1.
Falls Church, Virginia
–
Falls Church is an independent city in the U. S. state of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 12,332, the estimated population in 2015 was 13,892. Falls Church is included in the Washington metropolitan area, Falls Church has the lowest level of poverty of any independent city or county in the United States. Taking its name from The Falls Church, an 18th-century Anglican parish, in 1948, it was incorporated as the City of Falls Church, an independent city with county-level governance status. It is also referred to as Falls Church City, for statistical purposes, the U. S. Department of Commerces Bureau of Economic Analysis combines the City of Falls Church with Fairfax City and Fairfax County. It was part of the Anacostan chiefdom, centered on the lower Anacostia River near present-day Washington, the Anacostans were organized under the Piscataway paramount chiefdom that was not part of the Powhatan alliance, which by the 1630s claimed to have had thirteen successive rulers. Either the Tauxenent or Doegs had shifted politically from Powhatans alliance to Iroquois alliances, the earliest known settlement within the current city limits of Falls Church was on the south side of present-day N. Washington Street at its intersection with Columbia Street. Just east of Falls Church, on Wilson Boulevard, is Powhatan Springs, todays Broad Street and Great Falls Street follow long-established trade and communication routes. In the late 17th century, especially after Bacons Rebellion in 1676, According to local tradition 1699 was inscribed on one of the chimneys of the Big Chimneys house and tavern. That 1699 inscription is often taken to be the first European settlement in the immediate vicinity, the house site is now Big Chimneys Park on West Annandale Road north of South Maple. By 1757, the building was referred to as The Falls Church, George Mason became a vestryman in 1748, as did his neighbor George Washington in 1763. Before designing the Fairfax County Courthouse James Wren designed a church in the city in 1769 to replace the wooden one. Also in 1769 the new Falls Church became the seat of the newly formed Fairfax Parish with the portion of the former parish nearer Masons and Washingtons residences becoming Pohick Church. However, following the Revolution, the Commonwealth of Virginia disestablished the Anglican Church as a government monopoly with tax support, many ministers left due to British loyalties. Remaining ministers formed the Episcopal Church, in 1789, The Falls Church was abandoned, and the Wren-designed building was re-occupied by an Episcopal congregation in 1836 which continues to this day. Nearly a decade later in 1843, Episcopalians founded Truro Church in Fairfax City, methodism came to the area in 1776 with religious services held at Church Hill, a home about a mile east of the Falls Church near Seven Corners. A chapel known as Adams Chapel or Fairfax Chapel had been built on later became Oakwood Cemetery by 1779. The Methodist chapel was replaced by a structure in 1819
2.
Atherton, California
–
Atherton is an incorporated town in San Mateo County, California, United States. Its population was 7,159 as of 2013, the entire area was called Menlo Park. It had been part of the Rancho de las Pulgas that had covered most of the area, there were several attempts to incorporate Fair Oaks, one in 1874 and another in 1911. In 1923, Menlo Park wished to incorporate its lands to include the Fair Oaks lands, both groups rushed to Sacramento but the Fair Oaks committee arrived first. It was at time they realized that they could not keep the name Fair Oaks. It was decided to honor Faxon Dean Atherton who had one of the first property owners in the south peninsula. Atherton was incorporated on September 12,1923 and that same year, in 1923, the Menlo Polo Club was founded in Atherton. Faxon D. Atherton, a native of Massachusetts, had spent several years in Chile and Hawaii as a trader in tallow, hides, Atherton purchased 640 acres for ten dollars an acre in 1860. His home, Valparaíso Park, was several years later. It was simple in design and ample for his family of seven children, because of the development of the railroad, other San Franciscans traveled south and established summer homes. Because the dirt roads were impassable in the winter, the families were only in residence from May through September. Thomas H. Selby purchased 420 acres, a successful businessman, he served as mayor of San Francisco. His country estate was called Almendral, john T. Doyle, an attorney, built a home off Middlefield Road, Ringwood. Flood purchased successive parcels and built an extravagant mansion, Linden Towers. This is now Lindenwood, the Joseph A Donohoe estate was Holmgrove and is now the site of Menlo Atherton High School. James Thomas Watkins home was Fair Oaks and after two moves, stands restored today on Alejandra Avenue, the government was established with Edward E. Eyre as the first mayor. In 1928, the residents voted to build a Town Hall, the early residents wanted a Town that would be divided into large parcels and would not contain businesses. The author Gertrude Atherton, daughter-in-law to Faxon D, a few of the large land holdings were subdivided during the 1920s and 1930s, James Flood estate in 1938. In the 1940s and 1950s over eighty subdivisions were recorded, with the minimum size of one acre, the era of the large estates was over
3.
Princeton University
–
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
4.
University of California, Berkeley
–
The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
5.
Alphabet Inc.
–
Alphabet Inc. is an American multinational conglomerate founded on October 2,2015, by the two founders of Google, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, with Page serving as CEO and Brin as President. It is the parent company of Google and several companies previously owned by them. The company is based in Mountain View, California, at Googleplex, the reorganization of Google into Alphabet was completed on October 2,2015. Alphabets portfolio encompasses several industries, including technology, life sciences, investment capital, some of its subsidiaries include Google, Calico, GV, CapitalG, Verily, Waymo, X, and Google Fiber. Some of the subsidiaries of Alphabet have altered their names since leaving Google—Google Ventures becoming GV, Google Life Sciences becoming Verily, following the restructuring Page became CEO of Alphabet while Sundar Pichai took his position as CEO of Google. Shares of Googles stock have been converted into Alphabet stock, which trade under Googles former ticker symbols of GOOG, on August 10,2015, Google Inc. announced plans to create a new public holding company, Alphabet Inc. Google CEO Larry Page made this announcement in a blog post on Googles official blog, Alphabet would be created to restructure Google by moving subsidiaries from Google to Alphabet, narrowing Googles scope. The company would consist of Google as well as other businesses including X, CapitalG, Sundar Pichai, Product Chief, became the new CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page. In his announcement, Page described the holding company as follows. The largest of which, of course, is Google and this newer Google is a bit slimmed down, with the companies that are pretty far afield of our main internet products contained in Alphabet instead. Fundamentally, we believe this allows us more management scale, as we can run things independently that aren’t very related and we also like that it means alpha‑bet, which we strive for. Page says the motivation behind the reorganization is to make Google cleaner and he also said he wanted to improve the transparency and oversight of what we’re doing, and to allow greater control of unrelated companies. On February 1,2016, Alphabet Inc. surpassed Apple to become the worlds most valuable publicly traded company until February 3,2016, experts cited Apples lack of innovation as well as increasing Chinese competition as reasons for the poor performance. Alphabet has chosen the domain abc. xyz with the. xyz top-level domain and it does not own the domain alphabet. com, which is owned by a fleet management division of BMW. BMW has said that it is necessary to examine the legal implications of the proposals. It also does not own abc. com, which is the domain of the Disney-owned American Broadcasting Company. The website features an Easter egg in the paragraph where Larry Page writes, Sergey, Alphabet will also include our X lab, which incubates new efforts like Wing, our drone delivery effort. We are also stoked about growing our investment arms, Ventures and Capital, the period after drone delivery effort is a hyperlink to hooli. xyz, a reference to the television series Silicon Valley
6.
Democratic Party (United States)
–
The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
7.
Businessman
–
An entrepreneur is an example of a businessperson. The term may mean someone who is involved in an upper-level management role in a corporation, company, enterprise, firm, organization. This can especially apply to the founder, an owner, a manager, since a businessman can mean anyone in industry or commerce, businessmen have existed as long as industry and commerce have existed. Commerce can simply mean trade, and trade has existed through all of recorded history, the first businessmen were traders, or merchants. Merchants emerged as a class in medieval Italy, between 1300 and 1500, modern accounting, the bill of exchange, and limited liability were invented, and thus the world saw the first true bankers, who are certainly businessmen. Around the same time, Europe saw the emergence of rich merchants and this rise of the merchant class came as Europe needed a middleman for the first time, and these burghers or bourgeois were the people who played this role. Europe became the dominant global power in the 16th century. In this period, Europe developed and used paper money, checks, developments in actuarial science led to insurance. Together, these new tools were used by a new kind of businessman and these people owned or financed businesses as bankers, but they were not merchants of goods. These capitalists were a force in the Industrial Revolution. The newest kind of businessperson is the manager, one of the first true managers was Robert Owen, an industrialist in Scotland. He studied the problems of productivity and motivation, and was followed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, after World War I, management became popular due to the example of Herbert Hoover and the Harvard Business School, which offered degrees in business administration. There are no prescribed educational qualifications, rules or guidelines which one may follow, a person owning a small gas station in a local market is as much as a businessperson as a person who owns and leads a large Silicon Valley technology giant. There are many paths to becoming a businessperson, hence, no rigid formal educational qualification requirements can be stated for becoming a businessperson. However, there are attributes that successful businessmen must possess, Tact financial and business savvy, courage, leadership, vision, creativity, imagination. Among these components include branding, advertising, and public relations, well-balanced consistency in their business approach. Interest in giving back to society through philanthropy or venture capitalism for future socioeconomic development, hence, a businessperson should have the ability to take prompt decisions. Determination, courage and perseverance, They must have strong power and determination
8.
