1.
Uppsala
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Uppsala is the capital of Uppsala County and the fourth largest city of Sweden, after Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö. It had 149,245 inhabitants in 2015, located 71 km north of the capital Stockholm, it is also the seat of Uppsala Municipality. Since 1164, Uppsala has been the centre of Sweden. Uppsala is home to Scandinavias largest cathedral – Uppsala Cathedral, founded in 1477, Uppsala University is the oldest centre of higher education in Scandinavia. Among many achievements, the Celsius scale for temperature was invented there, Uppsala was originally located a few kilometres north of its current location at a place now known as Gamla Uppsala. Todays Uppsala was then called Östra Aros, Uppsala was, according to medieval writer Adam of Bremen, the main pagan centre of Sweden, and the Temple at Uppsala contained magnificent idols of the Norse gods. The Fyrisvellir plains along the south of Old Uppsala, in the area where the modern city is situated today, was the site of the Battle of Fyrisvellir in the 980s. The present-day Uppsala was at that time known as Östra Aros and was a town of Gamla Uppsala. In 1160, King Eric Jedvardsson was attacked and killed outside the church of Östra Aros, the cathedral is built in the Gothic style and is one of the largest in northern Europe, with towers reaching 118.70 metres. Uppsala is also the site of the 16th century Uppsala Castle, the city was severely damaged by a fire in 1702. The arms bearing the lion can be traced to 1737 and have been modernised several times, the meaning of the lion is uncertain but is likely connected to the royal lion, also depicted on the Coat of Arms of Sweden. Situated on the fertile Uppsala flatlands of muddy soil, the city features the small Fyris River flowing through the landscape surrounded by lush vegetation. Parallel to the runs the glacial ridge of Uppsalaåsen at an elevation of circa 30 metres. The central park Stadsskogen stretches from the south far into town, only some 70 kilometres or 40 minutes by train from the capital, many Uppsala residents work in Stockholm. The train to Stockholm-Arlanda Airport takes only 17 minutes, rendering the city accessible by air. The commercial centre of Uppsala is quite compact, during recent decades, a significant part of retail commercial activity has shifted to shopping malls and stores situated in the outskirts of the city. Meanwhile, the areas have expanded greatly, and some suburbanization has taken place. Uppsala lies on the 59th parallel north and has a continental climate, with cold winters
2.
Schenectady, New York
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Schenectady /skᵻˈnɛktədi/ is a city in Schenectady County, New York, United States, of which it is the county seat. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 66,135, the name Schenectady is derived from a Mohawk word skahnéhtati meaning beyond the pines. The city was founded on the side of the Mohawk River by Dutch colonists in the 17th century. They were prohibited from the fur trade by the Albany monopoly, residents of the new village developed farms on strip plots along the river. Connected to the west via the Mohawk River and Erie Canal, by 1824 more people worked in manufacturing than agriculture or trade, and the city had a cotton mill, processing cotton from the Deep South. Numerous mills in New York had such ties with the South, the city was part of emerging technologies, with GE collaborating in the production of nuclear-powered submarines and, in the 21st century, working on other forms of renewable energy. The city is in eastern New York, near the confluence of the Mohawk and it is in the same metropolitan area as the state capital, Albany, which is about 19 miles southeast. In December 2014, the announced that the city was one of three sites selected for development of off-reservation casino gambling, under terms of a 2013 state constitutional amendment. The project would redevelop an ALCO brownfield site in the city along the waterfront, with hotels, housing, when first encountered by Europeans, the Mohawk Valley was the territory of the Mohawk nation, one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, or Haudenosaunee. They had occupied territory in the region since at least 1100 AD, in the 1640s, the Mohawk had three major villages, all on the south side of the Mohawk River. The easternmost one was Ossernenon, located about 9 miles west of present-day Auriesville, about 3200 acres of this unique ecosystem are now protected as the Albany Pine Bush. Eventually, this word entered the lexicon of the Dutch settlers, the settlers in Fort Orange used skahnéhtati to refer to the new village at the Mohawk flats, which became known as Schenectady. In 1661 Arent van Curler, a Dutch immigrant bought a big piece of land on the side of the Mohawk River. Other colonists were given grants of land by the government in this portion of the flat fertile river valley. The settlers recognized that these bottomlands had been cultivated for maize by the Mohawk for centuries, Van Curler took the largest piece of land, the remainder was divided into 50-acre plots for the other first fourteen proprietors. As most early colonists were from the Fort Orange area, they may have anticipated working as fur traders, the settlers here turned to farming. Their 50-acre lots were unique for the colony, laid out in strips along the Mohawk River, with the narrow edges fronting the river and they relied on rearing livestock and wheat. From the early days of interaction, early Dutch traders in the valley had unions with Mohawk women and their children were raised within the Mohawk community, which had a matrilineal kinship system, considering children born into the mothers clan
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
5.
IEEE Edison Medal
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It is the oldest and most coveted medal in this field of engineering in the United States. The award consists of a medal, bronze replica, small gold replica, certificate. The medal may only be awarded to a new leap/breakthrough in the area of science. The Edison Medal, named after the inventor and entrepreneur Thomas Edison, was created on 11 February 1904 by a group of Edisons friends, four years later the American Institute of Electrical Engineers entered into an agreement with the group to present the medal as its highest award. The first medal was presented in 1909 to Elihu Thomson, other recipients of the Edison Medal include George Westinghouse, Alexander Graham Bell, Nikola Tesla, Michael I. Pupin, Robert A. Millikan, and Vannevar Bush, a complete and authoritative list is published by the IEEE online
6.
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886
7.
Swedish Americans
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Swedish Americans are an American ethnic group of people who have ancestral roots from Sweden. They primarily include the 1.2 million Swedish immigrants during 1885–1915 and they formed tight-knit communities, primarily in the American Midwest, and intermarried with other Swedish-Americans. Historically, Swedish Americans have been concentrated in the Midwest, roughly in the area west and northwest of Chicago, many of them came to Minnesota. A contingent also settled in the woods of northern Maine, the first Swedish Americans were the settlers of New Sweden. A colony established by Queen Christina of Sweden in 1638, it centered around the Delaware Valley including parts of the states of Delaware, New Jersey. New Sweden was incorporated into New Netherland in 1655 and ceased to be a territory of the Realm of Sweden. However, many Swedish and Finnish colonists remained and were allowed some political and cultural autonomy, Swedish Americans usually came through New York City and subsequently settled in the upper Midwest. Most were Lutheran and belonged to synods now associated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, theologically, they were pietistic, politically they often supported progressive causes and prohibition. In the year 1900, Chicago was the city with the second highest number of Swedes after Stockholm, by then, Swedes in Chicago had founded the Evangelical Covenant Church and established such enduring institutions as Swedish Covenant Hospital and North Park University. Many others settled in Minnesota in particular, followed by Wisconsin, as well as New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska and Illinois. Like their Norwegian American and Danish American brethren, many Swedes sought out the agrarian lifestyle they had left behind in Sweden, as many immigrants settled on farms throughout the Midwest. In the east, New England became a destination for many skilled workers and Swedish centers developed in areas such as Jamestown, New York, Providence, Rhode Island. A small Swedish settlement was begun in New Sweden, Maine. 51 Swedish settlers came to the area, led by W. W. Thomas, who called them mina barn i skogen, upon arrival, they knelt in prayer and thanksgiving to God. This area soon expanded and other settlements were named Stockholm, Jemptland, the town of New Sweden, Maine celebrates St. Lucia, Midsummer, and Founders Day. It is a Swedish-American community that continues to honor traditions of the old country, gustaf Adolph Lutheran Church was served by a native of Sweden as recently as 1979-1985 who was known to occasionally conduct special worship services in Swedish. The largest settlement in New England was Worcester, Massachusetts, here, Swedes were drawn to the citys wire and abrasive industries
8.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
9.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
10.
