1.
Vitreous enamel
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Vitreous enamel, also called porcelain enamel, is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C. The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitreous coating on metal, so in technical terms fired enamelware is an integrated layered composite of glass and metal. Enamelling is an old and widely adopted technology, for most of its history mainly used in jewelry, enamelled and enamelling are the preferred spellings in British English, while enameled and enameling are preferred in American English. The term enamel is most often restricted to work on metal, enamelled glass is also called painted, and overglaze decoration to pottery is often called enamelling. The word enamel comes from the Old High German word smelzan via the Old French esmail, or from a Latin word smaltum, used as a noun, an enamel is usually a small decorative object coated with enamel. Since the 19th century the term also to industrial materials and many metal consumer objects, such as some cooking vessels, dishwashers, laundry machines, sinks. The ancient Egyptians applied enamels to stone objects, pottery, and sometimes jewellery, the ancient Greeks, Celts, Georgians, and Chinese also used enamel on metal objects. Enamel powder could be produced in two ways, either by powdering coloured glass, or by mixing colourless glass powder with pigments such as a metallic oxide, designs were either painted freehand or over the top of outline incisions, and the technique probably originated in metalworking. Once painted, enamelled glass vessels needed to be fired at a high enough to melt the applied powder. Ancient Persians used this method for colouring and ornamenting the surface of metals by fusing over it brilliant colours that are decorated in an intricate design and called it Meenakari. Gold has been used traditionally for Meenakari Jewellery as it holds the enamel better, lasts longer, initially, the work of Meenakari often went unnoticed as this art was traditionally used as a backing for the famous kundan or stone-studded jewellery. This also allowed the wearer to reverse the jewellery as also promised a special joy in the secret of the hidden design, the Byzantine enamel style was widely adopted by the barbarian peoples of Migration Period northern Europe. The Byzantines then began to use cloisonné more freely to create images, the champlevé technique was considerably easier and very widely practiced in the Romanesque period. In Gothic art the finest work is in basse-taille and ronde-bosse techniques, from either Byzantium or the Islamic world, the cloisonné technique reached China in the 13-14th centuries. The first written reference to cloisonné is in a book from 1388, cloisonné remained very popular in China until the 19th century and is still produced today. Starting from the century, the Japanese also produced large quantities of very high technical quality. A resurgence in enamel-based art took place near the end of the 20th century in the Soviet Union, led by artists like Alexei Maximov, in Australia, abstract artist Bernard Hesling brought the style into prominence with his variously sized steel plates. Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in Austria, industrialization increased as the purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased
2.
Titration
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Titration, also known as titrimetry, is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis that is used to determine the unknown concentration of an identified analyte. Since volume measurements play a key role in titration, it is known as volumetric analysis. A reagent, called the titrant or titrator is prepared as a standard solution, a known concentration and volume of titrant reacts with a solution of analyte or titrand to determine concentration. The volume of titrant reacted is called titration volume, the word titration comes from the Latin word titulus, meaning inscription or title. The French word titre, also from this origin, means rank, volumetric analysis originated in late 18th-century France. François-Antoine-Henri Descroizilles developed the first burette in 1791, joseph Louis Gay-Lussac developed an improved version of the burette that included a side arm, and coined the terms pipette and burette in an 1824 paper on the standardization of indigo solutions. Depending on the endpoint desired, single drops or less than a drop of the titrant can make the difference between a permanent and temporary change in the indicator. Typical titrations require titrant and analyte to be in a liquid form, though solids are usually dissolved into an aqueous solution, other solvents such as glacial acetic acid or ethanol are used for special purposes. Concentrated analytes are diluted to improve accuracy. Many non-acid-base titrations require a constant pH throughout the reaction, therefore, a buffer solution may be added to the titration chamber to maintain the pH. Some redox reactions may require heating the solution and titrating while the solution is still hot to increase the reaction rate. For instance, the oxidation of some oxalate solutions requires heating to 60 °C to maintain a rate of reaction. In an acid-base titration, the titration curve reflects the strength of the corresponding acid, for a strong acid and a strong base, the curve will be relatively smooth and very steep near the equivalence point. Because of this, a change in titrant volume near the equivalence point results in a large pH change. If one reagent is an acid or base and the other is a strong acid or base, the titration curve is irregular. For example, the curve for the titration between oxalic acid and sodium hydroxide is pictured. The equivalence point occurs between pH 8-10, indicating the solution is basic at the point and an indicator such as phenolphthalein would be appropriate. Titrations between an acid and a weak base have titration curves which are highly irregular
3.
