo New York is a $450 million 46-story 391-unit hotel condominium in SoHo, New York City. The plaintiffs were represented by Bailey, ultimately the suit was settled, with plaintiffs recovering 90 per cent of their deposits. The condominium was ordered to refund 75 per cent of the $5 million in payments to the buyers who ended up backing out of the $50 million project. Congress later closed the ILSA loophole with Public Law 113-167, which provides an exemption for condominiums from ILSAs registration requirements for all new construction after enactment, Bailey has been described as a controversial figure in NYC real estate. In 2017, Bailey was sued for $25 million by a tenant of a building owner had been represented by Bailey. The tenant accuses Bailey of malpractice and claims to have a recording of Bailey threatening him, in 2011, Bailey wrote Finding The Uncommon Deal, A Top New York Lawyer Explains How to Buy a Home for the Lowest Possible Price. The book gained Bailey the 2012 First Time Author award granted by the National Association of Real Estate Editors, Bailey was named one of New York’s Most Powerful Real Estate Attorneys by the Commercial Observer in 2015
35.
McCall's
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McCalls was a monthly American womens magazine that enjoyed great popularity through much of the 20th century, peaking at a readership of 8.4 million in the early 1960s. It was established as a magazine called The Queen in 1873. In 1897 it was renamed McCalls Magazine—The Queen of Fashion and subsequently grew in size to become a large-format glossy and it was one of the Seven Sisters group of womens service magazines. From June 1949 until her death in November 1962, Eleanor Roosevelt wrote a McCalls column, the former First Lady gave brief answers to questions sent in to the magazine. Starting in May 1951, and lasting until at least 1995, children could cut out the printed dolls and clothing, or for a small fee paper dolls printed on cardboard could be ordered. Betsy McCall became so popular that various sized vinyl dolls were produced by Ideal, another popular feature which ran for many years was the cartoon panel Its All in the Family by Stan and Jan Berenstain. A pair of pioneering female illustrators, Jesse Willcox Smith and Neysa McMein, film critic Pauline Kael worked at McCalls from 1965 to 1966, and was reportedly fired after writing a highly unfavorable review of The Sound of Music. In 1870, Scottish immigrant James McCall began designing and printing his own line of sewing patterns, as a means of advertising his patterns, McCall founded a four-page fashion journal entitled The Queen, Illustrating McCalls Bazaar Glove-Fitting Patterns. When McCall died in 1884, his widow became president of McCall Company, Mrs. Bladsworth held the position until 1891. Though still mainly a vehicle to sell McCalls sewing patterns, The Queen began to publish homemaking and handiwork information, in 1891, the magazines name became The Queen of Fashion, and the cost for a years subscription was 30 cents. In 1893, James Henry Ottley took over the McCall Company, in order to reflect the magazines expanded range of topics, the name was changed to McCalls Magazine—The Queen of Fashion in 1897. In time, the name would be shortened to McCalls, despite the name changes, for many years information on McCalls patterns filled an average of 20 percent of the magazines pages. In 1913, the magazine was purchased by the firm of White Weld & Co. which organized the McCall Corporation under the direction of president Edward Alfred Simmons. In 1917, the price was raised to 10 cents per issue, in 1928, the 23-year-old associate editor, Otis Wiese, was promoted to editor. Such radical ideas caused Wiese to be fired at least six times within his first year as editor, in 1932, Wiese changed the format to what he called Three Magazines in One. Three sections—News and Fiction, Homemaking, Style and Beauty—had their own cover, a survey was conducted that showed fiction was a major attraction for female magazine readers, and in 1937 McCalls became the first womens magazine to print a complete novel in one issue. Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7,1941, and Otis Wiese immediately revamped the February 1942 issue then in preparation, a frilly valentine cover was replaced with a woman wearing an Ive Enlisted consumer pledge button. Readers were asked to sign a pledge that stated As a consumer, in the defense of democracy, I will do my part to make my country ready, efficient
36.