Alexanderson alternator
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An Alexanderson alternator is a rotating machine invented by Ernst Alexanderson in 1904 for the generation of high-frequency alternating current for use as a radio transmitter. It was one of the first devices capable of generating the continuous radio waves needed for transmission of amplitude modulation by radio and it was used from about 1910 in a few superpower longwave radiotelegraphy stations to transmit transoceanic message traffic by Morse code to similar stations all over the world. Although obsolete by the early 1920s due to the development of vacuum-tube transmitters and it is on the list of IEEE Milestones as a key achievement in electrical engineering. Efforts were made to invent transmitters that would produce continuous waves, in an 1891 lecture, Frederick Thomas Trouton pointed out that, if an electrical alternator were run at a great enough cycle speed it would generate continuous waves at radio frequency. In 1904, Reginald Fessenden contracted with General Electric for an alternator that generated a frequency of 100,000 hertz for continuous wave radio, the alternator was designed by Ernst Alexanderson. The Alexanderson alternator was used for long-wave radio communications by shore stations. In 1906 the first 50-kilowatt alternators were delivered, one was to Reginald Fessenden at Brant Rock, Massachusetts, another to John Hays Hammond, Jr. in Gloucester, Massachusetts and another to the American Marconi Company in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Alexanderson would receive a patent in 1911 for his device, the Alexanderson alternator followed Fessendens rotary spark-gap transmitter as the second radio transmitter to be modulated to carry the human voice. The last remaining operable Alexanderson alternator is at the VLF transmitter Grimeton in Sweden and was in service until 1996. It continues to be operated for a few minutes on Alexanderson Day, starting in 1942 four stations were operated by US Navy, the station at Haiku, Hawaii until 1958, Bolinas until 1946, Marion, and Tuckerton. Two alternators were shipped to Hawaii in 1942, one each from Marion, MA and Bolinas, the other went to Guam but returned to Haiku after World War 2. Haiku began operation of the first 200 kW alternator in 1943, the second alternator went into operation at Haiku in 1949. Both alternators were sold for salvage in 1969, possibly to Kreger Company of California, one of the alternators was scrapped in 1961 and another one was handed over to the US office of standard, it now resides in a Smithsonian Institution warehouse. The two machines in Brazil were never used because of problems there. They were returned to Radio Central after 1946, the Alexanderson alternator works similarly to an AC electric generator, but generates higher-frequency current, in the radio range. The space between the teeth is filled with material, to give the rotor a smooth surface to decrease aerodynamic drag. The rotor is turned at a speed by an electric motor. The machine operates by variable reluctance, changing the magnetic flux linking two coils, the periphery of the rotor is embraced by a circular iron stator with a C-shaped cross-section, divided into narrow poles, the same number as the rotor has, carrying two sets of coils
11.
Transmitter
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In electronics and telecommunications a transmitter or radio transmitter is an electronic device which generates a radio frequency alternating current. When a connected antenna is excited by this current, the antenna emits radio waves. The term transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves for communication purposes, or radiolocation, such as radar and navigational transmitters. Generators of radio waves for heating or industrial purposes, such as ovens or diathermy equipment, are not usually called transmitters even though they often have similar circuits. The term is used more specifically to refer to a broadcast transmitter. This usage typically includes both the proper, the antenna, and often the building it is housed in. A transmitter can be a piece of electronic equipment, or an electrical circuit within another electronic device. A transmitter and a receiver combined in one unit is called a transceiver, the term transmitter is often abbreviated XMTR or TX in technical documents. The purpose of most transmitters is radio communication of information over a distance, the transmitter combines the information signal to be carried with the radio frequency signal which generates the radio waves, which is called the carrier signal. The information can be added to the carrier in several different ways, in an amplitude modulation transmitter, the information is added to the radio signal by varying its amplitude. In a frequency modulation transmitter, it is added by varying the signals frequency slightly. Many other types of modulation are used, the radio signal from the transmitter is applied to the antenna, which radiates the energy as radio waves. The antenna may be enclosed inside the case or attached to the outside of the transmitter, as in portable devices such as phones, walkie-talkies. In more powerful transmitters, the antenna may be located on top of a building or on a tower, and connected to the transmitter by a feed line. The first primitive radio transmitters were built by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1887 during his investigations of radio waves. These generated radio waves by a high voltage spark between two conductors, beginning in 1895 Guglielmo Marconi developed the first practical radio communication systems using spark transmitters. These spark-gap transmitters were used during the first three decades of radio, called the wireless telegraphy or spark era, vacuum tube transmitters took over because they were inexpensive and produced continuous waves, which could be modulated to transmit audio using amplitude modulation. This made possible commercial AM radio broadcasting, which began in about 1920, experimental television transmission had been conducted by radio stations since the late 1920s, but practical television broadcasting didnt begin until the 1940s
12.
Longwave
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In radio, longwave, also written as long wave or long-wave, and commonly abbreviated LW, refers to parts of the radio spectrum with relatively long wavelengths. The term is an one, dating from the early 20th century, when the radio spectrum was considered to consist of long, medium. Most modern radio systems and devices use wavelengths which would then have been considered ultra-short, in contemporary usage, the term longwave is not defined precisely, and its meaning varies across the world. Sometimes, part of the frequency band is included. The International Telecommunication Union Region 1 longwave broadcast band falls wholly within the low band of the radio spectrum. Broader definitions of longwave may extend below and/or above it, in the US, the Longwave Club of America is interested in frequencies below the AM broadcast band, i. e. all frequencies below 535 kHz. Because of their wavelength, radio waves in this frequency range can diffract over obstacles like mountain ranges and travel beyond the horizon. This mode of propagation, called ground wave, is the mode in the longwave band. The attenuation of signal strength with distance by absorption in the ground is lower than at higher frequencies, Low frequency ground waves can be received up to 2,000 kilometres from the transmitting antenna. Low frequency waves can also travel long distances by reflecting from the ionosphere, although this method. Reflection occurs at the ionospheric E layer or F layers, skywave signals can be detected at distances exceeding 300 kilometres from the transmitting antenna. Non-directional beacons transmit continuously for the benefit of radio direction finders in marine and they identify themselves by a callsign in Morse code. They can occupy any frequency in the range 190–1750 kHz, in North America, they occupy 190–535 kHz. In ITU Region 1 the lower limit is 280 kHz, there are government broadcast stations in the range 40–80 kHz that transmit coded time signals to radio clocks. Radio controlled clocks receive their time calibration signals with built-in long-wave receivers, long-waves travel by groundwaves that hug the surface of the earth, unlike medium-waves and short-waves. Those higher-frequency signals do not follow the surface of the Earth beyond a few kilometers and these different propagation paths can make the time lag different for every signal received. The military of the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, United States, Germany, in North America during the 1970s, the frequencies 167,179 and 191 kHz were assigned to the short-lived Public Emergency Radio of the United States. Nowadays, in the United States, Part 15 of FCC regulations allow unlicensed use of 136 kHz and this is called Low Frequency Experimental Radio
13.
Amplidyne
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An amplidyne is an electromechanical amplifier invented prior to World War II by Ernst Alexanderson. It consists of a motor driving a DC generator. The signal to be amplified is applied to the field winding. The amplidyne is used in industry in high power servo and control systems, to low power control signals to control powerful electric motors. An amplidyne is a motor which turns a generator on the same shaft. Unlike an ordinary motor-generator, the purpose of an amplidyne is not to generate a steady voltage but to generate a proportional to an input current. The motor provides the power, turning the generator at a constant speed, the higher the current applied to the winding, the stronger the magnetic field and thus the higher the output voltage of the generator. So the output voltage of the generator is a copy of the current waveform applied to the field winding. In a typical generator the load brushes are positioned perpendicular to the magnetic field flux, to convert a generator to an amplidyne, what would normally be the load brushes are connected together and the output is taken from another set of brushes that are parallel with the field. The perpendicular brushes are now called the quadrature brushes and this simple change can increase the gain by a factor of 10,000 or more. The amplidynes frequency response is limited to low frequencies, it cannot even handle audio frequencies, historically, amplidynes were one of the first amplifiers to generate very high power, allowing precise feedback control of heavy machinery. Early gun tracking and radar systems used this approach, amplidynes are now obsolete technology, replaced by modern power semiconductor electronic devices such as MOSFETs and IGBTs which can produce output power in the kilowatt range. The amplidyne was first used in the US Navy in servo systems to control the electric motors rotating naval gun mounts, to aim the gun at a target. The rotor of the synchro control transformer is turned by the response shaft, the synchro compares the actual load position with the ordered position, and, if the two do not agree, it generates an alternating-current signal which is transmitted to the amplifier. The angular difference between the two positions is called the error, and the signal to the amplifier is the error signal, the error signal indicates by its electrical characteristics the size and direction of the error. If no error exists, the system is said to be in correspondence, specifically, the phase of the control transformers output provided the polarity of the error signal. A phase-sensitive demodulator, with the synchro AC power as its reference, amplidynes were initially used for electric elevators and to point naval guns, and antiaircraft artillery radar such as SCR-584 in 1942. Later used to control processes in steelworks, used to remotely operate the control rods in early nuclear submarine designs
14.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
15.