Software engineer
–
Prior to the mid-1960s, software practitioners called themselves computer programmers or software developers, regardless of their actual jobs. Many people prefer to call themselves software developer and programmer, because most widely agree what these terms mean, in many companies, the titles programmer and software developer were changed to software engineer, for many categories of programmers. In May 2015, the United States U, S. S. in all other engineering disciplines combined. The label software engineer is used liberally in the corporate world. Very few of the software engineers actually hold Engineering degrees from accredited universities. About half of all practitioners today have degrees in science, information systems. A small, but growing, number of practitioners have software engineering degrees, in 1997, PSG College of Technology in Coimbatore, India was the first to start a five-year integrated Master of Science degree in Software Engineering. Since then, software engineering degrees have been established at many universities. A standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was defined by the CCSE. As of 2004, in the U. S. about 50 universities offer software engineering degrees, the first software engineering Masters degree was established at Seattle University in 1979. Since then graduate software engineering degrees have been available from many more universities. Likewise in Canada, the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board of the Canadian Council of Professional Engineers has recognized several software engineering programs, in 1998, the US Naval Postgraduate School established the first doctorate program in Software Engineering in the world. Steve McConnell opines that because most universities teach computer science rather than software engineering, ETS University and UQAM were mandated by IEEE to develop the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge, which has become an ISO standard describing the body of knowledge covered by a software engineer. In business, some software engineering practitioners have MIS or computer information systems degrees, in medical software, practitioners may have medical informatics, general medical, or biology degrees. Some practitioners have mathematics, science, engineering, or technology degrees, some have philosophy or other non-technical degrees. For instance, Barry Boehm earned degrees in mathematics. Most software engineers work as employees or contractors, Software engineers work with businesses, government agencies, and non-profit organizations. Some software engineers work on their own as consulting software engineers, some organizations have specialists to perform each of the tasks in the software development process. Other organizations required software engineers to do many or all of them, entry-level software engineer or associate software engineer may be best
9.
Chairman
–
The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs
10.
Google
–
Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
11.
Forbes
–
Forbes is an American business magazine. Published bi-weekly, it features articles on finance, industry, investing. Forbes also reports on related subjects such as technology, communications, science, politics and its headquarters is located in Jersey City, New Jersey. Primary competitors in the business magazine category include Fortune and Bloomberg Businessweek. The magazine is known for its lists and rankings, including its lists of the richest Americans. Another well-known list by the magazine is The Worlds Billionaires list, the motto of Forbes magazine is The Capitalist Tool. Its chairman and editor-in-chief is Steve Forbes, and its CEO is Mike Perlis, Forbes, a financial columnist for the Hearst papers, and his partner Walter Drey, the general manager of the Magazine of Wall Street, founded Forbes magazine on September 15,1917. Forbes provided the money and the name and Drey provided the publishing expertise, the original name of the magazine was Forbes, Devoted to Doers and Doings. Drey became vice-president of the B. C. Forbes Publishing Company, while B. C. Forbes became editor-in-chief, B. C. Forbes was assisted in his later years by his two eldest sons, Bruce Charles Forbes and Malcolm Stevenson Forbes. Bruce Forbes took over on his fathers death, and his strengths lay in streamlining operations, during his tenure, 1954–1964, the magazines circulation nearly doubled. On Malcolms death, his eldest son Malcolm Stevenson Steve Forbes Jr. became President and Chief Executive of Forbes, between 1961 and 1999 the magazine was edited by James Michaels. In 1993, under Michaels, Forbes was a finalist for the National Magazine Award. com, a 2009 New York Times report said,40 percent of the enterprise was sold. For a reported $300 million, setting the value of the enterprise at $750 million, according to Mark M. Edmiston of AdMedia Partners, Its probably not worth half of that now. The companys headquarters moved to the Newport section of downtown Jersey City. In November 2013, Forbes Media, which publishes Forbes magazine, was put up for sale and this was encouraged by Elevation Partners, of whom were minority shareholders. Sales documents prepared by Deutsche Bank revealed that the publishers 2012 EBITDA was $15 million, Forbes reportedly sought a price of $400 million. In July 2014, Forbes sold a majority of itself to Integrated Whale Media Investments, Steve Forbes and his magazines writers offer investment advice on the weekly Fox TV show Forbes on Fox and on Forbes On Radio. Other company groups include Forbes Conference Group, Forbes Investment Advisory Group, from the 2009 Times report, Steve Forbes recently returned from opening up a Forbes magazine in India, bringing the number of foreign editions to 10
12.
Bell Labs
–
Nokia Bell Labs is an American research and scientific development company, owned by Finnish company Nokia. Its headquarters are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, in addition to laboratories around the rest of the United States. The historic laboratory originated in the late 19th century as the Volta Laboratory, Bell Labs was also at one time a division of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories, in 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C. in collaboration with Sumner Tainter, the laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound, Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf. This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c,1887, located at Bells fathers house at 1527 35th Street in Washington, D. C. where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889. In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th St. specifically to house the lab, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical, the first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940, ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies and this included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company, a few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence, the largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees prior to 2001. Since 2001, many of the locations have been scaled down or closed. The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007, the mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinens design and by the current glut of aging, eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories
13.
Unix
–
Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
14.
Operating system
–
An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
15.
Novell
–
/noʊˈvɛl/ was a software and services company headquartered in Provo, Utah. It had been instrumental in making Utah Valley a focus for technology, Novell technology contributed to the emergence of local area networks, which displaced the dominant mainframe computing model and changed computing worldwide. The company began in 1979 in Orem, Utah as Novell Data Systems Inc. a hardware manufacturer producing CP/M-based systems, former Eyring Research Institute employee Dennis Fairclough was the member of the original team that started Novell Data Systems. It was co-founded by George Canova, Darin Field, and Jack Davis, victor V. Vurpillat brought the deal to Pete Musser, chairman of the board of Safeguard Scientifics, Inc. who provided the seed funding. The company initially did not do well, the microcomputer produced by the company was comparatively weak against performance by competitors. In order to compete on systems sales Novell Data Systems planned a program to more than one microcomputer to operate together. The former ERI employees Drew Major, Dale Neibaur and Kyle Powell, the Safeguard board then ordered Musser to shut Novell down. Davis left Novell Data Systems in November 1981, followed by Canova in March 1982, rubinstein and Dolin, along with Jack Messman, interviewed and hired Raymond Noorda. The required funding was obtained through an offering to Safeguard shareholders, managed by the Cleveland brokerage house, Prescott, Ball and Turben. Major, Neibaur and Powell continued to support Novell through their SuperSet Software Group, in January 1983, the companys name was shortened to Novell, Inc. and Raymond Noorda became the head of the firm. Later that same year, the company introduced its most significant product, a network interface card was developed for the IBM PC industry standard architecture bus. The server was using the first network operating system called ShareNet, later, ShareNet was ported to run on the Intel platform and renamed NetWare. The first commercial release of NetWare was version 1.5, Novell based its network protocol on Xerox Network Systems, and created its own standards from IDP and SPP, which it named Internetwork Packet Exchange and Sequenced Packet Exchange. File and print services ran on the NetWare Core Protocol over IPX, as did Routing Information Protocol, NetWare uses Novell DOS as a boot loader. Novell DOS is similar to MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS, but no license for DOS is required. Novell had already acquired Kanwal Rekhis company Excelan, which manufactured smart Ethernet cards and commercialized the Internet protocol TCP/IP, Novell did extremely well throughout the 1980s. It aggressively expanded its share by selling its expensive Ethernet cards at cost. By 1990, Novell had an almost monopolistic position in NOS for any business requiring a network, with this market leadership, Novell began to acquire and build services on top of its NetWare operating platform
16.