Burette
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A burette is a device used in analytical chemistry for the dispensing of variable, measured amounts of a chemical solution. A volumetric burette delivers measured volumes of liquid, piston burettes are similar to syringes, but with precision bore and plunger. Piston burettes may be operated or may be motorized. A weight burette delivers measured weights of liquid, in analytical chemistry, for the supplying of variable, measured amounts of chemical solution. A weight burette for measuring weights of liquid, a burette is distinguished from a pipette by the fact that the quantity delivered is variable. Thus in a titration, one solution is dispensed with a pipette, burettes may be designated for use at a particular temperature. If used at another temperature they should be subject to calibration, a traditional burette consists of glass tube of constant bore with a graduation scale etched on it and a stopcock at the bottom. The barrel of the stopcock may be made of glass or the plastic PTFE, stopcocks with glass barrels need to be lubricated with vaseline or a specialized grease. Burettes are manufactured to specified tolerances, designated as class A or B, digital burettes are based on a syringe design. The barrel and plunger may be made of glass, with liquids that corrode glass, including solutions of alkali, the barrel and plunger may be made of polyethylene or another resistant plastic material. The barrel is held in a position and the plunger is moved incrementally either by turning a ratcheted wheel by hand. The volume is shown on a digital display, a high-precision syringe may be used to deliver very precise aliquots. Motorized digital burettes may be controlled by computer, for example, using a Burette from ChemLab at Dartmouth College demonstrating how to use a burette correctly Use of the Buret
4.
Crystallization
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Crystallization is the process where a solid forms where the atoms or molecules are highly organized in a structure known as a crystal. Some of the ways which crystals form are through precipitating from a solution, crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid separation technique, in which mass transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs. In chemical engineering crystallization occurs in a crystallizer, crystallization is therefore related to precipitation, although the result is not amorphous or disordered, but a crystal. The crystallization process consists of two events, nucleation and crystal growth which are driven by thermodynamic properties as well as chemical properties. These stable clusters constitute the nuclei, therefore, the clusters need to reach a critical size in order to become stable nuclei. Such critical size is dictated by different factors. The crystal growth is the subsequent size increase of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size, crystal growth is a dynamic process occurring in equilibrium where solute molecules or atoms precipitate out of solution, and dissolve back into solution. Supersaturation is one of the forces of crystallization, as the solubility of a species is an equilibrium process quantified by Ksp. Depending upon the conditions, either nucleation or growth may be predominant over the other, many compounds have the ability to crystallize with some having different crystal structures, a phenomenon called polymorphism. Each polymorph is in fact a different thermodynamic solid state and crystal polymorphs of the compound exhibit different physical properties, such as dissolution rate, shape, melting point. For this reason, polymorphism is of importance in industrial manufacture of crystalline products. Additionally, crystal phases can sometimes be interconverted by varying factors such as temperature, there are many examples of natural process that involve crystallization. Geological time scale process examples include, Natural crystal formation, Stalactite/stalagmite, usual time scale process examples include, Snow flakes formation, Honey crystallization. Crystal formation can be divided into two types, where the first type of crystals are composed of a cation and anion, also known as a salt, the second type of crystals are composed of uncharged species, for example menthol. The formation of a solution does not guarantee crystal formation. A typical laboratory technique for crystal formation is to dissolve the solid in a solution in which it is partially soluble, the hot mixture is then filtered to remove any insoluble impurities. The filtrate is allowed to slowly cool, crystals that form are then filtered and washed with a solvent in which they are not soluble, but is miscible with the mother liquor. The process is repeated to increase the purity in a technique known as recrystallization
5.
Microbiology
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Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, those being unicellular, multicellular, or acellular. Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, mycology, parasitology, microbiologists traditionally relied on culture, staining, and microscopy. However, less than 1% of the present in common environments can be cultured in isolation using current means. Microbiologists often rely on extraction or detection of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA sequences, viruses have been variably classified as organisms, as they have been considered either as very simple microorganisms or very complex molecules. As an application of microbiology, medical microbiology is often introduced with medical principles of immunology as microbiology and immunology, otherwise, microbiology, virology, and immunology as basic sciences have greatly exceeded the medical variants, applied sciences. The existence of microorganisms was hypothesized for many centuries before their actual discovery, the existence of unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BCE. Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira asserted existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air, in 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or vehicle transmission. However, early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative, actual observation and discovery of microbes had to await the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. In 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who lived most of his life in Delft, Holland, observed bacteria and other microorganisms using a single-lens microscope of his own design. While Van Leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first to observe microbes, Robert Hooke made the first recorded microscopic observation, of the bodies of moulds. It has, however, been suggested that a Jesuit priest called Athanasius Kircher was the first to observe micro-organisms and he was among the first to design magic lanterns for projection purposes, so he must have been well acquainted with the properties of lenses. One of his books contains a chapter in Latin, which reads in translation – Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, here, he wrote who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms. He also noted that material is full of innumerable creeping animalcule. These observations antedate Robert Hookes Micrographia by nearly 20 years and were published some 29 years before van Leeuwenhoek saw protozoa and 37 years before he described having seen bacteria. Joseph Lister was the first person who said infectious diseases are caused by micro-organism and was first person who used phenol as disinfectant on the wounds of patients. Cohn was also the first to formulate a scheme for the classification of bacteria. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch were contemporaries of Cohn’s and are considered to be the father of microbiology and medical microbiology. Pasteur is most famous for his series of experiments designed to disprove the widely held theory of spontaneous generation
6.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
7.