University of Lund
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Lund University is one of northern Europes oldest, largest and most prestigious universities, consistently ranking among the worlds top 100 universities. After Sweden won Scania from Denmark in the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde, the studium generale had not survived the Lutheran Reformation of 1536. The university founded in 1666 was thus a new institution. Lund University has eight faculties, with campuses in the cities of Malmö and Helsingborg. The University has some 600 partner universities in over 70 countries, the city of Lund has a long history as a center for learning and was the ecclesiastical centre and seat of the archbishop of Denmark. A cathedral school for the training of clergy was established in 1085 and is today Scandinavias oldest school, a studium generale was founded in 1425, and in 1438 education was started by the Franciscan order for a baccalaureus degree. The university was named Academia Carolina after Charles X Gustav of Sweden until the late 19th century and it was the fifth university under the Swedish king, after Uppsala University, the University of Tartu, the Academy of Åbo, and the University of Greifswald. The university was at its founding granted four faculties, law, theological, medicine and they were the cornerstones, and for more than 200 years this system was in effect. Towards the end of the 17th century, the number of students hovered around 100, some notable professors in the early days were Samuel Pufendorf, a juridical historian, and Canutus Hahn and Kristian Papke in philosophy. The Scanian War in 1676 led to a shut-down, which lasted until 1682, the university was re-opened largely due to regional patriots, but the university was not to enjoy a high status until well into the 19th century. Lecturing rooms were few, and lectures were held in the Lund Cathedral, in 1713, Charles XII of Sweden entered Lund. He stayed in Lund for three years, in between his warlike expeditions, Lund and the university attracted a temporary attention boost. The most notable lecturer during this time was Andreas Rydelius, peace was finally restored with the death of Charles XII in 1718, and during the first half of the 18th century the university was granted added funds. The number of students was now well around 500, despite not being on par with Uppsala University, it had still built a solid reputation and managed to attract prominent professors. Around 1760 the university reputation dropped as the number of students fell below 200, however, by 1780 its reputation was largely restored, and continued to rise through the 1820s. This was largely owing to popular and well-educated lecturers particularly in philology and he, in turn, attracted others towards Lund. One of these was the young theological student C. G. Brunius, with time he was to devote himself to architectures and he redesigned several of Lunds buildings, as well as churches of the province. In 1845 and 1862 Lund co-hosted Nordic student meetings together with the University of Copenhagen, a student called Elsa Collin was the first woman in the whole of Sweden to take part in a spex
16.
Royal Institute of Technology
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KTH Royal Institute of Technology is a university in Stockholm, Sweden, specialized in Engineering and Technology, that ranks highest in northern mainland Europe in its academic fields. The current King of Sweden Carl XVI Gustaf is its High Protector, the King of Sweden at the time had prior to his crowning been Marshal of the French Empire, known in Sweden as Jean Baptiste Bernadotte. KTH Royal Institute of Technology is the best university of technology in northern Europe, with the exception in the area being the Technical University of Munich. The main campus buildings at Valhallavägen in Östermalm, by architect Erik Lallerstedt, were completed in 1917, the buildings and surroundings were decorated by prominent early 20th-century Swedish artists such as Carl Milles, Axel Törneman, Georg Pauli, Tore Strindberg and Ivar Johnsson. The older buildings on the campus were renovated heavily in 1994, while the original campus was large for its time, KTH very soon outgrew it, and the campus was expanded with new buildings. Today, KTH institutions and faculties are distributed across several campuses in Stockholm County, located in Flemingsberg, Haninge, Kista and Södertälje, beyond the ones in Östermalm. KTH, School of ICT, Kista offers education and research in all the areas which todays information society is based upon - from nano scale physics to the benefit of the end user, Kista is an educational environment with modern facilities, which are always open to the students. All courses are within ICT, creating a strong cohesion and an exchange over the educational programmes, Stockholm University’s computer science programmes are also located in Kista. Together, over 3000 students create an educational environment and a vibrant student life. KTH Kista is an international environment with teachers and students from all around the world. The Masters and postgraduate programmes offered by the school students from the worlds top universities. With companies such as Ericsson, Volvo, IBM, Tele2, TietoEnator, Microsoft, Intel and Oracle as neighbors, School of Technology and Health has a part of its activities in Flemingsberg. At KTH Flemingsberg the school courses in Medical Engineering and conducts research within the subject. KTHs activities in Flemingsberg started in 2002, since 2003, the school offers a Bachelor of Education in Medical Engineering, in collaboration with the Karolinska Institutet. In autumn 2008, a master of science in Medical Engineering started, Flemingsberg is an area of high academic density and one of northern Europes most important areas within biotechnology – both terms of research and industrial activities. Here are also Södertörn University and the Karolinska Institutet with over 10000 students and Novum Research Center, Flemingsberg is an area of strong growth. To meet the need for student housing more apartments are planned, in Haninge, students from two schools at KTH receive education – the School of Architecture and the Built Environment, ABE, and the School of Technology and Health, STH. Here, students study at undergraduate and master level in such as building engineering, computer engineering, electrical engineering
17.
Stockholm
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The city is spread across 14 islands on the coast in the southeast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago and the Baltic Sea. The area has settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC. It is also the capital of Stockholm County, Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP and it is an important global city, and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europes top ranking universities, such as the Stockholm School of Economics, Karolinska Institute and it hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is known for its decoration of the stations. Swedens national football arena is located north of the city centre, Ericsson Globe, the national indoor arena, is in the southern part of the city. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and hosted the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics otherwise held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residencies of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House. After the Ice Age, around 8,000 BCE, there were already a number of people living in the present-day Stockholm area. Thousands of years later, as the ground thawed, the climate became tolerable, at the intersection of the Baltic Sea and lake Mälaren is an archipelago site where the Old Town of Stockholm was first built from about 1000 CE by Vikings. They had a positive impact on the area because of the trade routes they created. Stockholms location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne, the earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word meaning fortification, the second part of the name means islet, and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. Stockholms core, the present Old Town was built on the island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid 13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League, Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk, Visby, Reval, and Riga during this time
18.
Technische Hochschule
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A Technische Hochschule is a type of university focusing on engineering sciences in Germany. Previously, it existed in Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands. In the 1970s and the 1980s, the Technische Hochschule emerged into the Technische Universität or Technische Universiteit, since 2009, several German universities of applied sciences were renamed to Technische Hochschulen. Today, Universitäten as well as other Hochschulen call themselves Technische Hochschule for historical reasons, however, a Technische Hochschule with the status of a Universität is regarded as a Technische Universität despite the name. Since the Middle Ages, higher institutions in Europe were called a university only if a certain classical canon of subjects encompassing philosophy, medicine, law. This change of status was accompanied by a spectrum of academic disciplines. Starting in 2009, several German universities of applied sciences with a technical focus have changed their names to Technische Hochschule, examples include Teknillinen korkeakoulu in Espoo, Tampereen teknillinen korkeakoulu and Lappeenrannan teknillinen korkeakoulu. Similarly to German speaking countries, most of them changed their name to teknillinen yliopisto. However, Teknillinen korkeakoulu retained its old name until it merged with two universities to form the current Aalto University. TU9 German Institutes of Technology e. V
19.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
20.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
21.