Carnegie Mellon University
–
Carnegie Mellon University is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1900 by Andrew Carnegie as the Carnegie Technical Schools, in 1967, the Carnegie Institute of Technology merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research to form Carnegie Mellon University. The universitys 140-acre main campus is 3 miles from Downtown Pittsburgh, john Heinz III College of Information Systems and Public Policy, and the School of Computer Science. The university also has campuses in Qatar and Silicon Valley, with degree-granting programs in six continents, Carnegie Mellon consistently ranks in the top 25 in the national U. S. News & World Report rankings. It is home to the world’s first degree-granting Robotics and Drama programs, the university spent $242 million on research in 2015. Carnegie Mellon counts 13,650 students from 114 countries, over 100,000 living alumni, Carnegies vision was to open a vocational training school for the sons and daughters of working-class Pittsburghers. Carnegie was inspired for the design of his school by the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, in 1912 the institution changed its name to Carnegie Institute of Technology and began offering four-year degrees. The Mellon Institute of Industrial Research was founded in 1913 by banker and industrialist brothers Andrew, Mellon in honor of their father, Thomas Mellon, the patriarch of the Mellon family. The Institute began as an organization which performed work for government. In 1927, the Mellon Institute incorporated as an independent nonprofit, in 1938, the Mellon Institutes iconic building was completed and it moved to its new, and current, location on Fifth Avenue. In 1967, with support from Paul Mellon, Carnegie Tech merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research to become Carnegie Mellon University, Carnegie Mellons coordinate womens college, the Margaret Morrison Carnegie College closed in 1973 and merged its academic programs with the rest of the university. The industrial research mission of the Mellon Institute survived the merger as the Carnegie Mellon Research Institute and continued doing work on contract to industry, CMRI closed in 2001 and its programs were subsumed by other parts of the university or spun off into independent entities. Carnegie Mellons 140-acre main campus is three miles from downtown Pittsburgh, between Schenley Park and the Squirrel Hill, Shadyside, and Oakland neighborhoods, Carnegie Mellon is bordered to the west by the campus of the University of Pittsburgh. Carnegie Mellon owns 81 buildings in the Oakland and Squirrel Hill neighborhoods of Pittsburgh, for decades the center of student life on campus was Skibo Hall, the Universitys student union. Built in the 1950s, Skibo Halls design was typical of Mid-Century Modern architecture, the original Skibo was razed in the summer of 1994 and replaced by a new student union that is fully wi-fi enabled. Known as University Center, the building was dedicated in 1996, in 2014, Carnegie Mellon re-dedicated the University Center as the Cohon University Center in recognition of the eighth president of the university, Jared Cohon. A large grassy area known as the Cut forms the backbone of the campus, the Cut was formed by filling in a ravine with soil from a nearby hill that was leveled to build the College of Fine Arts building. The northwestern part of the campus was acquired from the United States Bureau of Mines in the 1980s, the sculpture was controversial for its placement, the general lack of input that the campus community had, and its aesthetic appeal
17.
Apple Inc.
–
Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
18.
Mayo Clinic
–
Mayo Clinic is a nonprofit medical practice and medical research group based in Rochester, Minnesota. It employs more than 4,500 physicians and scientists and 57,100 allied health staff, the practice specializes in treating difficult cases through tertiary care. It spends over $660 million a year on research, William Worrall Mayo settled his family in Rochester in 1864 and opened a medical practice that evolved under his sons into Mayo Clinic. It has been on the list of 100 Best Companies to Work For published by Fortune magazine for thirteen consecutive years and it continued to achieve this ranking through 2015. In addition to their hospital in Rochester, the Mayo Clinic has major campuses in Arizona. The Mayo Clinic Health System also operates affiliated facilities throughout Minnesota, Wisconsin, in 1863, William Worrall Mayo came to Rochester, Minnesota as part of his appointment as an examining surgeon for the military draft board during the American Civil War. The city was to his liking, and his wife and children joined him in early 1864, William Worrall Mayo opened his medical practice after the war, and served in several leadership roles in the community. Mayos sons, William James Mayo and Charles Horace Mayo grew up in Rochester, William graduated in 1883 and joined his fathers practice, with Charles joining after he completed his training in 1888. On August 21,1883, a tornado struck Rochester, causing at least 37 deaths in the area, one-third of the town was destroyed, but the Mayo family escaped serious harm. Mother Alfred Moes and the Sisters of Saint Francis were called in to act as nurses despite having been trained as teachers, on September 30,1889, Saint Marys Hospital was opened by the Sisters. Mayo,70 years old, was one of the physicians at the hospital. His two sons began seeing patients and performing surgeries at the hospital when they returned from school in the 1880s. In 1892, W. W. Mayo asked Augustus Stinchfield, after Stinchfield agreed, W. W. Mayo retired at the age of 73 and the practice continued to grow. The founders of Mayo Clinic are the Mayo brothers Will and Charlie, Stinchfield, Graham, Henry Plummer, Millet, Judd and these early founders and partners shared in the profits of the private group practice, while other staff hired by the partners were salaried. W. W. Mayo died in 1911 and in 1919 the remaining founders, with the exception of Graham, created the Mayo Properties Association, the founders gave the Clinic properties and furnishings to this newly formed association. The integrated practice model developed primarily by Plummer, created a foundation for what would grow into the Mayo Clinic, as the private practice grew, it required additional space. In 1914, the planned, designed and built a new clinic building. This was groundbreaking work, and the first building designed to facilitate the integrated group medical practice. The air exchange rate for the building was three minutes, one intriguing innovation was the Rookwood fountain in the main lobby that was designed to clean and humidify air from the outside
19.
Blacksburg, Virginia
–
Blacksburg is an incorporated town in Montgomery County, Virginia, United States, with a population of 42,620 at the 2010 census. Blacksburg is dominated economically and demographically by the presence of Virginia Tech, the MSA has an estimated population of 159,587 and is currently one of the faster-growing MSAs in Virginia. The town and Virginia Tech campus have a tradition of safety and living satisfaction. In 2011, BusinessWeek named Blacksburg the Best Place in the U. S. to Raise Kids, also in 2011, readers of Southern Living named Blacksburg the Best College Town in the South. Its public transportation system, Blacksburg Transit, which connects to the neighboring town of Christiansburg, has repeatedly received recognition for the quality of its service. Abraham Wood, who commanded Fort Henry on the frontier, and operated an Indian trading post nearby, a passage over the ridge was finally found in 1671 when explorers Batts and Fallam, sent by Wood, reached the present-day location of Blacksburg, Virginia. Their expedition followed Stroubles Creek, through the current locations of the town and they reported the area inhabited by the Monacan and Moneton, Siouan groups, but the Virginia legislature had authorized Wood to claim it. Accordingly, on September 17,1671, the Batts and Fallam party claimed all of the comprising the rivers drainage basin for King Charles II. However, the region was not yet open to English patent, as early as 1718, the Iroquois had agreed to sell the parts they had conquered east of the Blue Ridge to the Virginia Colony. However, following another cession at the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, the site of Blacksburg lay just within this disputed zone. By the 1740s, the Woods River Land Company, represented by Col. James Patton, the Draper and Ingles families were among those who built their homes between present location of the campus and the subdivision of Hethwood. This came to known as Drapers Meadow by 1748. About four settlers were killed in the attacks, and five were taken captive to Kentucky by the Shawnee, among them Mary Draper Ingles, the memorial to Drapers Meadow massacre was dedicated on a bridge located near Duck Pond. By the end of the war, Drapers Meadow was deserted and it remained so until 1768, when native claims to the land including Blacksburg were cleared by the Treaty of Hard Labour with the Cherokee, and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix with the Six Nations. The Shawnee finally abandoned their claim to territory in 1774 following Dunmores War. Samuel Black, whose family settled in Staunton, Virginia, bought 600 acres of land in the Draper’s Meadow area for his sons John and William in 1772. Smithfield Plantation, built in approximately 1774 by Col. William Preston, sits on the original Drapers Meadow site, when Samuel Black died in 1792, the land was evenly divided into two sections by his sons. The road now known as Draper Road is the line between the sections
20.