Laboratory
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A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the requirements of specialists in the various fields of science. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, a chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologists laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as commonly used by computer scientists. Scientists in other fields will use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices, scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Early instances of laboratories recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines, larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. Both laboratory equipment and scientific instruments are increasingly being designed and shared using open hardware principles, open source labs use open source scientific hardware. The title of laboratory is used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. In many labs, though, hazards are present, in laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. This standard is referred to as the Laboratory Standard. Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, the CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is used to provide an objective outside view which provides a fresh look at areas. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance, training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
8.
Alcohol burner
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An alcohol burner or spirit lamp is a piece of laboratory equipment used to produce an open flame. It can be made from brass, glass, stainless steel or aluminium, alcohol burners are preferred for some uses over Bunsen burners for safety purposes, as their flame is limited to approximately two inches in height, with a comparatively lower temperature. Typical fuel is denatured alcohol, methanol, or isopropanol, a cap is used as a snuffer for extinguishing the flame. Bunsen burner Heating mantle Beverage-can stove Portable stove
9.
Kiln
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A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles, various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to transform many other materials. The word kiln descends from the Old English cylene (/ˈkylene/, which was adapted from the Latin culīna kitchen, cooking-stove, burning-place. During the Middle English Period, the n was not pronounced, as evidenced by kiln having frequently been spelled without the n, Another word, miln, a place where wheat is ground, also had a silent n. Whereas the spelling of miln was changed to mill to match its pronunciation, kiln maintained its spelling, which most likely led to a common mispronunciation, however, there are small bastions where the original pronunciation has endured. Kiln, Mississippi, a town known for its wood drying kilns that once served the timber industry, is still referred to as the Kill by locals. Unwittingly adding the n sound at the end of kiln is due to people being introduced to the word through the language before ever hearing the actual pronunciation. Phonetically, the ln in kiln is categorized as a digraph, from English Words as Spoken and Written for Upper Grades by James A. Bowen 1900, The digraph ln, n silent, occurs in kiln. A fall down the kiln can kill you, Bowen was pointing out the humorous fact that kill and kiln are homophones. A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, the earliest known kiln dates to around 6000 BC, and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq. Neolithic kilns were able to produce greater than 900 °C. Ceramics require heat at high temperatures so chemical and physical reactions will occur to permanently alter the unfired body, in the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, after a first firing glazes may be used and the ware is fired a second time to fuse the glaze into the body. A third firing at a lower temperature may be required to fix overglaze decoration, modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical control systems to firing regime, although pyrometric devices are often also used. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a clay body. Part of the process includes sintering. This heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores, through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly
10.
Laboratory water bath
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A water bath is laboratory equipment made from a container filled with heated water. It is used to incubate samples in water at a constant temperature over a period of time. All water baths have a digital or an interface to allow users to set a desired temperature. Utilisations include warming of reagents, melting of substrates or incubation of cell cultures and it is also used to enable certain chemical reactions to occur at high temperature. Water bath is a heat source for heating flammable chemicals instead of an open flame to prevent ignition. Different types of baths are used depending on application. For all water baths, it can be used up to 99.9 °C, when temperature is above 100 °C, alternative methods such as oil bath, silicone bath or sand bath may be used. It is not recommended to use water bath with moisture sensitive or pyrophoric reactions, do not heat a bath fluid above its flash point. Water level should be monitored, and filled with distilled water only. This is required to prevent salts from depositing on the heater, disinfectants can be added to prevent growth of organisms. Raise the temperature to 90 °C or higher to once a week for half an hour for the purpose of decontamination, markers tend to come off easily in water baths. If application involves liquids that give off fumes, it is recommended to operate water bath in fume hood or in a ventilated area. The cover is closed to prevent evaporation and to help reaching high temperatures, set up on a steady surface away from flammable materials. Circulating water baths are ideal for applications when temperature uniformity and consistency are critical, water is thoroughly circulated throughout the bath resulting in a more uniform temperature. This type of water bath relies primarily on convection instead of water being uniformly heated, therefore, it is less accurate in terms of temperature control. In addition, there are add-ons that provide stirring to non-circulating water baths to create more heat transfer. This type of water bath has extra control for shaking, which moves liquids around and this shaking feature can be turned on or off. In microbiological practices, constant shaking allows liquid-grown cell cultures grown to constantly mix with the air, heated bath Hot plate Sand bath Oil bath
11.