General Electric
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General Electric, often abbreviated as GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 68th-largest firm in the U. S. by gross revenue, as of 2012, the company was listed the fourth-largest in the world among the Forbes Global 2000, further metrics being taken into account. The Nobel Prize has twice been awarded to employees of General Electric, Irving Langmuir in 1932, on January 13,2016, it was announced that GE will be moving its corporate headquarters from Fairfield, Connecticut to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edisons lighting experiments. The new company also acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year, both plants continue to operate under the GE banner to this day. The company was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for years thereafter. Around the same time, General Electrics Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed, in 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average. After 120 years, it is the one of the original companies still listed on the Dow index. In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association into its lighting business, GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park is still the headquarters for GEs lighting business, owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America in 1919 to further international radio. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, in 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of his television broadcasts at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Rd, Schenectady, NY. The sound was broadcast on GEs WGY, experimental television station W2XAD evolved into station WRGB which—along with WGY and WGFM —was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983. GEs history of working with turbines in the field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during World War I, superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941, GE ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. In 2002, GE acquired the assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings. Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products in the 1980s and 1990s to protest GEs role in weapons production. With IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA and UNIVAC, GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers
22.
RCA
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RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records
23.
Reginald Fessenden
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Reginald Aubrey Fessenden was a Canadian-born inventor, who did a majority of his work in the United States and also claimed U. S. citizenship through his American-born father. During his life he received hundreds of patents in fields, most notably ones related to radio. Fessenden is best known for his work developing radio technology. His achievements included the first transmission of speech by radio, in 1932 he reported that, in late 1906, he also made the first radio broadcast of entertainment and music, although a lack of verifiable details has led to some doubts about this claim. Reginald Fessenden was born October 6,1866, in East-Bolton, Quebec, Elisha Fessenden was a Church of England in Canada minister, and the family moved to a number of postings throughout the province of Ontario. While growing up, Fessenden attended a number of educational institutions, at the age of nine, he was enrolled in the DeVeaux Military school for a year. He next attended Trinity College School in Port Hope, Ontario and he also spent a year working for the Imperial Bank at Woodstock, because he had not yet reached the age of 16 needed to enroll in college. At the age of fourteen, Bishops College School in Lennoxville, Quebec, thus, while Fessenden was still a teenager, he taught mathematics to the younger students at the School, while simultaneously studying with older students at the College. While in Bermuda, he engaged to Helen Trott. They married in September 1890 and later had a son, Reginald Kennelly Fessenden, Fessendens classical education provided him with only a limited amount of scientific and technical training. Interested in increasing his skills in the field, he moved to New York City in 1886, with hopes of gaining employment with the famous inventor. He quickly proved his worth, and received a series of promotions, in late 1886, Fessenden began working directly for Edison at the inventors new laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey as a junior technician. He participated in a range of projects, which included work in solving problems in chemistry, metallurgy. However, in 1890, facing problems, Edison was forced to lay off most of the laboratory employees. Taking advantage of his recent practical experience, Fessenden was able to find positions with a series of manufacturing companies, by 1899 he was able to send radiotelegraph messages between Pittsburgh and Allegheny City, using a receiver of his own design. The provisions of his contract called for him to be paid $3,000 per year, and provided with space, assistance. The agreement gave the Weather Bureau access to any devices Fessenden developed, Fessenden quickly made major advances, especially in receiver design, as he worked to develop audio reception of signals. Fessendens initial Weather Bureau work took place at Cobb Island, Maryland, located in the Potomac River about 80 kilometers downstream from Washington, as the experimentation expanded, additional stations were built along the Atlantic Coast in North Carolina and Virginia
24.
Radio wave
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Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves, at 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm, and at 3 kHz is 100 km. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light, naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning, or by astronomical objects. Radio waves are generated by radio transmitters and received by radio receivers, the radio spectrum is divided into a number of radio bands on the basis of frequency, allocated to different uses. Radio waves were first predicted by mathematical work done in 1867 by Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell, Maxwell noticed wavelike properties of light and similarities in electrical and magnetic observations. Radio waves were first used for communication in the mid 1890s by Guglielmo Marconi, different frequencies experience different combinations of these phenomena in the Earths atmosphere, making certain radio bands more useful for specific purposes than others. It does not necessarily require a cleared sight path, at lower frequencies radio waves can pass through buildings, foliage and this is the only method of propagation possible at microwave frequencies and above. On the surface of the Earth, line of propagation is limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles. This is the used by cell phones, cordless phones, walkie-talkies, wireless networks, FM and television broadcasting. Indirect propagation, Radio waves can reach points beyond the line-of-sight by diffraction, diffraction allows a radio wave to bend around obstructions such as a building edge, a vehicle, or a turn in a hall. Radio waves also reflect from surfaces such as walls, floors, ceilings, vehicles and these effects are used in short range radio communication systems. Ground waves allow mediumwave and longwave broadcasting stations to have coverage areas beyond the horizon, the nonzero resistance of the earth absorbs energy from ground waves, so as they propagate the waves lose power and the wavefronts bend over at an angle to the surface. As frequency decreases, the decrease and the achievable range increases. Military very low frequency and extremely low frequency communication systems can communicate over most of the Earth, and with submarines hundreds of feet underwater. Tropospheric propagation, In the VHF and UHF bands, radio waves can travel somewhat beyond the horizon due to refraction in the troposphere. This is due to changes in the index of air with temperature and pressure. At times, radio waves can travel up to 500 -1000 km due to tropospheric ducting and these effects are variable and not as reliable as ionospheric propagation, below. So radio waves directed at an angle into the sky can return to Earth beyond the horizon, by using multiple skips communication at intercontinental distances can be achieved
25.
Continuous wave
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A continuous wave or continuous waveform is an electromagnetic wave of constant amplitude and frequency, a sine wave. In mathematical analysis, it is considered to be of infinite duration, continuous wave is also the name given to an early method of radio transmission, in which a sinusoidal carrier wave is switched on and off. Information is carried in the duration of the on and off periods of the signal. Very early radio transmitters used a gap to produce radio-frequency oscillations in the transmitting antenna. The signals produced by these spark-gap transmitters consisted of strings of brief pulses of radio frequency oscillations which died out rapidly to zero. The disadvantage of damped waves was that their energy was spread over a wide band of frequencies. As a result they produced electromagnetic interference that spread over the transmissions of stations at other frequencies and this motivated efforts to produce radio frequency oscillations that decayed more slowly, had less damping. Manufacturers produced spark transmitters which generated long ringing waves with minimal damping and it was realized that the ideal radio wave for radiotelegraphic communication would be a sine wave with zero damping, a continuous wave. An unbroken continuous sine wave theoretically has no bandwidth, all its energy is concentrated at a single frequency, continuous waves could not be produced with an electric spark, but were achieved with the vacuum tube electronic oscillator, invented around 1913 by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner. Damped wave spark transmitters were replaced by continuous wave vacuum tube transmitters around 1920, what is transmitted in the extra bandwidth used by a transmitter that turns on/off more abruptly is known as key clicks. Certain types of power used in transmission may increase the effect of key clicks. The first transmitters capable of producing continuous wave, the Alexanderson alternator and vacuum tube oscillators, early radio transmitters could not be modulated to transmit speech, and so CW radio telegraphy was the only form of communication available. Continuous-wave radio was called radiotelegraphy because like the telegraph, it worked by means of a switch to transmit Morse code. However, instead of controlling the electricity in a cross-country wire and this mode is still in common use by amateur radio operators. In military communications and amateur radio, the terms CW and Morse code are used interchangeably. Morse code may be sent using direct current in wires, sound, or light, a carrier wave is keyed on and off to represent the dots and dashes of the code elements. The carriers amplitude and frequency remains constant during each code element, at the receiver, the received signal is mixed with a heterodyne signal from a BFO to change the radio frequency impulses to sound. Though most commercial traffic has now ceased operation using Morse it is popular with amateur radio operators
26.
Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts
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The population of the CDP was 4,970 at the 2010 census. Brant Rock and Ocean Bluff were originally inhabited by Native Americans, Native American artifacts have been found extensively in the area. The main road through the area, known today as Ocean Street, is a Native American road, the area at the end of Brant Rock village, known as Blackmans Point, was a Native American campground. In the 1630s, the government of the Pilgrim settlers at Plymouth began to give out land grants in the area, the Ocean Bluff area was first granted to the governor of the Pilgrims. It was known by about 1638 as Governors Island, later on in the 17th century, it became known as Winters Island. Christopher Winter was later tried in Plymouth Court for the crime of fathering his own grandchild, eventually, his daughter married a man named John Hewitt, and he became the owner of Winters Island. For many generations the area was known as Hewitts Island, or Hewitts Point, however, today most residents refer to the area as Ocean Bluff. Brant Rock was originally known as Branchs Island, the name Brant Rock eventually came into use, because of the huge rock outcropping along the beach on which brant geese would tend to rest. From the 17th century through the late 19th century, the area was used for salt marsh haying, cattle grazing. In the late 19th century, the area populated by large summer resort hotels. Hewitts Island and Branchs Island were sometimes referred to as the Spectacle Islands, after the Green Harbor Dyke was built following the Civil War, the tidal salt marshes in the area dried up. The Spectacle Islands were no longer surrounded by water from the flooding of the marshes. In January 1906, Reginald Fessenden achieved the first two-way transatlantic radiotelegraph transmission, on Christmas Eve, December 24,1906, Fessenden transmitted from Brant Rock Station the first audio radio broadcast of music and entertainment in history. Radio operators on ships in the Atlantic heard a broadcast that included Fessenden playing the song O Holy Night on the violin, Ocean Bluff and Brant Rock are located at 42°6′6″N 70°39′39″W, and are part of the town of Marshfield. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 11.3 km2, of which 5.3 km2 is land and 6.0 km2 is water. Ocean Bluff and Brant Rock contain six public beaches, Sunrise Beach, Ocean Bluff Beach, Rebar Beach, Brant Rock Beach, Blackmans Point, and Bluefish Cove. All of these beaches, as well as the rest of the Marshfield seashore from Green Harbor village to Rexhame village, were known by the name of Marshfield Beach. During the summer time, especially along Sunrise Beach and Ocean Bluff, Ocean Bluff locals have made a name for their neighborhood and home beach down the east coast, competing in skim contests
27.
Very low frequency
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Very low frequency or VLF is the ITU designation for radio frequencies in the range of 3 kHz to 30 kHz and corresponding wavelengths from 100 to 10 kilometres, respectively. The band is known as the myriametre band or myriametre wave as the wavelengths range from one to ten myriametres. Due to its bandwidth, audio transmission is highly impractical in this band. The VLF band is used for a few radio navigation services, government time radio stations, since VLF waves can penetrate at least 40 meters into saltwater, they are used for military communication with submarines. The main mode of long distance propagation is an Earth-ionosphere waveguide mechanism, the Earth is surrounded by a conductive layer of electrons and ions in the upper atmosphere, the ionosphere D layer at 60 km altitude, which reflects VLF radio waves. The conductive ionosphere and the conductive Earth, form a horizontal duct a few VLF wavelengths high, the waves travel in a zigzag path around the Earth, reflected alternately by the Earth and the ionosphere, in TM mode. Therefore, VLF transmissions are very stable and reliable, and are used for distance communication. Propagation distances of 5000 to 20000 km have been realized, however, atmospheric noise is high in the band, including such phenomena as whistlers, caused by lightning. VLF waves can penetrate seawater to a depth of at least 10 to 40 meters, depending on the frequency employed, VLF waves at certain frequencies have been found to cause electron precipitation. A major practical drawback to this band is that because of the length of the waves, vertical antennas must be used because VLF waves propagate in vertical polarization, but a quarter-wave vertical antenna at 30 kHz would be 2.5 kilometers high. So practical transmitting antennas are short, a small fraction of a wavelength long. Due to their low radiation resistance they are inefficient, radiating only 10% to 50% of the power at most. With the rest of the power dissipated in the antenna/ground system resistances, Very high power transmitters are required to radiate enough power for long distance communication. Transmitting antennas for VLF frequencies are very large antennas, up to a mile across. They consist of a series of radio masts, linked at the top with a network of cables. Either the towers themselves or vertical wires serve as monopole radiators, high power stations use variations on the umbrella antenna such as the delta and trideco antennas, or multiply-tuned flattop antennas. For low power transmitters, inverted-L and T antennas are used, a large loading coil is required at the antenna feed point to cancel the capacitive reactance of the antenna to make it resonant. To minimize power dissipated in the ground, these antennas require extremely low resistance ground systems, the high capacitance and inductance and low resistance of the antenna-loading coil combination, makes it act electrically like a high Q tuned circuit
28.
Vacuum tube
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In electronics, a vacuum tube, an electron tube, or just a tube, or valve, is a device that controls electric current between electrodes in an evacuated container. Vacuum tubes mostly rely on thermionic emission of electrons from a hot filament or a cathode heated by the filament and this type is called a thermionic tube or thermionic valve. A phototube, however, achieves electron emission through the photoelectric effect, the simplest vacuum tube, the diode, contains only a heater, a heated electron-emitting cathode, and a plate. Current can only flow in one direction through the device between the two electrodes, as electrons emitted by the travel through the tube and are collected by the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grid or grids, Tubes with grids can be used for many purposes, including amplification, rectification, switching, oscillation, and display. In the 1940s the invention of devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices, which are smaller, more efficient, more reliable, more durable. Hence, from the mid-1950s solid-state devices such as transistors gradually replaced tubes, the cathode-ray tube remained the basis for televisions and video monitors until superseded in the 21st century. However, there are still a few applications for which tubes are preferred to semiconductors, for example, the used in microwave ovens. One classification of vacuum tubes is by the number of active electrodes, a device with two active elements is a diode, usually used for rectification. Devices with three elements are used for amplification and switching. Additional electrodes create tetrodes, pentodes, and so forth, which have additional functions made possible by the additional controllable electrodes. X-ray tubes are vacuum tubes. Phototubes and photomultipliers rely on electron flow through a vacuum, though in those cases electron emission from the cathode depends on energy from photons rather than thermionic emission, since these sorts of vacuum tubes have functions other than electronic amplification and rectification they are described in their own articles. A vacuum tube consists of two or more electrodes in a vacuum inside an airtight enclosure, most tubes have glass envelopes, though ceramic and metal envelopes have been used. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an airtight seal, Tubes were a frequent cause of failure in electronic equipment, and consumers were expected to be able to replace tubes themselves. In addition to the terminals, some tubes had an electrode terminating at a top cap. The principal reason for doing this was to avoid leakage resistance through the tube base, the bases were commonly made with phenolic insulation which performs poorly as an insulator in humid conditions. There was even a design that had two top cap connections
29.
Varberg Radio Station
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The Varberg Radio Station at Grimeton is a VLF transmission facility at Grimeton close to Varberg, in Halland, Sweden. It has the only working Alexanderson alternator rotating armature radio transmitter in the world and is classified as a World Heritage Site and it is an anchor site for the European Route of Industrial Heritage. The transmitter was built in 1922 to 1924, to operate at 17.2 kHz, the Grimeton VLF transmitter location is also used for shortwave transmissions, FM and TV broadcasting. For this purpose, a 260 metre high guyed steel framework mast was built in 1966 next to the containing the 40 kHz transmitter. Until the 1950s, the Grimeton VLF transmitter was used for radio telegraphy to Radio Central in Long Island, New York. From the 1960s until 1996 it transmitted orders to submarines in the Swedish Navy, in 1968 a second transmitter was installed which uses the same aerial as the machine transmitter but with transistor and tube technology. The Alexanderson transmitter became obsolete in 1996 and went out of service, however, because it was still in good condition it was declared a national monument and can be visited during the summer. On July 2,2004, the Grimeton VLF transmitter was declared a World Cultural Heritage site by UNESCO and it continues to be used on special occasions such as Alexanderson Day to transmit Morse messages on 17.2 kHz. The Grimeton/Varberg site is used by the Swedish Navy, transmitting on 40.4 kHz using call sign SRC using the vacuum tube transmitter. Therefore the special transmissions from that machine transmitter are very rare, recent transmissions from SAQ on 17.2 kHz took place on December 24,2013, June 29,2014, December 24,2014, June 28,2015 and July 3,2016. At least two regular transmissions take place each year, on the first Sunday of July and on Christmas Eve, plus one or two extra transmissions on special occasions or for testing
30.