International economics
–
It seeks to explain the patterns and consequences of transactions and interactions between the inhabitants of different countries, including trade, investment and migration. International finance studies the flow of capital across international markets. International monetary economics and international macroeconomics study flows of money across countries, the economic theory of international trade differs from the remainder of economic theory mainly because of the comparatively limited international mobility of the capital and labour. In that respect, it would appear to differ in degree rather than in principle from the trade between regions in one country. Thus the methodology of international trade economics differs little from that of the remainder of economics, modern trade analysis, on the other hand, depends mainly upon empirical analysis. However, extremely restrictive assumptions have had to be adopted in order to make the problem amenable to theoretical analysis, on those assumptions, it derives a model of the trade patterns that would arise solely from international differences in the relative abundance of labour and capital. The resulting theorem states that, on those assumptions, a country with an abundance of capital would export capital-intensive products. The Stolper-Samuelson theorem, which is described as a corollary of the H-O theorem, was an early example. In its most general form it states that if the price of a good rises then the price of the factor used intensively in that industry will also rise while the price of the factor will fall. In the international context for which it was devised it means that trade lowers the real wage of the scarce factor of production. Those theories have sometimes taken to mean that trade between an industrialised country and a developing country would lower the wages of the unskilled in the industrialised country. Modern trade analysis moves away from the assumptions of the H-O theorem and explores the effects upon trade of a range of factors, including technology. It makes extensive use of econometrics to identify from the available statistics, the contributions of differences of technology have been evaluated in several such studies. The temporary advantage arising from a development of a new technology is seen as contributory factor in one study. Another econometric study also established a correlation between size and the share of exports made up of goods in the production of which there are scale economies. There is a presumption that any exchange that is freely undertaken will benefit both parties, but that does not exclude the possibility that it may be harmful to others. However Paul Samuelson has proved that it always be possible for the gainers from international trade to compensate the losers. They suggested that much of the gain arises from the growth of the most productive firms at the expense of the less productive
21.
Virginia Tech
–
Through its Corps of Cadets ROTC program, Virginia Tech is also designated as one of six senior military colleges in the country. Under the 1891–1907 presidency of John M. McBryde, the school organized its academic programs into a traditional four-year college, the evolution of the schools programs led to a name change in 1896 to Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Polytechnic Institute. The Agricultural and Mechanical College portion of the name was popularly omitted almost immediately, in 1944, in 1923, VPI changed a policy of compulsory participation in the Corps of Cadets from four years to two years. In 1931, VPI began teaching classes at the Norfolk Division of the College of William and this program eventually developed into a two-year engineering program that allowed students to transfer to VPI for their final two years of degree work. In 1943, VPI merged with nearby Radford State Teachers College, which became VPIs womens division, today, Radford University enrolls more than 9,900 students and offers more than 150 undergraduate and graduate programs. During Hahns tenure, not only did the university graduate its first Rhodes Scholar, lewis, Class of 1963, the requirement for male students to participate in the Corps of Cadets for two years was dropped. Beginning in the fall 1973, women could participate in the corps, in 1970, the state legislature allowed VPI university status and gave it the present legal name, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. However, diplomas and transcripts still spell out the formal name, similarly, the abbreviation VT is far more common today than either VPI or VPI&SU. The early decades of this century have seen expansion across the universitys institutions in both physical and population sizes, former President Charles Steger brought Virginia Tech an allopathic medical school in 2007. The Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine and Research Institute was created with a partnership with the Carilion Clinic. These years also brought about the development of the universitys professional schools of graduate education. Virginia Tech brought in over a half-billion in research expenditures in 2014, on April 16,2007, Virginia Tech student Seung-Hui Cho fatally shot 32 faculty members and students, wounding 17 others before killing himself on campus. The massacre is the deadliest mass shooting on a college campus, although it was at the time the deadliest mass shooting committed by a lone gunman in U. S. history, it has since been surpassed by the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting. These colleges/schools include, Virginia Tech received a number of nearly 22,500 applications for the fall 2015 freshman class. The typical student offered admission had a grade point average of 4.00. The average cumulative SAT score was 1250, with a middle range ranging from 1160 to 1340, of the 5,518 students who accepted the offers of admission,18 percent accepted under the Early Decision Plan. The Office of Undergraduate Admissions is located within the Visitor and Undergraduate Admissions Center, once admitted, Honors students are required to maintain a 3.5 GPA in order to remain in the program. For the 2013–14 academic year, the Graduate School at Virginia Tech enrolled 6,723 graduate students in its masters, the Pamplin College of Business, received 381 applications for its incoming Evening MBA program, and offered admission to 142
22.
Johns Hopkins University
–
The Johns Hopkins University is an American private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, the university was named for its first benefactor, the American entrepreneur, abolitionist and his $7 million bequest—of which half financed the establishment of The Johns Hopkins Hospital—was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States at that time. Daniel Coit Gilman, who was inaugurated as the institutions first president on February 22,1876, led the university to revolutionize higher education in the U. S. by integrating teaching and research. Adopting the concept of a school from Germanys ancient Heidelberg University. Johns Hopkins is organized into 10 divisions on campuses in Maryland and Washington, D. C. with international centers in Italy, China, and Singapore. The two undergraduate divisions, the Krieger School of Arts and Sciences and the Whiting School of Engineering, are located on the Homewood campus in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood. The medical school, the school, and the Bloomberg School of Public Health are located on the Medical Institutions campus in East Baltimore. Johns Hopkins was a member of the American Association of Universities. Over the course of almost 140 years, thirty-six Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins, founded in 1883, the Blue Jays men’s lacrosse team has captured 44 national titles and joined the Big Ten Conference as an affiliate member in 2014. On his death in 1873, Johns Hopkins, a Quaker entrepreneur and childless bachelor, bequeathed $7 million to fund a hospital and university in Baltimore, Maryland. At that time this fortune, generated primarily from the Baltimore, the first name of philanthropist Johns Hopkins is the surname of his great-grandmother, Margaret Johns, who married Gerard Hopkins. They named their son Johns Hopkins, who named his own son Samuel Hopkins, Samuel named one of his sons for his father and that son would become the universitys benefactor. Milton Eisenhower, a university president, once spoke at a convention in Pittsburgh where the Master of Ceremonies introduced him as President of John Hopkins. Eisenhower retorted that he was glad to be here in Pittburgh, the original board opted for an entirely novel university model dedicated to the discovery of knowledge at an advanced level, extending that of contemporary Germany. Building on the German education model of Wilhelm von Humboldt, it dedicated to research. Johns Hopkins thereby became the model of the research university in the United States. Its success eventually shifted higher education in the United States from a focus on teaching revealed and/or applied knowledge to the discovery of new knowledge. The trustees worked alongside four notable university presidents – Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, Noah Porter of Yale College and they each vouched for Daniel Coit Gilman to lead the new University and he became the universitys first president
23.
United States Department of the Treasury
–
The Department of the Treasury is an executive department and the treasury of the United States federal government. It was established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue, the Department is administered by the Secretary of the Treasury, who is a member of the Cabinet. On February 13,2017, the Senate confirmed Steven Mnuchin as Secretary of the Treasury, the first Secretary of the Treasury was Alexander Hamilton, who was sworn into office on September 11,1789. Hamilton was asked by President George Washington to serve after first having asked Robert Morris, Hamilton almost single-handedly worked out the nations early financial system, and for several years was a major presence in Washingtons administration as well. His portrait is on the obverse of the U. S. ten-dollar bill while the Treasury Department building is shown on the reverse. Besides the Secretary, one of the best-known Treasury officials is the Treasurer of the United States whose signature, along with the Treasury Secretarys, the Treasury prints and mints all paper currency and coins in circulation through the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and the United States Mint. The Department also collects all federal taxes through the Internal Revenue Service, the Congress had no power to levy and collect taxes, nor was there a tangible basis for securing funds from foreign investors or governments. The delegates resolved to issue paper money in the form of bills of credit, the Congress stipulated that each of the colonies contribute to the Continental governments funds. With the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4,1776, despite the infusion of foreign and domestic loans to pay for a war of independence, the United Colonies were unable to establish a well-organized agency for financial administration. Michael Hillegas was first called Treasurer of the United States on May 14,1777, the Treasury Office was reorganized three times between 1778 and 1781. The $241.5 million of paper Continental Dollars devalued rapidly, by May 1781, the dollar collapsed at a rate of from 500 to 1000 to 1 against hard currency. Protests against the worthless money swept the colonies and angry Americans coined the expression not worth a Continental, Robert Morris was designated Superintendent of Finance in 1781 and restored stability to the nations finances. Morris, a colonial merchant, was nicknamed the Financier because of his reputation for procuring funds or goods on a moments notice. His staff included a Comptroller, a Treasurer, a Register, and auditors, who managed the finances through 1784. The Treasury Board of three Commissioners continued to oversee the finances of the confederation of former colonies until September 1789, the First Congress of the United States was called to convene in New York on March 4,1789, marking the beginning of government under the Constitution. Alexander Hamilton took the oath of office as the first Secretary of the Treasury on September 11,1789, Hamilton had served as George Washingtons aide-de-camp during the Revolution, and was of great importance in the ratification of the Constitution. Because of his financial and managerial acumen, Hamilton was a choice for solving the problem of the new nations heavy war debt. Hamiltons first official act was to submit a report to Congress in which he laid the foundation for the financial health
24.