New York Life Insurance Company
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In 2007, NYLIC achieved the best possible ratings by the four independent rating companies. Other New York Life affiliates provide an array of products and services, as well as institutional. The company was founded in 1845 as the Nautilus Insurance Company in New York City and it was renamed the New York Life Insurance Company in 1849. Its first headquarters were at 58 Wall Street from 1845 until 1846 at which time they were moved to 29 Wall Street, subsequent addresses included 68 Wall Street,106 Broadway, and 112-114 Broadway. The first president was James DePeyster Ogden, who served from 1845 until 1847, the current New York Life headquarters was designed by architect Cass Gilbert and completed in 1928. The New York Life Building, at 51 Madison Avenue, was constructed during the presidency of Darwin P. Kingsley. As with other insurance companies in the U. S. in its early years, at the behest of its Southern agents. These policies were discontinued at the direction of the Trustees on April 19,1848, the total claims paid on slaves lives totaled $1,050. Nautilus sold 485 slaveholder life insurance policies during a period in the 1840s. Their trustees voted to end the sale of such policies 15 years before the Emancipation Proclamation. It was also the first American life insurance company to pay a dividend to policyholders. Anthony was one of their first female policy holders, and her father worked for NYLIC, CEO Sy Sternberg himself argued strongly in favor of the bill, which was ultimately defeated. The NYLIC board of directors subsequently reaffirmed its commitment to remaining a mutual, by August 2007, the credit market problems we had feared were front page news, the Report notes. In November 2008, the company announced it would not participate in the Troubled Asset Relief Program, theodore Ted Mathas, president and CEO in 2008, said at the time of the financial crisis that New York Life is built for times like these. This phrase became the title for the 2008 report to policyholders, Ted Mathas becomes the company chairman on June 1,2009. New York Life maintains superior financial ratings from A. M, best, Fitch, Moodys and Standard and Poors, all of which have reaffirmed the ratings during the financial crisis of autumn 2008. It was reported in September 2013 that Dexia had entered talks with New York Life Investment Management to sell Dexia Asset Management. In February 2014 Dexia Asset Management renamed itself Candriam Investors Group to help re-establish its identity after being offloaded by Dexia
37.
Attorney General of New York
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The Attorney General of New York is the chief legal officer of the State of New York and head of the New York state governments Department of Law. The office has been in existence in some form since 1626, the current Attorney General is Eric Schneiderman. He was elected on November 2,2010 and took office on January 1,2011, the Attorney General advises the executive branch of state government and defends actions and proceedings on behalf of the state. The Attorney General acts independently of the Governor of New York, the departments regulations are compiled in title 13 of the New York Codes, Rules and Regulations. The legal functions of the Department of Law are divided primarily into five divisions, Appeals and Opinions, State Counsel, Criminal Justice, Economic Justice. In 1693, the Attorney General earned a salary of 50 pounds, from 1777 to 1822, the Attorney General was appointed by the Council of Appointment. From 1823 to 1846, the Attorney General was elected by the New York State Legislature for a three-year term, attorneys General have been elected by the voters since 1847. Justia. com U. S
38.
Norval White
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Norval Crawford White was an American architect, architectural historian and professor. He designed buildings throughout the U. S. but he is best known for his writing, White was widely considered to be one of the great figures of New York architecture. White was born in 1926 to surgeon William Crawford White and social worker Caroline White and he grew up on the Upper East Side and went to the Allen-Stevenson School and Exeter. In 1958 he married Joyce L. Lee, and they had four sons, William, Thomas, Gordon and Alastair. Following two years on duty with the United States Naval Reserve during World War II, White received a B. S. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1949. He attended École des Beaux-Arts and earned a Master of Fine Arts from Princeton University in 1955, White resided in the neighborhood of Brooklyn Heights before moving to northwestern Connecticut in the early 1990s. He then retired and lived in the commune of Roques in the French department of le Gers with his second wife, in 1962, upon hearing of the imminent demolition of New York Citys historic Pennsylvania Station, White and several other architects, including Willensky, founded AGBANY. They picketed the station and handed out fliers in protest, in 1967, White and Willensky proposed a guide to New York City architecture to the American Institute of Architects. From 1968 to 1973, White worked as a partner-in-charge with Gruzen and Partners, White was able to finalize the 5th edition of the AIA Guide before his death, which was published in 2010. AIA Guide to New York City with Elliot Willensky
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