Varberg
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Varberg is a locality and the seat of Varberg Municipality, Halland County, Sweden with 27,602 inhabitants in 2010. Varberg and all of Halland are well known for their typical west coast sandy beaches, in Varberg the coast changes from wide sandy beaches to rocky terrain that continues north into the Bohuslän archipelago and as far as the North Cape. Varberg is a charming and popular resort and many people from inland cities such as Borås are either moving to Varberg or holidaying there. Varberg is located in a terrain of hills and plains and it is largely without trees and green areas, in its place are bald rocks and sand. The Swedish authoritative author and bishop Esaias Tegnér described it in 1826 as the least appealing place in Sweden, the sandy beaches are however very popular in the summer. Another main factor in Varberg is its natural surroundings, just a 20-minute drive inland reveals a totally different landscape. Here you will be among a landscape, rolling hills with lakes. Varberg has a climate that although moderate by Swedish standards. Summers are in general cooler than both in Halmstad and Gothenburg, with highs being moderated by the marine airflow, although this moderation occurs, some summer days can be very warm, and some winter nights see severe frosts. A fortress called Varberg was erected in the 1280s as part of a chain of establishments along the coast. In the middle of the 14th century, the old settlement Getakärr 1 kilometre north of the fortress took its new name from the fortress, the town was moved 5 km northwards around the year 1400. It was destroyed during the Kalmar War and rebuilt near the fortress, in 1645 Halland passed from Denmark to Sweden by the Treaty of Brömsebro for a period of 30 years. It had at that time about 600 inhabitants, the transfer was made permanent by the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. The town was moved again after a fire in 1666, to the location were the city centre is today, the city was devastated by a huge fire in 1863 and was subsequently rebuilt with stone or brick houses. In 1890 the population figure had passed 4,000 and with industrialization it reached 8,500 in 1930, the local government reform of 1971 made Varberg the seat of the much larger Varberg Municipality, with a current population of close to 56,000 inhabitants. Although several houses were torn down in the 1970s, most of the city still remains intact. Varbergs fortress is its most notable building, mostly because of its size as it has no architectural uniformity. It was first built as a castle in 1280, with new parts being built in successions, near Varberg there is the VLF transmitter Grimeton, an interesting radio-technical facility and classified by UNESCO to be a World Cultural Heritage site
31.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
32.
World heritage
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
33.
General Electric Realty Plot
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The General Electric Realty Plot, often referred to locally as the GE Realty Plot, GE Plots or just The Plot, is a residential neighborhood in Schenectady, New York, United States. It is an area of approximately 90 acres just east of Union College, originally an undeveloped tract owned by the college, it was sold to General Electric at the end of the 19th century to help the college pay off a debt. Two of them were among the first fully electric houses in the U. S. used as models by GE, also settling in the neighborhood were some local businessmen and politicians, and the research scientists who worked at the companys research laboratory a short distance away. They were collectively responsible for over 400 patents, some of the key events in their research happened within the Plot, as many took things home to work on. By 1927 approximately a hundred houses had been built, including one owned by chemist Irving Langmuir. It has subsequently designated a National Historic Landmark in recognition of Langmuirs scientific accomplishments. In 1980 the entire neighborhood was recognized as a historic district, the Plot is no longer so heavily dominated by GE employees, due to the companys greatly reduced presence in the city. Houses in it remain highly valued, and residents pay some of the Capital District regions highest property taxes, rules enforced by both the neighborhood association and the citys Historic Commission preserve its historic character. The district is bounded by streets, making it roughly quadrilateral in shape. At the west, Lenox Road divides it from the college campus, Nott Street forms the northern boundary, separating the Realty Plot from Ellis Hospital until the rear property lines between houses on Lowell Road and Glenwood Boulevard mark the eastern boundary. A small stream known as College Creek or Grooteskill flows west through the district to the Mohawk River and it is spanned by four bluestone arch bridges, all included as contributing properties. Many mature trees grow throughout the district, the houses within are on lots with a minimum size of 70 by 140 feet, set back 35–45 feet from the streets they front on. They are predominantly in the Colonial Revival or Georgian Revival architectural styles, with some in the Mission Revival, the Steinmetz Memorial on Wendell Avenue is the only significant open space in the district. It is named for Charles Proteus Steinmetz, the German-born electrical engineer whose research made alternating current possible, steinmetzs house stood on the grounds of the Memorial. He did research in a lab, and both the lab and the house were demolished in 1944. Steinmetz also chaired the school board. A separate public park in Schenectady, known as The Steinmetz Park, is located on Lenox Road but is outside the GE Realty Plot district, the building at 1184 Rugby Road was developed as a primary school and remained in use for that purpose for many years. Only five buildings have added to the district since its initial period of development in the first quarter of the 20th century
34.
Vale Cemetery and Vale Park
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Vale Cemetery is the largest cemetery in Schenectady, New York. It opened on 21 October 1857 when the Rev. Julius Seely dedicated what was termed the Vale. It has tripled its size since opening and today it holds the remains of some of the most notable persons in Upstate New York. In 1973, a 35-acre tract of unused and abandoned cemetery land around the ponds of Coehorn Creek was sold to the city of Schenectady to form Vale Park, the cemetery and park were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004. By 1850 the old burying ground on Green and Front streets was being overrun with weeds and was described as being unsanitary. The Common Council resolved on 2 July 1856 to develop the grounds of the old Hospital Farm on Nott Terrace as a 38-acre public cemetery, on 16 June 1857, Mayor Benjamin V. S. Vedder appointed a committee to oversee the work, to provide access from a main street, Dr Eliphalet Nott, the President of Union College donated an avenue from Nott Terrace into the grounds. Later in 1863, two pieces of land were purchased from the college, creating what is now known as Vale Park, the entrance on State Street was a donation from the First Reformed Church in 1867. The cemetery was planned by Burton Thomas as a rural cemetery and it featured many winding paths and he had more than 1,000 trees planted, Cowhorn Creek was dammed to create a lake within the grounds. The cemetery has expanded and covers approximately 100 acres and holds some 33,000 burials. The cemetery includes the historic African-American Burying Ground, in February 1858, the Common Council declared that it could not continue to run the cemetery at the taxpayers expense and that the cemetery must be taken up by private owners. Fourteen of the lot holders formed the Vale Cemetery Association and bought the 38 acres from the Common Council and they paid the sum of $800, and announced that some land, known as the Potters Field, would be set aside for the burial of the poor. In 2007 as part of the Schenectady Colonial celebrations, the Association held a dinner to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the cemetery, in late 2006, interest in mapping the cemetery was indicated by several people connected with the cemetery. They developed the Vale mapping project, the project started in spring 2007, using GPS and techniques used in England and Scotland to locate each grave. The group intends to map all the graves and document them, the information on notable burials has been extracted and précised from Katherine Olney Delains Biographies of Notables at Vale Cemetery. Ernst Alexanderson — came to the United States in 1901 to meet electrical wizard Charles Steinmetz, developed the Alexanderson alternator, the first radio transmitter used to broadcast the human voice. Dr. Alexanderson was also instrumental in the development of television, over his lifetime, Dr. Alexanderson received 344 patents, the last awarded in 1973 at age 94. Ellis Family — The father and two sons were presidents of Schenectady Locomotive Works, later to become American Locomotive Company, ernst Julius Berg — mathematician and electro-physicist
35.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
36.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
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The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a professional association with its corporate office in New York City and its operations center in Piscataway, New Jersey. It was formed in 1963 from the amalgamation of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, today, it is the worlds largest association of technical professionals with more than 400,000 members in chapters around the world. Its objectives are the educational and technical advancement of electrical and electronic engineering, telecommunications, computer engineering, IEEE stands for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. The association is chartered under this full legal name, IEEEs membership has long been composed of engineers and scientists. For this reason the organization no longer goes by the name, except on legal business documents. The IEEE is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence and it has about 430,000 members in about 160 countries, slightly less than half of whom reside in the United States. The major interests of the AIEE were wire communications and light, the IRE concerned mostly radio engineering, and was formed from two smaller organizations, the Society of Wireless and Telegraph Engineers and the Wireless Institute. After World War II, the two became increasingly competitive, and in 1961, the leadership of both the IRE and the AIEE resolved to consolidate the two organizations. The two organizations merged as the IEEE on January 1,1963. The IEEE is incorporated under the Not-for-Profit Corporation Law of the state of New York and it was formed in 1963 by the merger of the Institute of Radio Engineers and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. The IEEE serves as a publisher of scientific journals and organizer of conferences, workshops. IEEE develops and participates in activities such as accreditation of electrical engineering programs in institutes of higher learning. The IEEE logo is a design which illustrates the right hand grip rule embedded in Benjamin Franklins kite. IEEE has a dual complementary regional and technical structure – with organizational units based on geography and it manages a separate organizational unit which recommends policies and implements programs specifically intended to benefit the members, the profession and the public in the United States. The IEEE includes 39 technical Societies, organized around specialized technical fields, the IEEE Standards Association is in charge of the standardization activities of the IEEE. The IEEE History Center became an organization to the Engineering. The new ETHW is an effort by various engineering societies as a formal repository of topic articles, oral histories, first-hand histories, Landmarks + Milestones. The IEEE History Center is annexed to Stevens University Hoboken, NJ, in 2016, the IEEE acquired GlobalSpec, adding the provision of engineering data for a profit to its organizational portfolio
37.