Presidency of Richard Nixon
–
He was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford, who had become vice president nine months earlier, following Spiro Agnews resignation from office. A Republican, Nixon took office after the 1968 presidential election, in which he defeated Hubert Humphrey, four years later, in 1972, Nixon won reelection in a landslide victory over George McGovern. Overall, he won 60. 7% of the popular vote, Nixon, the 37th United States president, succeeded Lyndon B. Johnson, who had launched the Great Society, a set of domestic programs financed, in contrast, Nixon advocated a New Federalism domestic program model, one in which certain powers would devolve back to the states. Nixons primary focus while in office was on foreign affairs, Nixon pursued a detente with the Peoples Republic of China, taking advantage of the Sino-Soviet split and significantly altering the nature of the Cold War. Nixons many accomplishments as president were however, largely overshadowed by the scandals that enveloped his administration, regarding his lasting legacy, historian Stephen Ambrose wrote, Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term, Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20,1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, Chief Justice Earl Warren. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2,4, which reads, They shall beat their swords into plowshares, in his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker. Nixon made fifteen international trips during his presidency and his first was an eight-day European visit starting in Brussels on February 23,1969. He met with Britain’s Prime Minister Harold Wilson in London and Frances President Charles de Gaulle in Paris and he also stopped in Bonn, Berlin and Rome and met with Pope Paul VI in Vatican City. He also made groundbreaking trips to several Eastern European Communist nations, including, Romania, Yugoslavia, even those who hated Nixons presidency occasionally praise his work in China. The extent to which his visit had any consequences of note, however. Assisting him in this venture was his National Security Advisor and future Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, with whom the President worked closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China, Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials. On July 15,1971, it was announced by Beijing. The secrecy allowed both sets of time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact. In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China, Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation. Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One, Nixon made a point of shaking Zhous hand, something which then-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva
25.
Yorktown High School (Virginia)
–
Yorktown High School is one of three public high schools located in Arlington, Virginia. There were 123 teachers and 1947 students as of 2012 and it is an accredited high school based on Virginias SOL examinations, and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. The school is ranked among the top 100 schools in the according to Newsweek. The school opened for the first time for the 1960–61 school year, with only Sophomore, the first graduating class was in 1962. The building was originally a school, which was converted into a high school to relieve crowding at Washington-Lee High School. The school was threatened with closure in 1982 due to declining enrollment, but because of community support. To boost the population, the attendance boundary between W-L and Yorktown in the northeastern portion of the county was redrawn in 1983. Portions of the Donaldson Run, Cherrydale, Woodmont, Dover Crystal, in the 90s its boundaries expanded once again to serve the communities of Rosslyn, Courthouse, Clarendon, Westover, Halls Hill/Highview Park, and portions of Dominion Hills. An entirely new Yorktown facility opened for the 2013-14 school year, the replacement campus was designed by Ehrenkrantz Eckstut & Kuhn Architects. The school building opened in January 1950, as a new elementary school. It was named Yorktown from its opening, at that time it was a one-story building and only housed the elementary students. Greenbrier Elementary School was a different building which has since been renamed Campbell Elementary School and is located near Carlin Springs Road, additions have been added, enlarging the school, but leaving many of the older sections still incorporated within the walls, often still being used as classrooms. Yorktown is placed on a parcel of land. The School Board does not own the adjacent athletic grounds, Greenbrier Park, construction and renovation has been completed on Greenbrier Park. Individual softball and baseball fields have been installed along with a new field to be used for football, field hockey, soccer. First a square, three-floor building was built and connected by a hallway to the old building. The newest wing of the new building, the pool, and the gymnasium were opened over Winter Break of the next year. As of the 2013-2014 school year, the last wing was completed along with the courtyard, Arlington proposed a Bond Package, approved by voters in 2000
26.
Arlington County, Virginia
–
Arlington County is a county in the Commonwealth of Virginia. It is coterminous with the U. S. Census Bureau-census-designated place of Arlington, as a result, the county is often referred to in the region simply as Arlington or Arlington, Virginia. In 2015, the population was estimated at 229,164. The land that became Arlington was originally donated by Virginia to the United States government to form part of the new federal district of Columbia. In 1846, Congress returned the land southwest of the Potomac River donated by Virginia due to issues involving Congressional representation, the General Assembly of Virginia changed the countys name to Arlington in 1920 to avoid confusion with the adjacent City of Alexandria. The county is situated in Northern Virginia on the bank of the Potomac River directly across from Washington. Arlington is also bordered by Fairfax County and City of Falls Church to the northwest, west and southwest, as of the 2010 census, the population was 207,627. Due to the proximity to downtown Washington, D. C. It is also home to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, the many federal agencies, government contractors, and service industries contribute to Arlingtons stable economy. It is the county in the United States by median family income. According to a 2016 study by Bankrate. com, Arlington is the best place to retire, the area that now constitutes Arlington County was originally part of Fairfax County in the Colony of Virginia. Land grants from the British monarch were awarded to prominent Englishmen in exchange for political favors, one of the grantees was Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who lends his name to both Fairfax County and the City of Fairfax. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of First Lady Martha Washington, the estate was eventually passed down to Mary Anna Custis Lee, wife of General Robert E. Lee. The property later became Arlington National Cemetery during the American Civil War, the area that now contains Arlington County was ceded to the new United States federal government by the Commonwealth of Virginia. With the passage of the Residence Act in 1790, Congress approved a new permanent capital to be located on the Potomac River, the Residence Act originally only allowed the President to select a location within Maryland as far east as what is now the Anacostia River. However, President Washington shifted the federal territorys borders to the southeast in order to include the city of Alexandria at the Districts southern tip. In 1791, Congress amended the Residence Act to approve the new site, however, this amendment to the Residence Act specifically prohibited the erection of the public buildings otherwise than on the Maryland side of the River Potomac. As permitted by the U. S. Constitution, the shape of the federal district was a square, measuring 10 miles on each side
27.
Varsity letter
–
A varsity letter is an award earned in the United States for excellence in school activities. A varsity letter signifies that its winner was a varsity team member. The award letter is made in the colors and initials representing the school that the recipient attends. The letter patch is primarily constructed of chenille and felt materials, standard sizes range from 4 inches to 8 inches. While 4 inches and 5 inches usually denote Junior Varsity achievements,6 inches to 8 inches would denote full Varsity, the stitching style used for creating the chenille look is called a moss stitch, while the outlining sew down is called a chain stitch. With the advent of organized sports, there was a need for uniforms, there was an additional need for identifications which was satisfied by the use of emblems or letters. In 1865, the Harvard baseball team added an Old English H, the H was embroidered on the gray flannel shirt. The football team started to use the H in 1875, if a player did not play in an important game, the player had to return the jersey at the end of the season. Awarding the H jersey may have been the birth of the varsity letter as an award, the letterman sweater was first regularly used by the 1891 Nine and was black with a small Crimson H on the left breast. It is not known when the letter came to high schools. The earliest known example of a sweater in a high school is found in the 1911 yearbook of Phoenix Union High School. A student in a photo is pictured, not in football uniform. The sweater seems to be the home of the letter from the 1890s until the 1930s. Another award during the 1920s and 1930s was a stadium style blanket given as an award, in the 1930s, the letter award started to appear on leather sleeved, wool-bodied jackets. The jackets from the 1930s were different in design than todays modern jacket, as a decorative clothing item, the varsity letter has a huge number of variations and no set standard is made to any school on how it should look. Chenille letters come in different forms and shapes. Some institutions use Old English or script style, two or three letter monogram, 3D shading, chenille bordered or the traditional straight block style, students generally receive only one actual letter, but can win the distinction multiple times. These additional designations are shown by adding embroidered sport insignias, modeled metal insert pins, some schools may embroider non-athletic letters with their award title, such as Academics or Arts”
28.
Electrical engineering
–
Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886
29.