Mortar and pestle
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A pestle and mortar is a kitchen device used since ancient times to prepare ingredients or substances by crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or powder. The mortar is a bowl, typically made of hard wood, the pestle is a heavy and blunt club-shaped object, the end of which is used for crushing and grinding. The substance to be ground is placed in the mortar and ground, mortars and pestles have been used in cooking up to the present day, they are frequently also associated with the profession of pharmacy due to their historical use in preparing medicines. They can also be used in masonry and in types of construction. Scientists have found ancient mortars and pestles that date back to approximately 35,000 B. C, the English word mortar derives from classical Latin mortarium, meaning, among several other usages, receptacle for pounding and product of grinding or pounding. The classical Latin pistillum, meaning pounder, led to English pestle, the Roman poet Juvenal applied both mortarium and pistillum to articles used in the preparation of drugs, reflecting the early use of the mortar and pestle as a symbol of a pharmacist or apothecary. The antiquity of these tools is well documented in writing, such as the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus of ~1550 BCE. Mortars and pestles were used in pharmacies to crush various ingredients prior to preparing an extemporaneous prescription. The mortar and pestle, with the Rod of Asclepius, the Orange Cross, for pharmaceutical use, the mortar and the head of the pestle are usually made of porcelain, while the handle of the pestle is made of wood. This is known as a Wedgwood mortar and pestle and originated in 1759, today the act of mixing ingredients or reducing the particle size is known as trituration. Mortars and pestles are used as drug paraphernalia to grind up pills to speed up absorption when they are ingested. Mortars are also used in cooking to prepare ingredients such as guacamole, gazpacho and pesto, the molcajete, a version used by pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican cultures including the Aztec and Maya, stretching back several thousand years, is made of basalt and is used widely in Mexican cooking. Other Native American nations use mortars carved into the bedrock to grind acorns, many such depressions can be found in their territories. In Japan, very large mortars are used with wooden mallets to prepare mochi, a regular sized Japanese mortar and pestle are called a suribachi and surikogi, respectively. Granite mortars and pestles are used in Southeast Asia, as well as Pakistan, in India, it is used extensively to make spice mixtures for various delicacies as well as day to day dishes. With the advent of motorized grinders, use of the mortar and it is traditional in various Hindu ceremonies to crush turmeric in these mortars. In Malay, it is known as batu lesung, large stone mortars, with long wood pestles were used in West Asia to grind meat for a type of meatloaf, or kibbeh, as well as the hummus variety known as masabcha. In Indonesia and the Netherlands mortar is known as Cobek or Tjobek and it is often used to make fresh sambal, a spicy chili condiment, hence the sambal ulek/oelek denote its process using pestle
12.
Shaker (laboratory)
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A shaker is a piece of laboratory equipment used to mix, blend, or to agitate substances in tube or flask by shaking them, which is mainly used in the fields of chemistry and biology. A shaker contains a board which is used to place the flasks, beakers, test tubes. Kraft in 1962, a Vortex Shaker is usually a small device used to shake and its most standout characteristic is that it works by the user putting a vial on the shaking platform and turn it on, thus the vial is shaken along with the platform. Vortex Shaker is vary variable in term of speed adjustment, one can change the shaking speed while shaking by turning the switch. A kind of shaker that has a board that oscillates horizontally. The liquids to be stirred are held in beakers, jars, or erlenmeyer flasks that are placed over the table, or, sometimes, orbital Shaker has a circular shaking motion with a slow speed. It is suitable for culturing microbes, washing blots, and general mixing, some of its characteristics are that they do not create vibrations, and they produce low heat compared to other kinds of shakers, which make it ideal for culturing microbes. Moreover, it can be modified by placing it in an incubator to create an incubator shaker due to its low temperature, incubator Shaker can be considered a mix of an incubator and a shaker. It has an ability to shake, while maintain optimal conditions for incubating microbes or DNA replications. This equipment is useful since in order for a cell to grow, it needs Oxygen, and nutrients. Magnetic stirrer Vortex mixer Stirring rod Static mixer
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