National Inventors Hall of Fame
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The National Inventors Hall of Fame is an American not-for-profit organization which recognizes individual inventors who hold a U. S. patent of highly significant technology. Founded in 1973, its mission is to honor the people responsible for the great technological advances that make human, social. As of 2017,547 inventors have been inducted, mostly constituting historic persons from the past three centuries, but including about 100 living inductees, an NIHF committee chooses an annual inductee class in February from nominations accepted from all sources. Nominees must hold a U. S. patent of significant contribution to the U. S. welfare, the 2017 class included 15 inventors, including Howard Head for skis and tennis rackets, and Augustine Sackett for drywall. The National Inventors Hall of Fame was founded in 1973 on the initiative of H. Hume Mathews, in the following year, it gained a major sponsor in the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office from Washington, D. C, at first, the Hall was housed in the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office in Washington, D. C. near the Washington National Airport, a committee was formed in 1986 to find a new home for it. For a time, the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the frontrunner, but in 1987, a patent attorney from Akron, Edwin “Ned” Oldham, the representative from the National Council of Patent Law Associations, led the drive to move the Hall to Akron. The construction of the new building was finished in 1995 and the Hall opened to the public with the name of the Inventure Place, from the beginning, the Inventure Place was intended to be more than a science and technology museum and library. It was designed to double as a workshop and a national resource center for creativity. Designed by an architect from New York City, James Stewart Polshek, it was a building, shaped like a curving row of white sails. One of the exhibits allowed the visitors to use computer programs for making animations, but attendance did not meet the expectations and the museum never made a profit, although its related ventures and programs, such as Invent Now and Camp Invention, proved to be more successful. In 2002, its name was changed to the National Inventors Hall of Fame Museum, six years later the Hall moved to Alexandria. Its former facility was converted to a school for students in grades between 5th and 8th. It is now the National Inventors Hall of Fame STEM Middle School, in Alexandria, the National Inventors Hall of Fame operates a museum in the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office building at 600 Dulany Street, with a gallery of portraits of the honorees, interactive kiosks. Camp Invention, founded in 1990, is a summer camp for children. Camp Invention is the nationally recognized summer program focused on creativity, innovation, real-world problem solving
38.
Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
39.
Tuned radio frequency receiver
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This type of receiver was popular in the 1920s. By the mid 1930s, it was replaced by the superheterodyne receiver patented by Edwin Armstrong, the TRF receiver was patented in 1916 by Ernst Alexanderson. His concept was that each stage would amplify the signal while reducing the interfering ones. All tuned stages of the radio must track and tune to the desired reception frequency, antique TRF receivers can often be identified by their cabinets. They typically have a long, low appearance, with a lid for access to the vacuum tubes. On their front panels there are two or three large dials, each controlling the tuning for one stage. Inside, along with vacuum tubes, there will be a series of large coils. These will usually be with their axes at right angles to other to reduce magnetic coupling between them. A problem with the TRF receiver built with vacuum tubes was the triodes interelectrode capacitance. The interelectrode capacitance allowed energy in the circuit to feedback into the input. That feedback could cause instability and oscillation that would frustrate reception, in 1922, Louis Alan Hazeltine invented the technique of neutralization that uses additional circuitry to partially cancel the effect of the interelectrode capacitance. Neutralization was used in the popular Neutrodyne series of TRF receivers, under certain conditions, the neutralization is substantially independent of frequency over a wide frequency band. Perfect neutralization cannot be maintained in practice over a band of frequencies because leakage inductances. The classic TRF receivers of the 1920s and 30s usually consisted of three sections, one or more tuned RF amplifier stages and these amplify the signal of the desired station to a level sufficient to drive the detector, while rejecting all other signals picked up by the antenna. A detector, which extracts the audio signal from the carrier signal by rectifying it. Optionally, but almost always included, one or more audio amplifier stages which increase the power of the audio signal, each tuned RF stage consists of an amplifying device, a triode vacuum tube, and a tuned circuit which performs the filtering function. The tuned circuit consisted of an air-core RF coupling transformer which also served to couple the signal from the circuit of one tube to the input grid circuit of the next tube. One of the windings of the transformer had a variable capacitor connected across it to make a tuned circuit, a variable capacitor was used, with a knob on the front panel to tune the receiver
40.
Electromagnetic interference
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The disturbance may degrade the performance of the circuit or even stop it from functioning. In the case of a path, these effects can range from an increase in error rate to a total loss of the data. Both man-made and natural sources generate changing electrical currents and voltages that can cause EMI, automobile ignition systems, mobile phones, thunderstorms, the Sun, and it can also affect mobile phones, FM radios, and televisions. EMI can be used intentionally for radio jamming, as in electronic warfare, in 1933, a meeting of the International Electrotechnical Commission in Paris recommended the International Special Committee on Radio Interference be set up to deal with the emerging problem of EMI. CISPR subsequently produced technical publications covering measurement and test techniques and recommended emission and these have evolved over the decades and form the basis of much of the worlds EMC regulations today. Test methods and limits were based on CISPR publications, although similar limits were already enforced in parts of Europe, one of these was the EMC Directive and it applies to all equipment placed on the market or taken into service. Its scope covers all apparatus liable to cause electromagnetic disturbance or the performance of which is liable to be affected by such disturbance and this was the first time there was a legal requirement on immunity, as well as emissions on apparatus intended for the general population. Many countries now have similar requirements for products to some level of Electromagnetic Compatibility regulation. Electromagnetic interference can be categorized as follows, Narrowband EMI or RFI interference typically emanates from intended transmissions, such as radio, broadband EMI or RFI interference is unintentional radiation from sources such as electric power transmission lines. Conducted electromagnetic interference is caused by the contact of the conductors as opposed to radiated EMI. Electromagnetic disturbances in the EM field of a conductor will no longer be confined to the surface of the conductor and this persists in all conductors and mutual inductance between two radiated electromagnetic fields will result in EMI. Interference with the meaning of electromagnetic interference, also radio-frequency interference is – according to Article 1, for lower frequencies, EMI is caused by conduction and, for higher frequencies, by radiation. EMI through the wire is also very common in an electrical facility. Newer radio systems incorporate several improvements that enhance the selectivity, in digital radio systems, such as Wi-Fi, error-correction techniques can be used. Spread-spectrum and frequency-hopping techniques can be used with analogue and digital signalling to improve resistance to interference. A highly directional receiver, such as an antenna or a diversity receiver. In the United States, the 1982 Public Law 97-259 allowed the Federal Communications Commission to regulate the susceptibility of electronic equipment. Electromagnetic interference at 2.4 GHz can be caused by 802. 11b and 802. 11g wireless devices, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors and cordless telephones, video senders, and microwave ovens
41.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
42.