International House Berkeley
–
The International House, Berkeley is a multi-cultural residence and program center serving students at the University of California, Berkeley. International House, also known as I-House, is a dormitory for advanced undergraduates, graduate and professional students, the House was created as a gift from John D. Rockefeller, Jr. specifically to foster relationships between students from different countries. It is notable for having housed many artists, scientists. The House is the subject of a documentary called The Visionaries, public Broadcasting stations across America have been airing this documentary by Visionaries Inc. The International House has several Bay view rooms and lounges that overlook the San Francisco Bay, nearly 600 international and American students from 70 nations live in the house during the academic year. International House Berkeley was part of a larger International House movement, Edmonds decided to investigate the situation of foreign students in New York City. With the funding and support of John D. Rockefeller, Jr. the first International House opened in New York in 1924, Edmonds and Rockefeller decided to extend the idea. Berkeley, California was selected because the Bay Area was the American point of entry from Asia, when the idea of International House was first proposed to the Berkeley community in the 1920s, there was considerable resistance. There was resistance to men and women living together, foreigners living in the area, by proposing this site, Edmonds sought to strike bigotry and exclusiveness right hard in the nose. Designed by noted Bay Area architect George Kelham, International House Berkeley officially opened on August 18,1930 and it was the largest student housing complex in the Bay Area and the first coeducational residence west of the Mississippi. The International House, Berkeley was home to six Nobel laureates and one additional member, Melvin Calvin Owen Chamberlain Andrew Z
30.
Computer network
–
A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks, networked computing devices exchange data with other using a data link. The connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media, the best-known computer network is the Internet. Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes, nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one device is able to exchange information with the other device, Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the networks size, topology and organizational intent. In most cases, application-specific communications protocols are layered over other more general communications protocols and this formidable collection of information technology requires skilled network management to keep it all running reliably. The chronology of significant computer-network developments includes, In the late 1950s, in 1960, the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business research environment went online with two connected mainframes. Licklider developed a group he called the Intergalactic Computer Network. In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth College developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of computer systems. The same year, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer to route. Throughout the 1960s, Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran, and Donald Davies independently developed network systems that used packets to transfer information between computers over a network, in 1965, Thomas Marill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network. This was an precursor to the ARPANET, of which Roberts became program manager. Also in 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used telephone switch that implemented true computer control, in 1972, commercial services using X.25 were deployed, and later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper Ethernet, Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks, in 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard. In 1976, John Murphy of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a network first used to share storage devices. In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s, by 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of a Gigabit. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 100 Gbit/s were added, the ability of Ethernet to scale easily is a contributing factor to its continued use. Providing access to information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks, a network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network
31.
Computer engineering
–
Computer engineering is a discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in engineering, software design. This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, Computer engineers are also suited for robotics research, which relies heavily on using digital systems to control and monitor electrical systems like motors, communications, and sensors. Other institutions may require engineering students to one or two years of General Engineering before declaring computer engineering as their primary focus. The first computer engineering program in the United States was established at Case Western Reserve University in 1972. As of 2015, there were 238 ABET-accredited computer engineering programs in the US, in Europe, accreditation of computer engineering schools is done by a variety of agencies part of the EQANIE network. Both computer engineering and electronic engineering programs include analog and digital circuit design in their curriculum, as with most engineering disciplines, having a sound knowledge of mathematics and science is necessary for computer engineers. There are two major specialties in computer engineering, software and hardware, Computer software engineers develop, design, and test software. They construct, and maintain computer programs, as well as set up such as intranets for companies. Software engineers can design or code new applications to meet the needs of a business or individual. Some software engineers work independently as freelancers and sell their software products/applications to an enterprise or individual, most computer hardware engineers research, develop, design, and test various computer equipment. This can range from circuit boards and microprocessors to routers, some update existing computer equipment to be more efficient and work with newer software. Most computer hardware engineers work in laboratories and high-tech manufacturing firms. Some also work for the federal government, according to BLS, 95% of computer hardware engineers work in metropolitan areas. Approximately 33% of their work more than 40 hours a week. The median salary for employed qualified computer hardware engineers was $100,920 per year or $48.52 per hour, Computer hardware engineers held 83,300 jobs in 2012 in the USA. There are many specialty areas in the field of computer engineering, examples include work on wireless communications, multi-antenna systems, optical transmission, and digital watermarking. Those focusing on communications and wireless networks, work advancements in telecommunications systems and networks, modulation and error-control coding, high-speed network design, interference suppression and modulation, design and analysis of fault-tolerant system, and storage and transmission schemes are all a part of this specialty
32.
Information technology
–
Information technology is the application of computers to store, study, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, or information, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. IT is considered a subset of information and communications technology, the term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several industries are associated with technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that the new technology not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology, based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development, pre-mechanical, mechanical, electromechanical, electronic. This article focuses on the most recent period, which began in about 1940, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick. Electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s, the electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the worlds first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. Colossus, developed during the Second World War to decrypt German messages was the first electronic digital computer, although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory, programming was carried out using plugs, the first recognisably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948. The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, by comparison the first transistorised computer, developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version. Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes. IBM introduced the first hard drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system. Most digital data today is stored magnetically on hard disks. Until 2002 most information was stored on analog devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. As of 2007 almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally, 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007. Database management systems emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly, one of the earliest such systems was IBMs Information Management System, which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later
33.
Zilog
–
Zilog, Inc. previously known as ZiLOG, is an American manufacturer of 8-bit and 16-bit microcontrollers. Its most famous product is the Z80 series, 8-bit microprocessors that were compatible with the Intel 8080, the Z80 was widely used during the 1980s in many popular home computers such as the TRS-80 and the ZX81. Both 16- and 32-bit processors were produced by the company. From the 1990s the company focused primarily on the microcontroller market, the name is an acronym of Z integrated logic, also thought of as Z for the last word of Integrated Logic. Zilog was started in California in 1974 by Federico Faggin and Ralph Ungermann, masatoshi Shima, who also worked with Faggin on the 4004 and 8080, joined Zilog in 1975. Ungermann had an out with Faggin and left Zilog in 1978. The company became a subsidiary of Exxon in 1980, but the management and employees bought it back in 1989, Zilog went public in 1991, but was acquired in 1998 by Texas Pacific Group. Curtis Crawford replaced Dr. Sack and changed the direction towards 32-bit Data Communications Processors. Jim Thorburn led Zilog back into profitability, and by FY2007, during this time, the company developed the Z8 Encore. 8-bit Flash MCU and ZNEO 16-bit Flash MCU product families, in February 2007, Zilog hired Darin Billerbeck to replace Jim Thorburn as President and CEO. The last year Zilog introduced any new 8-bit microcontroller products was 2007, with no new product roadmap, FY2008 sales fell 20% to $67.2 million. Sales fell 46% in FY2009 to $36.2 million, in January 2008, Zilog declined an unsolicited proposal made by Universal Electronics Inc. to acquire the company. Zilog sold these assets for $31 million cash, in December 2009, IXYS Corporation bought the company for $62. 4m in cash, which was significantly below the market valuation of Zilogs stock at the time. Details of the acquisition have been under investigation, many Texas Instruments graphing calculators used the Z80 as the main processor, and the chip found continued use in some game consoles such as the Sega Mega Drive as a dedicated sound controller. The CP/M operating system was known to be the Z80 disk operating system, as well as producing processors, Zilog has produced several other components. One of the most famous was the Zilog SCC serial communications controller as found on early Apple Macintosh, Sun SPARCstations, Zilog also formed a Systems Division, which designed the Zilog System 8000, a Z8000- or Z80000-based multiuser computer system running a Unix derivative called ZEUS. Zilog attempted to enter the 32-bit microcontroller market in February 2006 with the demonstration of ARM9-based Point-Of-Sale microcontroller product line, the final product was released in 2007 called Zatara. Sales were disappointing and the entire ARM9 series was sold to Maxim Integrated Products in 2009, Zilog also produced Zdots single board computers
34.
Xerox
–
Xerox Corporation /ˈzɪərɒks/ is an American global corporation that sells document solutions and services, and document technology products in more than 160 countries. Xerox is headquartered in Norwalk, Connecticut, though its largest population of employees is based around Rochester, New York, the company purchased Affiliated Computer Services for $6.4 billion in early 2010. As a large developed company, it is placed in the list of Fortune 500 companies. Xerox completed the separation of Conduent Incorporated effective on Dec.31,2016, creating two market-leading, publicly- traded companies. In connection with the spin-off, Xerox received a transfer from Conduent of $1.8 billion. Xerox continues to trade on the NYSE under the ticker symbol “XRX”, researchers at Xerox and its Palo Alto Research Center invented several important elements of personal computing, such as the desktop metaphor GUI, the computer mouse and desktop computing. These concepts were frowned upon by the board of directors. The concepts were adopted by Apple and, later, Microsoft, with the help of these innovations, Apple and Microsoft came to dominate the personal computing revolution of the 1980s, whereas Xerox was not a major player. Xerox was founded in 1906 in Rochester as The Haloid Photographic Company, in 1938 Chester Carlson, a physicist working independently, invented a process for printing images using an electrically charged photoconductor-coated metal plate and dry powder toner. However, it would more than 20 years of refinement before the first automated machine to make copies was commercialized, using a document feeder, scanning light. Wilson, credited as the founder of Xerox, took over Haloid from his father and he saw the promise of Carlsons invention and, in 1946, signed an agreement to develop it as a commercial product. Wilson remained as President/CEO of Xerox until 1967 and served as Chairman until his death in 1971, looking for a term to differentiate its new system, Haloid coined the term Xerography from two Greek roots meaning dry writing. Haloid subsequently changed its name to Haloid Xerox in 1958 and then Xerox Corporation in 1961, before releasing the 914, Xerox tested the market by introducing a developed version of the prototype hand-operated equipment known as the Flat-plate 1385. The 1385 was not actually a viable copier because of its speed of operation and it was little more than a high quality, commercially available plate camera mounted as a horizontal rostrum camera, complete with photo-flood lighting and timer. The glass film/plate had been replaced with an aluminum plate. Clever electrics turned this into a developing and reusable substitute for film. A skilled user could produce fast, paper and metal printing plates of a higher quality than almost any other method, having started as a supplier to the offset lithography duplicating industry, Xerox now set its sights on capturing some of offsets market share. The 1385 was followed by the first automatic xerographic printer, the Copyflo, the Copyflo was a large microfilm printer which could produce positive prints on roll paper from any type of microfilm negative
35.
PARC (company)
–
PARC, formerly Xerox PARC, is a research and development company in Palo Alto, California, with a distinguished reputation for its contributions to information technology and hardware systems. Xerox formed Palo Alto Research Center Incorporated as an owned subsidiary in 2002. Pake selected Palo Alto, California, as the site of what was to become known as PARC. S, the integration of Ethernet prompted the development of the PARC Universal Packet architecture, much like todays Internet. Xerox has been criticized for failing to properly commercialize and profitably exploit PARCs innovations. A favorite example is the user interface, initially developed at PARC for the Alto. Although very significant in terms of its influence on future system design, a small group from PARC led by David Liddle and Charles Irby formed Metaphor Computer Systems. They extended the Star desktop concept into a graphic and communicating office-automation model. Among PARCs distinguished researchers were three Turing Award winners, Butler W. Lampson, Alan Kay, and Charles P. Thacker. The Association for Computing Machinery Software System Award recognized the Alto system in 1984, Smalltalk in 1987, InterLisp in 1992, and the remote procedure call in 1994. Lampson, Kay, Bob Taylor, and Charles P. Thacker received the National Academy of Engineerings prestigious Charles Stark Draper Prize in 2004 for their work on the Alto, PARCs developments in information technology served for a long time as standards for much of the computing industry. Many advances were not equalled or surpassed for two decades, enormous timespans in the fast-paced high-tech world, a number of GUI engineers left to join Apple Computer. Work at PARC since the early 1980s includes advances in computing, aspect-oriented programming. Xerox Daybreak GlobalView Michael A. Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning, Xerox PARC, alexander, Fumbling the Future, How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored, the First Personal Computer ISBN 1-58348-266-0 M. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine, J. C. R. Strassmann Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Oral history interview with William Crowther Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
36.
Compiler
–
A compiler is a computer program that transforms source code written in a programming language into another computer language, with the latter often having a binary form known as object code. The most common reason for converting source code is to create an executable program, the name compiler is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language. If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which the compiler runs, more generally, compilers are a specific type of translator. While all programs that take a set of programming specifications and translate them, a program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is called a source-to-source compiler or transpiler. A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language, the term compiler-compiler is sometimes used to refer to a parser generator, a tool often used to help create the lexer and parser. A compiler is likely to many or all of the following operations, lexical analysis, preprocessing, parsing, semantic analysis, code generation. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be difficult to track down and work around, therefore. Software for early computers was written in assembly language. The notion of a high level programming language dates back to 1943, no actual implementation occurred until the 1970s, however. The first actual compilers date from the 1950s, identifying the very first is hard, because there is subjectivity in deciding when programs become advanced enough to count as the full concept rather than a precursor. 1952 saw two important advances. Grace Hopper wrote the compiler for the A-0 programming language, though the A-0 functioned more as a loader or linker than the notion of a full compiler. Also in 1952, the first autocode compiler was developed by Alick Glennie for the Mark 1 computer at the University of Manchester and this is considered by some to be the first compiled programming language. The FORTRAN team led by John Backus at IBM is generally credited as having introduced the first unambiguously complete compiler, COBOL was an early language to be compiled on multiple architectures, in 1960. In many application domains the idea of using a higher level language quickly caught on, because of the expanding functionality supported by newer programming languages and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers have become more complex. Early compilers were written in assembly language, the first self-hosting compiler – capable of compiling its own source code in a high-level language – was created in 1962 for the Lisp programming language by Tim Hart and Mike Levin at MIT. Since the 1970s, it has become practice to implement a compiler in the language it compiles
37.
Regular expression
–
A regular expression, regex or regexp is, in theoretical computer science and formal language theory, a sequence of characters that define a search pattern. Usually this pattern is used by string searching algorithms for find or find. The concept arose in the 1950s when the American mathematician Stephen Cole Kleene formalized the description of a regular language, the concept came into common use with Unix text-processing utilities. Today, different syntaxes for writing regular expressions exist, one being the POSIX standard and another, widely used, being the Perl syntax. Regular expressions are used in engines, search and replace dialogs of word processors and text editors, in text processing utilities such as sed and AWK. Many programming languages provide regex capabilities, built-in, or via libraries, the phrase regular expressions is often used to mean the specific, standard textual syntax for representing patterns that matching text need to conform to. Each character in an expression is understood to be a metacharacter. For example, in the regex a, a is a literal character which matches just a and. is a meta character which matches every character except a newline. Therefore, this regex would match for example a or ax or a0, together, metacharacters and literal characters can be used to identify textual material of a given pattern, or process a number of instances of it. Pattern-matches can vary from a precise equality to a general similarity. Is a very general pattern, is general and a is a precise pattern. Wildcards could also achieve this, but are limited in what they can pattern. The usual context of wildcard characters is in globbing similar names in a list of files, for example, the regex ^+|+$ matches excess whitespace at the beginning or end of a line. An advanced regex used to match any numeral is ^. $, see the Examples section for more examples. A regex processor translates a regular expression in the above syntax into a representation which can be executed and matched against a string representing the text being searched in. The picture shows the NFA scheme N obtained from the regular expression s*, where s denotes a simpler regular expression in turn, Regular expressions originated in 1956, when mathematician Stephen Cole Kleene described regular languages using his mathematical notation called regular sets. These arose in theoretical science, in the subfields of automata theory. Other early implementations of pattern matching include the SNOBOL language, which did not use regular expressions, Regular expressions entered popular use from 1968 in two uses, pattern matching in a text editor and lexical analysis in a compiler
38.
Sun Microsystems
–
Sun contributed significantly to the evolution of several key computing technologies, among them Unix, RISC processors, thin client computing, and virtualized computing. Sun was founded on February 24,1982, at its height, the Sun headquarters were in Santa Clara, California, on the former west campus of the Agnews Developmental Center. On January 27,2010, Oracle Corporation acquired Sun by for US$7.4 billion, other technologies include the Java platform, MySQL, and NFS. Sun was a proponent of open systems in general and Unix in particular, the initial design for what became Suns first Unix workstation, the Sun-1, was conceived by Andy Bechtolsheim when he was a graduate student at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California. Bechtolsheim originally designed the SUN workstation for the Stanford University Network communications project as a personal CAD workstation and it was designed around the Motorola 68000 processor with an advanced memory management unit to support the Unix operating system with virtual memory support. He built the first ones from spare parts obtained from Stanfords Department of Computer Science, on February 24,1982, Vinod Khosla, Andy Bechtolsheim, and Scott McNealy, all Stanford graduate students, founded Sun Microsystems. Bill Joy of Berkeley, a developer of the Berkeley Software Distribution. The Sun name is derived from the initials of the Stanford University Network, Sun was profitable from its first quarter in July 1982. By 1983 Sun was known for producing 68000-based systems with high-quality graphics that were the only computers other than DECs VAX to run 4. 2BSD and it licensed the computer design to other manufacturers, which typically used it to build Multibus-based systems running Unix from UniSoft. Suns initial public offering was in 1986 under the stock symbol SUNW, the symbol was changed in 2007 to JAVA, Sun stated that the brand awareness associated with its Java platform better represented the companys current strategy. Suns logo, which features four interleaved copies of the sun in the form of a rotationally symmetric ambigram, was designed by professor Vaughan Pratt. The initial version of the logo was orange and had the sides oriented horizontally and vertically, but it was rotated to stand on one corner and re-colored purple. In the dot-com bubble, Sun began making more money. It also began spending more, hiring workers and building itself out. Some of this was because of demand, but much was from web start-up companies anticipating business that would never happen. Sales in Suns important hardware division went into free-fall as customers closed shop, several quarters of steep losses led to executive departures, rounds of layoffs, and other cost cutting. In December 2001, the fell to the 1998, pre-bubble level of about $100. But it kept falling, faster than many other tech companies, a year later it had dipped below $10 but bounced back to $20
39.