Find a Grave
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Find a Grave is a website that allows the public to search and add to an online database of cemetery records. It is owned by Ancestry. com, the worlds largest for-profit genealogy company, the site was created in 1995 by Salt Lake City resident Jim Tipton to support his hobby of visiting the burial sites of celebrities. He later added an online forum, Find a Grave was launched as a commercial entity in 1998, first as a trade name and then incorporated in 2000. The site later expanded to include graves of non-celebrities, in order to allow visitors to pay respect to their deceased relatives or friends. In 2013, Tipton sold Find a Grave to Ancestry. com, burial information is a wonderful source for people researching their family history. In a September 30,2013, press release, Ancestry, as of March 2017, Find a Grave contained over 159 million burial records and 75 million photos. The website contains listings of cemeteries and graves from around the world, american cemeteries are organized by state and county, and many cemetery records contain Google Maps and photographs of the cemeteries and gravesites. Individual grave records may contain dates and places of birth and death, biographical information, cemetery and plot information, photographs, Interment listings are added by individuals, genealogical societies, and other institutions such as the International Wargraves Photography Project. Contributors must register as members to submit listings, called memorials, the submitter becomes the manager of the listing but may transfer management. Only the current manager of a listing may edit it, although any member may use the features to send correction requests to the listings manager. Managers may add links to other listings of deceased spouses, parents, members may post requests for photos of a specific grave, these requests will be automatically sent to other members who have registered their location as being near that grave. Find a Grave also maintains lists of memorials of famous persons by their claim to fame, such as Medal of Honor recipients, religious figures, Find a Grave exercises editorial control over these listings. Canadian Headstones Interment. net National Cemetery Administrations Nationwide Gravesite Locator Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness Tombstone tourist Colker, web site answers grave concerns about stars. Web site attracts millions of grave-seekers, Find VIPs who R. I. P. through online cemetery. Genealogy, Find a Grave tremendous on many different levels, terre Haute, Indiana, Community Newspaper Holdings Inc. Archived from the original on May 14,2011, tip, Find a Grave has info youre dying to know. Tracking Down Relatives, Visiting Graves Virtually, media related to Images from Find A Grave at Wikimedia Commons Official website
43.
William D. Coolidge
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William David Coolidge was an American physicist and engineer, who made major contributions to X-ray machines. He was the director of the General Electric Research Laboratory and a vice-president of the corporation and he was also famous for the development of ductile tungsten, which is important for the incandescent light bulb. Coolidge was born on a farm near Hudson, Massachusetts and he studied electrical engineering from 1891 until 1896 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. After a year as an assistant, he went to Germany for further study. He developed ductile tungsten, which could be easily drawn into filaments. Starting in 1911, General Electric marketed lamps using the new metal and he applied for and received a patent for this invention in 1913. However, in 1928 a US court ruled that his 1913 patent was not valid as an invention, in 1913 he invented the Coolidge tube, an X-ray tube with an improved cathode for use in X-ray machines that allowed for more intense visualization of deep-seated anatomy and tumors. The Coolidge tube, which utilized a tungsten filament, was a major development in the then-nascent medical specialty of radiology. Its basic design is still in use and he also invented the first rotating anode X-ray tube. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences awarded Coolidge the Rumford Prize in 1914, Coolidge was awarded the American Institute of Electrical Engineers Edison Medal in 1927 For his contributions to the incandescent electric lighting and the X-rays art. He rejected this prestigious award in 1926 on the basis that his ductile tungsten patent was ruled by court as invalid and he was awarded the Howard N. Potts Medal in 1926 and the Louis E. Levy Medal in 1927. Coolidge was awarded the Faraday Medal in 1939 and he was awarded the Franklin Medal in 1944. In 1975 he was elected to the National Inventors Hall of Fame, shortly before his death at age 101 in Schenectady, Coolidge became director of the GE research laboratory in 1932, and a vice-president of General Electric in 1940, until his retirement in 1944. He continued to consult for GE after retirement, patent 1,082,933, Tungsten and method of making the same for use as filaments of incandescent electric lamps and for other purposes. Patent 1,203,495, Coolidge tube Coolidge, U. S, patent 1,211,092, X-ray tube Coolidge, U. S. Patent 1,215,116, X-ray apparatus Coolidge, U. S, patent 1,250,093, Stereoscopic x-ray apparatus Coolidge, U. S. Patent 1,310,061, X-ray apparatus Coolidge, U. S, patent 1,365,638, X-ray apparatus Coolidge, U. S. Patent 1,394,143, X-ray apparatus Coolidge, U. S, patent 1,409,989, X-ray apparatus Coolidge, U. S
44.
Frank B. Jewett
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Frank Baldwin Jewett was a physicist and the first president of Bell Labs. He graduated from the Throop Institute of Technology in 1898, Jewett was president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers from 1922 to 1923. The Bell Telephone Laboratories were established in 1925 with Jewett as president and he also was chairman of the Board of Directors of Bell Laboratories from 1940 to 1944. In 1928, the AIEE awarded him the Edison Medal For his contributions to the art of electric communication, Jewett was president of the National Academy of Sciences from 1939 to 1947. In 1950, he was awarded the IRI Medal from the Industrial Research Institute for recognition of his role in technology leadership and he also served on the National Defense Research Committee. Patent 1,559,325, Means for analyzing and synthesizing electric waves,1925, IEEE History Biography of Frank B Jewett J. Olin, Howe. Wonders of Wireless Telephony - Past and to Come, National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
45.
Frank Conrad
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Frank Conrad was an electrical engineer, best known for radio development, including his work as a pioneer broadcaster. He worked for the Westinghouse Electrical and Manufacturing Company in East Pittsburgh and his experimental radio station provided the inspiration, and he acted in an advisory role, for the establishment of Westinghouses first broadcasting service, over radio station KDKA. Conrad was born May 4,1874 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the son of Herbert M. Conrad, a railroad mechanic, and Sadie Conrad. His formal education ended with 7th grade, however in 1928 his work would be recognized with an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the University of Pittsburgh, in 1904, the company appointed him General Engineer, and he was promoted to Assistant Chief Engineer in 1921. Conrad was awarded more than 200 patents internationally throughout his life, Conrad first became interested in radio in 1913, the result of a bet with a co-worker over whose watch was more accurate. Conrad won the bet, in part because he replaced his cheap watchs internal components with the mechanism from a more expensive watch. With this receiver he also overheard transmissions being made by a neighbor, John Coleman, so Conrad built a transmitter in order to communicate with Coleman and other local amateur radio operators. After moving from Swissvale to Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania, he installed a radio station on the top floor of a two-story garage adjacent to his home, in the summer of 1916 this station was issued an Experimental license, with the callsign 8XK. At this time the station employed a spark-transmitter, thus could only be used for Morse code transmissions, in April,1917, due to the entrance of the United States into World War One, all civilian radio stations were ordered silenced, including 8XK. During the war Westinghouse was awarded government contracts related to developing radio technology, in addition to Morse code, this development work included radiotelephone transmissions, using the recently developed capabilities of vacuum-tube transmitters. He also produced an electrical generator, attached to a planes wing. Effective October 1,1920, the ban on radio stations was lifted. Although his station would not be formally relicensed until January 21,1921, Conrad resumed experimenting, again using the 8XK callsign, and now also testing vacuum-tube radiotelephone equipment. He was responsible for one of the countrys first post-war radio broadcasts and this was the start of a series of test broadcasts, and the novelty of the entertainment proved popular with his audience. Responding to their interest, Conrad adopted a schedule, primarily consisting of two hours on Saturday and also Wednesday nights. Most of these early broadcasts consisted of music, provided from Conrads record collection, after he exhausted this resource, he struck a deal with the local Brunswick Shop, in exchange for the store supplying him with recently released records, he would provide on-air acknowledgements. Conrads sons and niece were talented musicians and helped provide the entertainment and he also ran a telephone line from his homes music room to the transmitter in the garage, so performers could use the family piano. On June 26,1920, a concert was broadcast for the patients at the Tuberculosis League Hospital