Software engineering
–
Software engineering is the application of engineering to the development of software in a systematic method. Practitioners quickly realized that this design was not flexible and came up with the stored program architecture or von Neumann architecture, thus the division between hardware and software began with abstraction being used to deal with the complexity of computing. Programming languages started to appear in the early 1950s and this was another major step in abstraction. Major languages such as Fortran, ALGOL, and COBOL were released in the late 1950s to deal with scientific, algorithmic, the conference was attended by international experts on software who agreed on defining best practices for software grounded in the application of engineering. The result of the conference is a report that defines how software should be developed, the original report is publicly available. Engineering already addresses all issues, hence the same principles used in engineering can be applied to software. The widespread lack of best practices for software at the time was perceived as a software crisis, barry W. Boehm documented several key advances to the field in his 1981 book, Software Engineering Economics. These include his Constructive Cost Model, which relates software development effort for a program, in man-years T, T = k ∗ The book analyzes sixty-three software projects and concludes the cost of fixing errors escalates as the project moves toward field use. The book also asserts that the key driver of software cost is the capability of the development team. Watts Humphrey founded the SEI Software Process Program, aimed at understanding and managing the software engineering process and his 1989 book, Managing the Software Process, asserts that the Software Development Process can and should be controlled, measured, and improved. Modern, generally accepted best-practices for software engineering have been collected by the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC7 subcommittee, Software engineering can be divided into 15 sub-disciplines. They are, Software requirements, The elicitation, analysis, specification, Software design, The process of defining the architecture, components, interfaces, and other characteristics of a system or component. It is also defined as the result of that process, Software construction, The detailed creation of working, meaningful software through a combination of coding, verification, unit testing, integration testing, and debugging. Software testing, An empirical, technical investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test, Software maintenance, The totality of activities required to provide cost-effective support to software. Software development process, The definition, implementation, assessment, measurement, management, change, many software engineers enter the profession by obtaining a university degree or training at a vocational school. One standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was defined by the CCSE, in addition to university education, many companies sponsor internships for students wishing to pursue careers in information technology. These internships can introduce the student to interesting real-world tasks that typical software engineers encounter every day, similar experience can be gained through military service in software engineering. Legal requirements for the licensing or certification of professional software engineers vary around the World, in Canada, there is a legal requirement to have P. Eng when one wants to use the title engineer or practice software engineering
40.
April Fools' Day
–
April Fools Day is celebrated every year on April 1 by playing practical jokes and spreading hoaxes. The jokes and their victims are called April fools, people playing April Fool jokes expose their prank by shouting April Fool. Some newspapers, magazines, and other published media report fake stories, although popular since the 19th century, the day is not a public holiday in any country. Geoffrey Chaucers The Canterbury Tales contains the first recorded association between April 1 and foolishness, the custom of setting aside a day for the playing of harmless pranks upon ones neighbor is recognized widely throughout the world. Some precursors of April Fools Day include the Roman festival of Hilaria, in Chaucers Canterbury Tales, the Nuns Priests Tale is set Syn March bigan thritty dayes and two. Modern scholars believe there is a copying error in the extant manuscripts. Thus the passage originally meant 32 days after March, i. e.2 May, the anniversary of the engagement of King Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia, readers apparently misunderstood this line to mean 32 March, i. e. April 1. In Chaucers tale, the vain cock Chauntecleer is tricked by a fox, in 1508, French poet Eloy dAmerval referred to a poisson d’avril, a possible reference to the holiday. In 1539, Flemish poet Eduard de Dene wrote of a nobleman who sent his servants on foolish errands on April 1, in 1686, John Aubrey referred to the holiday as Fooles holy day, the first British reference. On April 1,1698, several people were tricked into going to the Tower of London to see the Lions washed, in the Middle Ages, New Years Day was celebrated on March 25 in most European towns. In some areas of France, New Years was a week-long holiday ending on April 1, some writers suggest that April Fools originated because those who celebrated on January 1 made fun of those who celebrated on other dates. The use of January 1 as New Years Day was common in France by the century. In the Netherlands, the origin of April Fools Day is often attributed to the Dutch victory at Brielle in 1572, op 1 april verloor Alva zijn bril. is a Dutch proverb, which can be translated to, On the first of April, Alva lost his glasses. In this case, the serve as a metaphor for Brielle. This theory, however, provides no explanation for the celebration of April Fools Day. Although no Biblical scholar or historian are known to have mentioned a relationship, in a 1908 edition of the Harpers Weekly cartoonist newspaper, Bertha R. McDonald wrote, authorities gravely back with it to the time of Noah, in the UK, an April Fool joke is revealed by shouting April fool. At the recipient, who becomes the April fool, a study in the 1950s, by folklorists Iona and Peter Opie, found that in the UK, and in countries whose traditions derived from the UK, the joking ceased at midday
41.
Volkswagen Beetle
–
Hitler contracted Ferdinand Porsche in 1934 to design and build it. Porsche and his team took until 1938 to finalise the design, the influence on Porsches design of other contemporary cars, such as the Tatra V570 and the work of Josef Ganz remains a subject of dispute. The result was one of the first rear-engined cars since the Brass Era, with 21,529,464 produced, the Beetle is the longest-running and most-manufactured car of a single platform ever made. Although designed in the 1930s, the Beetle was only produced in significant numbers from 1945 on when the model was designated the Volkswagen Type 1. Later models were designated Volkswagen 1200,1300,1500,1302 or 1303, the model became widely known in its home country as the Käfer and was later marketed as such in Germany, and as the Volkswagen in other countries. For example, in France it was known as the Coccinelle, the original 25 hp Beetle was designed for a top speed around 100 km/h, which would be a viable speed on the Reichsautobahn system. As Autobahn speeds increased in the years, its output was boosted to 36, then 40 hp. The Beetle ultimately gave rise to variants, including the Karmann Ghia, Type 2, the 1948 Citroën 2CV and other European models marked a later trend to front-wheel drive in the European small car market, a trend that would come to dominate that market. In 1974, Volkswagens own front-wheel drive Golf model succeeded the Beetle and it remained in production through 2010, being succeeded in 2011 by the more aggressively styled Beetle. In the 1999 Car of the Century competition, to determine the worlds most influential car in the 20th century, the Type 1 came fourth, after the Ford Model T, the Mini, and the Citroën DS. In April 1934, Adolf Hitler gave the order to Ferdinand Porsche to develop a Volkswagen, the epithet Volks- literally, peoples- had been applied to other Nazi-sponsored consumer goods such as the Volksempfänger. The engine had to be powerful for sustained cruising on Germany’s new Autobahnen, everything had to be designed to ensure parts could be quickly and inexpensively exchanged. The engine had to be air-cooled because, as Hitler explained, the Peoples Car would be available to citizens of Nazi Germany through a savings scheme, or Sparkarte, at 990 Reichsmark, about the price of a small motorcycle. Ferdinand Porsche developed the Type 12, or Auto für Jedermann for Zündapp in 1931, Porsche already preferred the flat-four engine, and selected a swing axle rear suspension, while Zündapp insisted on a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine. In 1932, three prototypes were running, all of those cars were lost during World War II, the last in a bombing raid in Stuttgart in 1945. The Zündapp prototypes were followed by the Porsche Type 32, designed in 1933 for NSU Motorenwerke AG, the Type 32 was similar in design to the Type 12, but it had a flat-four engine. NSUs exit from car manufacturing resulted in the Type 32 being abandoned at the prototype stage, initially designated Type 60 by Porsche, the design team included Erwin Komenda and Karl Rabe. In October 1935, the first two Type 60 prototypes, known as the V1 and V2, were ready, in 1936, testing began of three further V3 prototypes, built in Porsches Stuttgart shop
_in_conversation_with_Nik_Gowing_(11051254154).jpg)
.jpg)
